“General history of art. Art of Serbia and Macedonia
General history arts Volume 6, book two. 20th century art
General history of art of the late 19th century - mid-20th century of countries that entered the path of socialism in the 20th century.
Academy of Arts of the USSR
Institute of Theory and History fine arts in six volumes Editorial Board
B.V. Weymarn, B.R. Vipper, A.A. Guber, M.V. Dobroklonsky, Yu.D. Kolpinsky, V.F. Levinson-Lessing, A.A. Sidorov, A.N. Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev
State Publishing House "Art" Moscow 1966 Title page second Academy of Arts of the USSR
Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts volume six art of the 20th century book two
under the general editorship of B.B. Weimarn and Yu.D. Kolpinsky State Publishing House "Art" Moscow 1966 Information at the end of the book.
General History of Art Volume VI, Book Two M., “Art”, 1966, 848 pp., Editor I. A. Shkirich Design by artists I. F. Rerberg and E. A. Gannushkin
Art editor A. A. Sidorova Proofreaders N. G. Antokolskaya and N. Ya. Korneeva Subp. to print 30/VI 1966
Paper size 84 X 1081/16Print. l. 55 (conditional 92.4). Academic ed. l. 71.47. Circulation 60200. A 16219.
“Art”, Moscow, K-51, Tsvetnoy Boulevard, 25. Publishing house. No. 20303. Order type. 1564
Leningrad Printing House No. 3 named after Ivan Fedorov
Glavpoligrafproma of the Printing Committee under the Council of Ministers of the USSR,
Zvenigorodskaya, 11
Price 7 rub.
From editorial board
The second book of volume VI is devoted to the art of the late 19th - mid-20th centuries. countries that took the path of socialism in the 20th century.
The scientific edition of the section, which includes the art of Russia and Soviet art, is by B.V. Weimarn. Scientific edition of the section dedicated to the art of foreign socialist countries - Yu. D. Kolpinsky and B. V. Weimarn.
Introduction - B.V. Weymarn.
Russian art of the 19th - early 20th centuries. - N. I. Sokolova (introduction, section on V. A. Serov, sculpture, architecture), M. B. Milotvorskaya (painting).
Art of Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. - E.M. Kostina.
Soviet art - O. I. Sopotsinsky (introduction and painting); E. M. Kostina (theater and scenery painting); R. Ya. Abolina (sculpture); A. Yu. Nurok (graphics); decorative and applied arts - I. M. Bibikova (1917 - 1945), I. M. Ryazantsev (1945 - 1965); V. P. Tolstoy (architecture).
German art Democratic Republic- I. P. Gorin.
Art of Poland - L. M. Urazova (fine arts); S. O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Czechoslovakia - Yu. D. Kolpinsky (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Hungary - L.S. Aleshina (fine arts); S.O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Romania - M. T. Kuzmina (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Bulgaria - E.P.Lvova (fine arts); S.O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Yugoslavia - N. Ya. Yavorskaya (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).
Art of Albania - A. N. Tikhomirov.
Art of Mongolia - O. S. Prokofiev.
The art of China - N. A. Vinogradova.
Art of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea - N. A. Vinogradova.
Art of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam - O.S. Prokofiev.
The art of Cuba - V. M. Polevoy.
The selection of illustrative material was carried out by L. S. Aleshina, N. A. Vinogradova, V. M. Makarevich, O. S. Prokofiev and the editors of the volume. The layout of the album of illustrations was made by the scientific editors of the volume. The list of illustrations was prepared by L. S. Aleshina, V. M. Makarevich. The index was compiled by N. N. Bankovsky and M. I. Bezrukova. The bibliography for both books of volume VI was prepared based on materials presented by the authors of the corresponding chapters, N. A. Vinogradova. L. S. Aleshina, N. N. Bankovsky, M. B. Milotvorskaya took part in preparing the text of the volume for publication. The drawings in the text were made by the artist V. A. Lapin. The book uses photographic materials from the Scientific Research Museum of Architecture named after A. V. Shchusev, photographs by A. A. Alexandrov, S. G. Belyakov, N. A. Belyaev, E. A. Nikitin, N. A. Kratskin. In addition, photographic materials by O. A. Shvidkovsky were used.
For assistance in the preparation of this book - consultations, provision of photographs, etc. - the editorial board is grateful to the Tretyakov Gallery, the Russian Museum, the Hermitage, the Museum of Oriental Art, the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, the Institute of Art History of the Ministry culture of the USSR, Institute of Theory, History and Perspective Problems of Architecture of the State Committee for Civil Engineering and Architecture under the State Construction Committee
USSR and personally V. N. Belousov, R. A. Katsnelson, B. B. Keller, N. L. Krasheninnikova, N. A. Samoilova, A. A. Strigalev, I. V. Ern, as well as the director of the Slovak National Gallery in Bratislava to Professor I. Vaculik, Doctor I. Shetlik, Doctor B. Sheglikova, Director of the National Gallery in Budapest Professor G. E. Pogan, Doctor K. Weidner, employees of the Research Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences Socialist Republic Romania, director People's Museum in Belgrade L. Trifunovic and researcher of the same museum N. Kusova, deputy director of the department of fine arts of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts J. Grum.
