An effective lesson on world artistic culture. Methodological development on MHC on the topic: Course of lectures on MHC in the section "Culture of the Ancient Mediterranean"

Period of cultural antiquity (primitive culture) is determined by the following framework: 40-4 thousand years BC. e. Within this period there are:

1) Old Stone Age (Paleolithic): 40–12 thousand years BC. e.;

2) Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic): 12-7 thousand years BC. e.;

3) New Stone Age (Neolithic): 7–4 thousand years BC. e.

A common feature of all primitive cultures is syncretism(syncretism) – incomprehension different types human activity, characteristic of an undeveloped, primitive state of culture.

Life processes were presented as a single whole. The ritual preceding the hunt, the image of the animals being killed, the hunting process itself are equivalent parts of one process.

Intertwined with syncretism totemism- a complex of beliefs and rituals of a tribal society associated with ideas about kinship between groups of people and totems (certain animals, plants).

There were totems of a specific person, clan, tribe. Totems were designed to protect people. The emergence of totemism is associated with the inability of primitive people to cope with the unpredictable behavior of animals using rational means.

Primitive culture is culture taboo(prohibitions). The custom of tabooing appeared along with totemism. Taboos served as the most important mechanism for controlling and regulating social relations. The gender and age taboo regulated sexual relations in the group, the food taboo determined the nature of the food intended for a particular person.

Other taboos are associated with the inviolability of the home or hearth, with the rights and responsibilities of each member of the tribe.

The taboo was formed as a result of the need for survival (the introduction of certain laws and orders mandatory for all). Exogamy arose on the basis of a system of taboo.

Exogamy is a system in which immediate relatives (parents and children, siblings) are excluded from marital relations.

Exogamy contributed to the social regulation of marriage, the emergence of clans and families.

Ritual in the primitive era is the main form of human social existence, the main embodiment of the human ability to act.

The ritual became the basis of production, economic, spiritual, religious and social activities.

The ritual takes the form of prayer, chants, and dances. Sign systems appear within the ritual, which later became the basis for art and science. From ritual comes myth.

Myth is a kind of universal system that determines a person’s orientation in nature and society. Myth consolidates and regulates a person’s ideas about the world around him, affects fundamental problems being.

In the primitive era, many forms of art existed. The magical concept of the origin of culture states that the source of art is magical rituals and beliefs.

The emergence of art in the primitive era is associated with labor activity and the development of communication.

Communication became possible thanks to articulate sound speech, through drawing, gesture, singing, dancing.

The oldest form of fine art is graphics. Then painting appeared, the first examples of sculpture, the first works of architecture (megaliths - religious buildings made of huge unprocessed stone blocks).

Sumerian culture. The period of great archaic cultures (4th–6th centuries BC) includes primarily:

1) formation of the first lesions high culture on the territory of Mesopotamia: Sumer and Akkad - 4 thousand years BC. e.;

2) the birth of ancient Egyptian civilization - the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. The next stage in the history of world culture after the primitive one is associated with Mesopotamia. It was Sumer that became the first center of statehood. The Sumerians, working tirelessly, laid the foundations for further economic and cultural development Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia). They invented the cart wheel, the potter's wheel, and bronze. In the field of mathematics, the Sumerians knew exponentiation, could extract roots, and use fractions.

For transmission important points history, the Sumerians used visual arts. Thanks to the creation of cuneiform - the oldest known type of writing, a type of ideographic writing - they were able to record oral stories, becoming the founders of literature. One of the most famous literary works of the ancient Sumerians is “The Tale of Gilgamesh,” the mythical Sumerian king.

Schools first appeared among the Sumerians - “houses of tablets.” The students read and wrote on clay tablets.

In parallel with Ancient Sumer, it developed Ancient Egypt. Essential to it were the rules of Maat, the goddess of world order. People were taught these rules from early childhood. They contained the basics of a culture of behavior, taught discipline, restraint and modesty. If a person is able to adapt to all the rules of Maat, then he will be happy. Happiness for the ancient Egyptians is a great value; on the basis of this, the most ancient system of hedonism (the ethics of pleasure) was developed. Life and its joyful moments were so valued that the Egyptians created their own version of the afterlife (in the kingdom of Osiris, only the best that happened in their earthly life awaits them).