# From the editorial board
#Introduction
# Art of the peoples of the USSR
* Art of Russia
o Russian art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries
o Art of Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan of the late 19th - early 20th centuries
* Soviet art
o Introduction
o Painting o Sculpture o Graphics
o Arts and crafts
o Architecture
# Art of European Socialist Countries
* Art of the German Democratic Republic
* Art of Poland
* Art of Czechoslovakia
* Art of Hungary
* Art of Romania
* Art of Bulgaria
* Art of Yugoslavia
* Art of Albania
# Art of socialist countries of Asia and Latin America
* Art of Mongolia
* Art of China
* Korean art People's Democratic Republic
* Art of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
* Art of Cuba
# Bibliography
* General work
* Book one
* Book two
Introduction
B. Weimarn
In the art of the 20th century. forces collide sharply and irreconcilably, fighting for different, opposite in their goals and objectives, ways of developing the world artistic culture. The reactionary bourgeois ideology generated by imperialism directs art on a path hostile to realism, associated with the rejection of the great traditions of the past and, ultimately, the very principles of art, on the path of decline, withdrawal into subjectivism and pathology.
The socialist ideology of the proletariat, storming the stronghold of capital and building a classless, communist society, unites progressive artistic forces and leads world art on the way further development and flourishing. On this path, artistic culture, imbued with socialist, truly universal humanism, continues the traditions of world realism, raising them to a qualitatively new level of development. The art of socialist realism is increasingly conquering the present, and the future belongs to it.
The ideological basis of the art of socialist realism was the Marxist-Leninist worldview, which developed at the proletarian stage of the revolutionary liberation struggle of the oppressed classes. The new Tver method naturally arose in literature and art as artistic expression working class ideologies like his spiritual weapon in the struggle to rebuild society on a new basis.
Marxist theorists paid great attention to the formation of socialist art and saw in it a powerful means of ideological and aesthetic education of the broad masses of working people. By the 80s. last century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had already developed a system of aesthetic views based on materialist philosophy, illuminated by the experience of the world revolutionary labor movement. Demanding from art a deep figurative reflection of reality, Marx and Engels emphasized that a sign of true realism is “the truthfulness of the reproduction of typical characters in typical
circumstances" ("TO. Marx and F. Engels on art,” vol. I, M., 1957, p. 11.).
The classics of Marxism called on progressive writers and artists, turning to the life of the working class, to reveal the deepest driving forces development of society - the revolutionary power of the proletariat, its rights and historical
role. This requirement was expressed very clearly in 1888 by Engels in a letter to M. Harkness. Reproaching the writer for the fact that in her work “the working class appears as a passive mass,” Engels wrote that “the revolutionary resistance of the working class to the environment that oppresses it” and the attempts of the proletariat “to achieve their human rights are inscribed in history and must therefore take their place in the field realism" (Ibid.). Marx and Engels saw the artistic representation of the struggle of the working class as one of the most important tasks of the new realistic art.
V.I. Lenin in the historical conditions of the early 20th century. developed the views of Marx and Engels on the art of the proletariat, the art of the future. In his famous article “Party Organization and Party Literature,” published in 1905, at the height of the first Russian revolution, Lenin tore off the mask of imaginary freedom from bourgeois art. Lenin called for “hypocritically free literature, but in reality connected with the bourgeoisie, to be opposed to truly free literature openly connected with the proletariat” ( V. I. Lenin, Complete collection works, vol. 12, p. 104.). "It will be, -
Lenin wrote, free literature, because it is not self-interest or career, but the idea of socialism and sympathy for the working people that will recruit more and more forces into its ranks. This will be free literature, because it will serve not the jaded heroine, not the bored and obese “top ten thousand,” but millions and tens of millions of workers who make up the color of the country, its strength, its future” (Ibid. ). In his article, Lenin not only formulated the demands put forward by the party of the revolutionary proletariat in the field of artistic culture, but also thoroughly substantiated the principles of the new realistic art.
Lenin saw the fundamental features of the new stage in the development of realism in the partisanship and nationality of literature and art, in the close connection of writers and artists with the cause of the working class, in the consciously and openly set task of educating the reader and viewer in the spirit of the struggle for the socialist revolution, for communism.
The assessment of reality from the perspective of the proletariat and the mastery by writers and artists of an advanced materialist worldview immeasurably enriched the criterion of life's truth in art. The method of socialist realism, based on the Marxist-Leninist theory of reflection, opened up for artists the possibility of figurative knowledge of life in its deepest, truly objective content, in its revolutionary development.
The problem of the emergence of the method of socialist realism under the dominance of bourgeois ideology has not yet been fully studied. There is no doubt, however, that both in literature and in the visual arts, elements of a new worldview and a new artistic method arose even before the victory of the socialist revolution as an aesthetic reflection and comprehension in art of the heroic struggle of the working class.
This first stage in the history of the art of socialist realism can be most clearly seen in Russia, where at the end of the 19th century. The center of the world revolutionary movement has shifted. Here at the head of the working class, which has taken upon itself great mission The first to deal a crushing blow to capitalism was a party of a new type, expressing the fundamental interests of the proletariat. Already the Russian revolution of 1905, carried out under the hegemony of the proletariat, left a deep mark on the history of Russian (and not only Russian) artistic culture. It is generally accepted that M. Gorky’s story “Mother,” created in 1906, was the first work of socialist realism in literature. The same happened in the visual arts. In this area of Russian artistic culture, as we will see below, many artists can be named
who accepted with their art Active participation in the revolution, who consciously acted on the side of the people, on the side of the proletariat.
The new stage in Russian realistic art was reflected primarily in its ideological orientation works of art, in the appeal of advanced masters of Russian art to acute revolutionary themes, to the image of a proletarian who stood up to fight for his rights. However, the innovation of the nascent creative method even then it was not limited to plot and theme. Under the influence of the ideas of revolution in Russian realistic art from the very beginning of the 20th century. a qualitatively new approach to the image of a person, to the revelation of his individuality and social role appeared, a new life-affirming aesthetic ideal began to take shape, and the language of artistic forms was enriched.
An important feature of the development of Russian artistic culture was that critical realism, which reached its peak in Russian fine art in the 1870s and 1880s, retained the strength of its democratic tendencies at the turn of the new century. Thus, Russian critical realism in relation to the emerging socialist realism turned out to be not only a predecessor, valuable for its artistic traditions, but also a living and, moreover, a strong ally who actively fought against reactionary bourgeois tendencies and cleared the way for a new stage of realistic art.
Leading artists of Russia, among whom was one of the greatest masters of world art of the early 20th century. - Valentin Serov, often without realizing it, laid the foundations for a new socialist stage of artistic culture. It would be appropriate to recall that Lenin precisely at this time - on the eve of the socialist revolution,
Developing inter national culture democracy and the world labor movement,” pointed out that from each national culture we take “its democratic and socialist elements, we take them only and unconditionally in opposition to the bourgeois culture, the bourgeois nationalism of each nation” (V.I.
Lenin, Complete Works, vol. 24, p. 121. ). In the complex and contradictory struggle of tendencies characteristic of every national culture in the era of imperialism, Lenin identified a clear line that separated progressive from reactionary, and unconditionally classified not only socialist, but also democratic elements of culture as progressive.
The successive connection between democratic critical realism and socialist art, which is especially clear in the artistic culture of Russia, is not, however, a feature inherent only in Russian national art. artistic process. In Western Europe, especially in France, the emergence of art that reflected the struggle of the proletariat dates back to the middle of the 19th century and is associated with the name of one of largest representatives critical realism- Honore Daumier. In the second half of the 19th century. The highest achievement of realistic art in Western Europe was the work of the Belgian sculptor Constantin Meunier. In his works, the main hero of our time was the man of industrial labor - the proletarian. Meunier's work, in its content and ideological and artistic orientation, had already outgrown the framework of critical realism.
Representatives of socialist realism in modern French artistic culture clearly see the connection between the new realistic art and its great predecessors. Louis Aragon writes about this, analyzing the work of Gustave Courbet and calling on everyone “who seeks to establish themselves as
true realists, in a new understanding of the word.” Elsewhere, Aragon directly points out that critical realism “constitutes a necessary and very valuable stage towards socialist realism, which would not be possible without it.”
However, we should not forget that historical conditions The development of realism in Western European art developed differently than in Russia. The crisis of realism in the second half of the 19th century, on the one hand, and the strengthening of consistently anti-realistic trends in the dominant bourgeois culture, on the other, created, as we already know from the first book of this volume, a more complex situation than in Russia for the emergence of socialist realism in the visual arts and made its connection with the critical realism of the past less direct.
Although the elements of socialist art originated in the depths of capitalist society, the final formation of the art of socialist realism and its development became possible only with the victory of the socialist revolution, with the creation of a new social system. The Great October Revolution in Russia, which opened the socialist era in the history of mankind, was a turning point in the history of fine arts. For the first time in the life of society, an opportunity was created free development art that openly serves the interests of the proletariat, the interests of the people. “Art,” said V.I. Lenin, “belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them.
It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, raise them. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them" ( “Lenin on culture and art”, M., 1956, p. 520.). A remarkable program for the development of Soviet art that has served for many years was the plan for monumental propaganda created by Lenin in 1918. The Communist Party invariably helps to form the socialist ideology of Soviet artists and promotes their ideological and creative growth.
New socialist art was born and grew as folk and party art. Of course, an appeal to the life of the people and an understanding of the tasks of their struggle were also inherent in pre-revolutionary democratic realistic art. Artists of critical realism, in particular the Russian Peredvizhniki, in their work reflected many important aspects of contemporary folk life. However, the art of socialist realism represents an incomparably higher level of national artistic creativity. The nationality of socialist art is based on the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the people as the creator of history.