Ancient Kingdom - early period Ancient Egypt. Writing was formed, which was due to the presence of large farms and the need to conduct government records.

The figure of the scribe occupies a prominent place; scribes were specially trained in schools at temples.

Thanks to the invention of writing, the development of ancient Egyptian literary literature became possible (ancient myths, fairy tales, fables, philosophical dialogues, didactics, hymns, laments, love lyrics etc.).

Specific Institute of Ancient Egypt “House of Life”. It performed the following functions:

1) it created hymns and sacred songs reflecting certain philosophical concepts;

2) didactic literature was developed;

3) magic books containing medical information were systematized there, stored, and made available;

4) theoretical and practical guidelines were developed for the activities of artists, sculptors and architects;

5) mathematics and astronomy classes were going on.

Culture Ancient Greece And Ancient Rome It is commonly called ancient culture. The culture of Ancient Greece is divided into 5 periods: Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean period, Homeric period, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic. The culture of Ancient Greece reached its greatest flourishing during the classical period. The first three periods are very often combined into the pre-classical period. The term "antiquity" appeared during the Renaissance. It was coined by humanists to define Greco-Roman culture, which was the oldest at that time. "Antique" means "ancient" (from the Latin antiguus).

Many achievements are ancient Greek culture formed the basis of subsequent European culture. The ancient Greeks created a science that many researchers call “thinking the way of the Greeks.”

The first appeared in Greece philosophical system called "natural philosophy". It is characterized by materialism and the search for objective laws: Thales (624–546 BC) considered water to be the fundamental principle of all things, Anaximenes (about 585–525 BC) – air, Anaximander (about 611– 546 BC) – apeiron.

Among the outstanding personalities of Greece we can name the following: playwrights - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; historians - Herodotus, Thucydides; philosophers - Democritus, Plato, Aristotle.

Originated in Greece the new kind art - Theatre of Drama . IN literary art New genres emerged: comedy and tragedy.

The history of Ancient Rome is divided into three main periods: the royal, republican and imperial periods. The most powerful period in terms of cultural achievements was the last period - the period of the empire. Enlightenment and science achieved great success in Rome, especially the education system, which consisted of three levels - primary education, schools of rhetoric and schools of grammar.

The most ancient civilizations in Greece are civilizations of Crete and Mycenae . This period dates back to centuries. BC e. Let us consider these civilizations in more detail, since they were the sources of the later Greek civilization.

The culture of Crete, or Minoan culture, has come down to us as the remains of palace buildings on the island of Crete. One of the largest and most well-studied structures was the Palace complex at Knossos. This building is built on the principle of a labyrinth. The legendary myth of the Minotaur is directly reflected here. There were no temples on Crete. Separate rooms were used for prayers and other religious ceremonies. The frescoes often depicted scenes with bulls. The cult of the bull god was very widespread in Crete. His image depicted the destructive forces of nature. The palace simultaneously served as an administrative, economic and religious center. As is typical for Minoan culture, the palace was not surrounded by a defensive wall.

This is due to the expanses of sea located around the island.

Culture Achaean Greece . Otherwise, the culture of this period is called the Mycenaean culture. A distinctive feature of this culture was a peculiar attitude towards the security of a particular object. Palaces were always built in inaccessible spaces or on top of mountains.

The Shakhty tombs in Mycenae became monuments of this culture. During the excavations of these tombs, gold jewelry and many household items, weapons, gold death masks. The palaces in Mycenae, Pylos, Athens, Iloka, and Tiryns became centers of culture. The Achaeans adopted a syllabary from the Minoans, which still cannot be deciphered.

XII century BC e. was a turning point in the history of the peoples living on the shores of the Aegean Sea. Achaean cities perish from the invasion of Dorian tribes. This is the time of development of Greece during the Homeric period. A new type of culture in general and artistic culture in particular is being formed.

This era is marked by the appearance of Homer's works - the Iliad and the Odyssey. Greece is moving from the Bronze Age into the Iron Age. Strict arithmetic calculation embodies an idea, which is later embodied in a strict system of numbers, calculations, and theories. Small plastic arts are developing - terracotta, bone and bronze figurines depict animals, scenes from the life and everyday life of warriors and heroes.