In the works of M. Gorky, who showed the decisive role of the revolutionary struggle of the working class in the development modern society, the nationality of Russian literature for the first time acquired a clearly defined socialist character. After the victory of the proletarian revolution, under the conditions of the construction of socialism, the people's art acquired an unprecedentedly broad basis. The barriers that previously separated the artist from the people have disappeared forever. Art began to express the interests of the people, their aesthetic tastes and ideals. Closely connected with the people, as if emanating from their life, art is at the same time addressed to the people, serves a powerful tool artistic education the broad masses of working people in the spirit of communism. Under these conditions, the artist fully realizes himself as part of the people, whose interests have become the dictates of his soul and heart.
The art of socialist realism addresses true heroes modernity, embodies in artistic images their high moral and spiritual traits.
The deep nationality of the art of socialist realism is inseparable from its partisanship, since the Communist Party expresses the fundamental interests of the working people building a classless society. The partisanship of socialist art is characterized by ideological content unprecedented in the history of art, affirming a truly humanistic communist ideal, which the artist consciously serves. That is why the art of socialist realism from its very inception was, in the words of Lenin, the happiness of the common proletarian cause,” part of the “party cause.” In the process of building socialism in the USSR
The connection between party affiliation and nationality in Soviet fine arts strengthened and became inextricable. With the complete elimination of the remnants of the exploiting classes and the growth of the ideological, moral and political unity of socialist society in
USSR, the partisanship of Soviet art, while remaining strictly class-proletarian in origin, began to express the advanced ideological and aesthetic aspirations of the entire Soviet people, united by the great goal of building communism.
Soviet art grew based on the traditions of realism of the 19th and early 20th centuries. and waging a decisive struggle against the manifestations of bourgeois ideology and its remnants - against formalism and naturalism, which led artists away from reality, devoid of a life-affirming humanistic ideal, alien and incomprehensible to the people. In contrast to these trends, Soviet fine art, from the first years of its development, is closely connected with the revolution, “affirms being as an act, as creativity” (Gorky). Soviet art became an active fighter for socialism, reflected the most important phenomena building a new life and a deep cultural revolution.
Already in the 20s and especially in the 30s. Soviet writers, artists, playwrights and musicians created a considerable number of works that carry in their figurative content high, life-affirming aesthetic ideals, marked by mature features of the method of socialist realism.
The experience accumulated by Soviet artistic culture allowed in the mid-30s. give a detailed definition of a new creative method in literature and art. “Socialist realism,” says the Union Charter Soviet writers, adopted at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934, demands from the artist a truthful, historically specific depiction of reality in its revolutionary! development. At the same time, truthfulness and historical specificity artistic image reality must be combined with the task of ideological transformation and education of the working people in the spirit of socialism.” It is further emphasized that “socialist realism provides artistic creativity an exceptional opportunity to demonstrate creative initiative, to choose a variety of forms, styles and genres,” and in conclusion it is said that the victories of socialism “create limitless opportunities for qualitative and quantitative growth creative forces and the flowering of all forms of art and literature."
An important feature of Soviet fine art, as well as culture in general, is its multinational character, which was clearly evident already in the 20s and 30s. The flourishing of the art of previously oppressed peoples, occurring on the basis of a new ideology, as well as the development of national and world artistic traditions, became a vivid demonstration of the forces of socialism, capable of not only breaking the centuries-old chains of oppression, but also reviving peoples
to a new life. The art of socialist nations, with all the diversity of paths and national forms of its revival and development, is united by a common content and creative method; multinational Soviet art contributes to the moral and political cohesion of the peoples of the USSR.
The high ideological and artistic level of Soviet fine art helped it, during the difficult years of the Great Patriotic War, to become a powerful weapon in the fight against fascism, to defeat the enemy in sharp artistic images, to educate workers in the spirit of selfless love for the Motherland, causing the admiration of friends and allies abroad.
Strengthening and development of socialist realism in Soviet art of the 20s - early 40s. was a phenomenon whose significance went far beyond the borders of the USSR. As already mentioned in the first book of this volume, in the art of a number of countries Western Europe, ASIA and America, in the context of the emerging general crisis of capitalism caused by the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, democratic realist movements experienced a great rise. A particularly significant contribution to progressive fine art was made by those artists from capitalist countries whose work, reflecting the rise of the class struggle of the proletariat and inspired by the successes of socialist construction in the USSR, was imbued with advanced revolutionary ideas. Despite all the complexity and often contradictory nature, the work of these artists bore the features of a socialist worldview and elements of socialist realism. Progressive artists from capitalist countries sought to establish connections with the USSR, with Soviet art, and were influenced by the young socialist culture. However, in general, the 20s - early 40s. were a time when Soviet art developed rather isolated in the difficult conditions of capitalist encirclement and the rise of fascism in Western Europe.
A new stage in the history of socialist art began in the second half of the 40s, since the formation of the world system of socialism - a new type of economic, political and cultural relations between countries. A characteristic feature of the new period in the history of artistic culture was the expansion of the sphere of influence of socialist art, the establishment of its principles in countries that had taken the path of building socialism, and the increasing of its role in the struggle of progressive forces against reactionary bourgeois ideology.
Along with the the most important feature A new stage was the further qualitative growth of the art of socialist realism, due to the struggle of Soviet society to build a communist society. A new stage in the development of socialist art is characterized by the deepening of its humanistic foundations, the desire to comprehensively embrace with its influence the person of socialist society in his multifaceted creative activity, and actively influence the formation of an aesthetic ideal in the spirit of the struggle for communism. This requires art to be highly ideological, bright and strong. artistic skill, enriching the means of realistically reflecting reality in all its diversity.
The huge and ever-increasing role of art in the construction of communism is evidenced by the party program adopted by the 22nd Congress of the CPSU. It is no coincidence that at the highest forum of our party - at its congress - so much was said about art and its
General History of Art
Volume two
Book one
From the editorial board
State Publishing House ART Moscow 1960 VII volume two book one under the general editorship of B.V. Weimarn and Yu.D. Kolpinsky Academy of Arts of the USSR Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts
The second volume of the "General History of Art", dedicated to art Middle Ages, due to the abundance of material, is divided into two books. This first book contains chapters on the art of Byzantium, Armenia and Georgia, the South Slavs, the art of Ancient Rus', Ukraine and Belarus, the art of Western and Central Europe during the Migration Period, Romanesque and Gothic art of France, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, England, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Scandinavian countries and Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania.
The second book of the second volume will cover the art of the era of feudalism in the Arab East, Azerbaijan, Iran, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Turkey, India, Ceylon, Indonesia, Cambodia, Burma, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Nepal, China, Korea, Mongolia, Japan, as well as the art of Central and South Africa, Australia, Oceania and Ancient America.
In each of the books in the second volume of the General History of Art, the text is accompanied by color reproductions, 400-450 tone reproductions from monuments of medieval art, as well as maps, plans and drawings.
Introduction to the art of the Middle Ages - Yu. D. Kolpinsky and B. V. Weimarn.
The art of Byzantium - V. M. Polevoy.
Art of Armenia and Georgia - V. V. Shleev.
The art of the South Slavs - A.V. Bank.
The Art of Ancient Rus' - O. I. Sopotsinsky.
Art of Ukraine 14-17 centuries-L. P. Kalinichenko and F. S. Umantsev.
Art of Belarus 14-17 centuries - M. S. Katser and V. M. Makarevich.
The art of Western and Central Europe during the era of migration of peoples and the formation of “barbarian” kingdoms - A. A. Guber, M. V. Dobroklonsky, L. Ya. Reinhardt.
Introduction to the art of the peoples of Western and Central Europe in the era of developed feudalism - A. A. Guber, Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
Art of France - A. A. Guber, M. V. Dobroklonsky, Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
Art of Germany - A. A. Guber, M. V. Dobroklonsky, L. Ya. Reinhardt.
Art of the Netherlands - L. J. Reinhardt.
Art of England - M. V. Dobroklonsky, E. V. Norina, E. I. Rotenberg.
Art of Spain - T. P. Kaptereva, K. M. Malitskaya.
Art of Portugal - T. P. Kaptereva, K. M. Malitskaya.
Art of Italy - A. A. Guber, V. A. Lebedev.
Art of Czechoslovakia - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.
The art of Poland - V. M. Polevoy.
Art of Hungary - A. N. Tikhomirov.
Art of Romania - G. Oprescu (Romanian People's Republic).
Art of the Scandinavian countries and Finland - E. I. Rotenberg.
Art of Latvia - M. L. Ivanov.
Art of Estonia - I. P. Solomykova.
Art of Lithuania - J. M. Jurginis.
In editing individual chapters T. P. Kaptereva, L. Ya. Reingardt, E. I. Rotenberg, O. I. Sopotsinsky, A. D. Chegodaev took part. The selection of illustrations was made by E. I. Rotenberg, the layout was made by R. B. Klimov and the editors of the volume. The index was compiled by N. P. Kiselev, explanations for the illustrations by E. I. Rotenberg.
For assistance in the preparation of this book - consultations, reviewing, provision of photographic material, etc. - the editorial board is grateful to: the Institute of Fine Arts of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the State Museum of Fine Arts of the Hungarian People's Republic, Art archive German Academy of Arts, State Institute of Arts of the Polish People's Republic, Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the Romanian People's Republic, Institute of Theory and History of Art of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Art History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR , Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR, Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR, Institute of Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of the History of Architecture of the Academy of Construction and Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute history of the Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR, the State Tretyakov Gallery, the State Hermitage, the State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, State Russian Museum, State Museum oriental cultures, State Museum of Georgia, State Museum of Arts of the Georgian SSR, State Museum of Ukrainian Art in Kyiv, Department of Art History of the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. I. E. Repin.
Personally, for their assistance in working on the first book of the second volume, the editorial board thanks full member of the USSR Academy of Arts M. V. Alpatov, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Sh. Ya. Amiranashvili, Dr. J. Boshkovich (Yugoslavia), Professor As. Vasiliev (Bulgaria), candidate of art history I. Vrona, E. A. Zinger, candidate of art history. T. A. Izmailov, full member of the USSR Academy of Arts V. I. Kasiyan, candidate of art criticism V. V. Kuriltsev, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences V. N. Lazarev, employees of the Museum of Ukrainian Art P. I. Govdya, L. S. Milyaev and L. Sak, candidate of art history N. E. Mnev, candidate of art history G. A. Nedoshivin, M. A. Orlov, head. Old Russian Department of State. Russian Museum N. G. Porfiridov, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR G. N. Chubinashvili, candidate of architecture P. G. Yurchenko.
Introduction
Yu. Kolpinsky, B. Weymarn
Along with the transition human society to the feudal mode of production began new stage historical development of world art. Many peoples who did not know developed slave relations experienced the first flowering of their artistic culture in the era of feudalism. Feudal period was a time of significant aesthetic gains for a number of countries of the former slave-owning world. In the era of feudalism, elements first appeared in the culture and art of various peoples national identity, which subsequently served as the basis for the formation of distinctive national art schools.
Medieval art is the art of the era of early and mature feudalism in the countries of Western and Central Europe (before the 14th century), Byzantine and ancient Russian art(until the 17th century). In relation to the countries of the East, where the medieval type of art existed much longer, this definition is usually applied to the art of the entire feudal era, including the period of late feudalism.
When assessing the historical role of medieval art, the question of aesthetic value the unique contribution that the art of the peoples of this era made to the development of world artistic culture. Closely related to this problem is the question to what extent the art of the Middle Ages represented a further rise or partial decline in comparison with the achievements of classical ancient art.
The answer to these questions presents a certain difficulty, since the unevenness, complexity and contradictory nature of artistic progress, generally characteristic of a class-based, exploitative society, affected itself much more acutely in the era of feudalism than in the era of slavery.
Leaving aside for now the main typical features of medieval art, which we will consider below, we will point out some significant differences between the art of the Middle Ages and the artistic culture of the previous time. Compared with antiquity, the number of peoples participating in the creation of artistic culture has increased, art itself has become more diverse and complex, and artistic connections between peoples. But what was even more important was that in the Middle Ages in various parts of the world, as feudal social relations strengthened and developed, powerful centers of culture and art were formed independently of each other. During the era of slavery, the peoples reached the highest stage of development of realism and humanism in art for their time ancient Mediterranean. In the Middle Ages, the creators of art, very different in their characteristics, but equally valuable aesthetically, were the peoples of China and India, Byzantium and Ancient Rus', Central Asia and Iran, Western Europe and many others.
1. General history of art. Volume 2. Art of the Middle Ages.- P.81
The interior of Saint-Denis primarily differs from previous churches in its lightness and abundance of light. Its architectural forms are elegant, and, in comparison with the massive heaviness of Romanesque buildings, they seem almost weightless, and the area of the windows is increased to such an extent that they can hardly be called openings in the wall - they occupy the entire wall, becoming, in fact, a transparent wall. This abundance of light is ensured by the use of heavy buttresses visible only from the outside. Protruding between the chapels, they take on the lateral thrust of the vaults. So such an amazing airiness of the interior, as if devoid of heaviness, is easy to explain: the heaviest elements of the structure are hidden from our view.
Describing the choirs built by Suger, we looked into the very essence of Gothic architecture; at the same time, each individual element is not really an innovation. They all existed in different local schools French and Anglo-Norman romances, from which they were borrowed.
Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, Paris. One of the most majestic buildings of early French Gothic is the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris(Notre-Dame de Paris). 1 It was founded in 1163. Construction began with the choir, which was completed in 1182, the main building was completed in 1196, the western facade with its portals - mainly by 1208. In some parts the cathedral was completed until the middle of the 13th V. At the same time, in order to increase the capacity of the cathedral, chapels were built between the strongly protruding buttresses. Together with the wreath of chapels surrounding the choir, erected somewhat later, in the 14th century, they covered the entire building. Probably the author of the building additions of the mid-13th century. there was an architect Jean de Schel, who owned a system of light and very elegant flying buttresses that has survived to this day.
Cathedral Plan 2 represents a decisive step forward from the basilical plan of Saint Denis Cathedral. This is a huge five-nave structure, almost without projecting wings of the transept (which, therefore, has only a subordinate significance), with a double choir surround (corresponding to the two side naves of the longitudinal part), with vaults of six formworks in the main nave and simple cross vaults in the side naves . Despite the fact that the cathedral was built over a century, it amazes with the organic integrity of its architectural image. Leading value in the entire composition belongs to the main western facade. The proud height of its powerful towers rising above the forest of the city is set off by a small and fragile spire above the middle cross, replacing the powerful tower typical of Romanesque architecture.
____________________
1. V.N.Grashenkov “The Art of Western Europe and Byzantium.” - P.103
2. General history of art. Volume 2. Art of the Middle Ages.- P.92
The main façade is distinguished by the proportionality of its majestic scale relationships and the simplicity of the whole. If in mature Gothic the massif of the façade wall essentially disappears and the structure is revealed by powerful pylons - buttresses and openings of wide portals and huge windows, then in Notre Dame Cathedral the wall retains its significance to a certain extent, but it no longer plays its former determining role.
The western facade of Notre Dame Cathedral, crowned with two mighty towers directed upward, is divided into three tiers. The lower, portal tier is like a plinth, carrying the load of the upper two tiers. Its wall, not covered by architectural decoration, gives the impression of stability and strength to the entire structure. Three large deep portals reveal the thickness of the powerful wall, imparting plasticity to it and the entire tier - deep internal tension. At the same time, the pointed, perspectively deepened arches of the portals contribute to a very slow but definite upward movement. The lower tier ends with a frieze-like “gallery of kings”: the rhythm of which, on a reduced scale, is repeated by the balustrade of the second tier. The gallery and balustrade emphasize the horizontal divisions, but at the same time they echo with their columns and elongated statues of kings with vertical rhythms, which are increasingly intensified in the upper tiers.
The center of the second tier is filled with a large round window, the so-called rose. Above the side portals are large windows, covered in pairs by wide and shallow pointed arches - archivolts, as if repeating the pattern of the portals located below; Smaller roses are inscribed in the tympanums of the arches. In the second tier the wall is less accentuated than in the lower one: its heavy massiveness is not at all expressed. The third tier is formed by a high through and light gallery, which consists of elegantly woven pointed arches growing from thin and slender columns. In this gallery, the verticals of the facade are embodied most fully and freely. Rising even further, the viewer's gaze lingers on the cornice, but then switches to the majestic rise of the huge slender lancet windows of the towers, the bases of which are hidden by an arcade of galleries. The facade and towers form a harmonious ensemble, inscribed in a high rectangle, which, combined with the increase in verticals from tier to tier, creates the impression of aspiration upward. At the same time, each of the tiers, taken separately, is stretched horizontally, and this preserves calm strength and stability in the architecture of the facade. Noble at first sight simple proportions The facades, upon closer examination, turn out to be exceptionally rich and complex. Each façade motif, with all its crystalline clarity and definiteness, enters into diverse interactions - constructive, large-scale, rhythmic - with all the others. Hence it is extraordinary combination clear simplicity and complex richness that, despite the restorations of the 19th century, distinguishes this first masterpiece of French Gothic.
The facades of the transepts, as already mentioned, are the work of developed Gothic style (1250-1270). Their more slender and graceful forms, almost complete absence of wall plane, free dynamics of vertically developing architectural forms and a huge openwork rose complement and enrich the expressiveness of the main facade. The facades of the transepts are organically combined with delicately light flying buttresses, which frame the main ship of the cathedral with its 12-meter lancet windows, as if floating above the surrounding houses.
The enormous interior space of the central nave (height under the vaults is 35 m) decisively dominates the low and less illuminated side naves. The interior, like the façade, is permeated with solemn, austere grandeur, but its architectural rhythms are directed even more upward, and the material weight is felt to a lesser extent. The interior walls of the central nave are also divided into three zones. The lower one consists of massive and squat columns supporting arcades that separate the central nave from the side ones. The middle zone is formed by emporium arches, opening into the central nave with wide openings, similar in shape to the paired windows of the second tier of the western facade. The pointed archivolt of each span spans three arches. Above the emporium arches, forming the third zone of division, there are tall lancet windows with colored stained glass. The higher the tier, the proportions of the arches and windows become more slender and elongated upward. This is emphasized by thin double semi-columns rapidly soaring from the capitals lower tier, between the Empor arches and the windows, to the capitals under the heels of the rib vault. In the depths of the central nave, penetrated by the flickering light of stained glass windows, there is an altar, illuminated by the flickering lights of countless candles and the fabulous radiance of the huge stained glass windows of the altar part of the temple.
Sculpture (statues and reliefs above the portal doors) plays a large role in the design of facades, especially portals. Decorative carving is also extremely widely used in the framing of portals, window openings, cornices, flying buttresses, etc. These decorations consist of plant and geometric pattern, then take on the character of fantastic images (gutters in the form of dragons opening their mouths, fantastic chimera monsters on the balustrades of the upper tiers), but all of them are characterized by a combination of a plastically voluminous form with an openwork patterned silhouette.
In the interior design of the main nave, the role of sculptural decoration is much more modest and subordinate. Statues and large relief compositions in the main nave and transept there are no, the decor is mainly reduced to the luscious carving of the capitals, shading the planes of the walls cut through by high windows. Only in the choir walk a number of reliefs from the 14th century appear. But extraordinary artistic power were endowed with sparkling, gem-like stained glass images. The transition from the plasticity of sculptural forms to the incorporeality of seemingly flickering images on stained glass windows is due not only to architectural and construction considerations, but to a certain extent also to the fact that in the interior of the cathedral, intended for worship, the situation corresponded to the ecstatic and mystical impulses of the worshipers. higher value than in the external appearance of the cathedral, where the assertion of the power and strength of people capable of erecting a building that majestically towers over the entire city prevailed over religious ideas and experiences. The builders of the cathedral achieved amazing richness and diversity in the interpretation of the internal space. When the believer entered the central nave and lost himself among the huge crowd of worshipers, the grandiose rise of the mighty vaults captured his imagination. Also striking was the sudden expansion of space upon entering the transept. The perception of the interior space of the cathedral was unusually acute even when moving along the gallery of the second tier and along the side naves - the shifting angles of the pillars and arches created a complete dynamic change of impressions. But over all this diversity, the vast space of the central nave, directed upward and deep into the sanctuary of the altar, was decisively dominant.
Perception of the interior of a Gothic temple modern man, of course, free from the intoxication of mystical ecstasy with which the aesthetic experiences of people of the Middle Ages were associated. We clearly feel artistic power, the beauty and richness of spatial forms and rhythms, unfolding like a polyphonic song, now menacingly solemn, now lyrically pensive, now gloomy, now jubilant. The greatness of the human spirit and its inspired imagination forms the basis of the aesthetic charm of Notre Dame Cathedral and, in general, all Gothic masterpieces. It is characteristic that the cathedral in that era was for a long time the center of not only religious, but also secular life of the city. Lectures were given there, meetings of workshop representatives were held, and during the period when the town hall was not erected, meetings of the city magistrate were held.
England. English Gothic 1 developed rather from a variety gothic style, characteristic of the Ile-de-France (first used in England in 1175 by a French architect who reconstructed the choirs of Canterbury Cathedral) and the Cistercian movement in architecture, rather than from the Anglo-Norman romance. In less than fifty years, a distinctive variant of the Gothic style emerged, known as Early English, the best example which is Salisbury Cathedral. At first glance you can see how appearance differs from French cathedrals, and how difficult it is to evaluate it in terms of French Gothic standards. Compactness and the predominance of verticals have disappeared; the building looks squat and stretched; it seems to be spreading in all directions.
____________________
The Russian scientist, Slavophile, soil scientist Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885) was the first to pose in a broad manner the fundamental questions that make up the content of cultural studies. His book "Russia and Europe" is a wonderful monument to Russian social thought 19th century - stands as if apart from the main stream of development of Russian philosophy and sociology. In his work, Danilevsky expressed the idea that in...
Strive for art within their means school subjects, but they lack the ability. This means that it is necessary to develop them through a synthesis of arts. A plan for formative experiments was outlined. FORMATIVE EXPERIMENT 1. Modeling tempo, meter and size. Goal: to develop an ear for music in children, a sense of tempo, meter and size. In this experiment we used different kinds modeling: ...
Promising discoveries. Existentialist, structuralist, sociocultural aesthetic trends, represented by the names of J.-P., begin to sound in a new way. Sartre, A. Camus, C. Lévi-Strauss and others. Stages of development of Russian aesthetics Russian aesthetics as a historical phenomenon is recognized relatively late: in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, when the first, quite complete...
There was already a contradiction: on the one hand, there was a desire for innovation, and on the other, looking back, retrospectivism. Many then saw in the “Art Nouveau style” a certain “crown artistic development» European culture, a single international style. The wavy lines of Art Nouveau ornamentation were compared with Cretan-Mycenaean art, “modern” was found among the Etruscans, in Italian Mannerism of the late 16th century, in the style...
“General History of Art” was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: State Hermitage, State Museum Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkina and others.
The General History of Art is a history of painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture and applied arts of all centuries and peoples from primitive art to the art of our days inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art of India and China.
Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: art of Byzantium, medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art(up to the 17th century inclusive), art of Armenia, Georgia, Arab countries, Turkey, Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, Romanesque and gothic art France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain" Book 2: the art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. This book contains the art of the peoples of Ancient America and Ancient Africa.
Volume three. Renaissance art: art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th centuries, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th-16th centuries.
Volume four. Art of the 17-18 centuries in Europe and America: art of Italy 17-18 centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland 17 centuries, France 17-18 centuries, Russia 18 centuries, England 17-18 centuries, USA 18 centuries, Latin America 17-18 centuries and other countries.
Volume five. Art of the 19th century: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America , India, China and other countries.
Volume six. Art of the late 19th-20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, modern Art countries of Western Europe and America, people's democracies, China, India and other countries of the East.
The sixth volume will contain a detailed consolidated bibliography on the entire world history of art.
In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text, maps indicating places will be given for each chapter archaeological finds, art centers, locations of architectural structures.
“The General History of Art” seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all peoples of the earth who have contributed to the world history of art.” Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention when working on ((The General History of Arts) was occupied by those eras of the history of art in which there was a particularly high flowering of realistic art - the art of Ancient Greece, chinese art 10-13 centuries, Renaissance art, realistic masters of Europe 17-19 centuries, etc.
The General History of Art aims to give a summary current state world science of art. It also contains a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in different areas art history