Monumental sculpture begins to develop. Sculptors are looking for possibilities for a living and free depiction of the human body.

The archaic period dates back to the 8th–6th centuries. BC e. At this time, Greek lyric poetry arose. One of the first lyricists was Archilochus. After the works of Homer, a number of new poems in the Homeric style appear.

Hesiod's Works and Days appears. Sappho's work became widely known.

In the 7th century stone buildings appear. Most of them were temples. The Greeks considered the temple to be the dwelling place of God and likened it to the main room of the royal palace. In the process of formation of Greek culture, three directions were formed: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

Doric was predominantly widespread in the Peloponnese and is distinguished by its simplicity of form and severity. The Ionic direction symbolizes lightness, harmony, and decorativeness.

The Corinthian direction is all about sophistication. Each of these directions corresponded to its own order. The most famous temples of the Archaic period are the temple of Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum.

The sculpture of this period was dominated by the image of man. The Greeks tried to calculate the correct shapes of the human body. There are two main directions in sculpture – kouros and kora.

Kouros is an image of a young man. One leg is slightly in front, the hair is wavy, falling to the shoulders. The gaze is directed forward. The athletic body was covered only by a small bandage on the hips. Cora personified the girl. Look straight ahead, eyes wide open. There is always a smile on the face, which is called archaic.

During this period, ceramics began to develop. Mainly two directions prevailed: red-figure vase painting and black-figure vase painting. At first, black-figure vase painting dominated.

Figures were depicted in black varnish on a yellow background. Vaso-scribes developed skills that allowed them to convey movement and depict everyday scenes. The geometric sign-symbol is replaced by a visual artistic image. Images of Achilles and Ajax, Dionysus and Hercules adorn the vases.

However, the black silhouettes of the figures could not sufficiently convey volume and space, and the silhouette black-figure painting was replaced by the red-figure style.

In it, the background was covered with black varnish, and the figures of people retained the red color of the clay. Against such a background it is easier to depict human figures, convey space and turns.

Philosophy became a generalization of knowledge about the world around us. The founder of the Milesian school was Thales. He considered the fundamental principle of the world to be water, from which everything arises and into which everything turns.

Pythagoras, a philosopher and mathematician, founded a school of philosophy in southern Italy. According to his theory, the world consists of numerical relations, an established series of quantitative relationships.

The chronological framework of this period is 480–323. BC e. This is the time of the conquest of vast areas by Alexander the Great. In the worldview of the Greeks, a new approach to the perception of the outside world and new forms of its artistic expression emerged. Greek culture was not characterized by narrow professionalism. Great successes were achieved in mathematics, astronomy, sculpture, and painting. During this period, dramaturgy develops. The emergence of Greek theater was associated with the cult of Dionysus, the god of wine. The actors performed in goat skins, and therefore this genre was called “tragedy”. Famous playwrights This time there were Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Rhetoric flourished among the prose genres. In tragedy, the concept of catharsis (from the Greek “purification”) received its fullest expression: the ennobling of people, the liberation of the soul from “filth” or painful affects.

Among philosophical problems, the problem of man's place in the world came to the fore. Others were also touched upon philosophical problems, for example, the problem of being or the fundamental principles of the world.

Athens 5th century amaze with their sweeping monumental construction. The Parthenon, the Propylaea, and the Temple of Athena the Victorious were erected. The creators of the Parthenon, Ictinus and Callicrates, managed to achieve true harmony and perfection. The Acropolis towered over the city and symbolized the freedom of a democratic state. The sculpture of this period became an example of classical perfection. The ideal of the human personality is embodied by the sculptor Phidias in the statues of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. Contemporaries of Phidias were Myron, the author of the statue “Discobolus,” and Polykleitos, the creator of the statue “Canon,” where a person is depicted as he should be in real life. New traditions in art permeate almost all areas and industries. The Erechtheion (late 5th century) was built in a slightly different style. It is complex and asymmetrical and must be walked around to appreciate its architectural forms. The requirements for sculpture are changing, as reflected in the works of Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippos. The sculptures of Praxiteles “Hermes with the Child Dionysus” and “Athena of Cnidus” meet primarily aesthetic needs. They are bearers of refined beauty and grace. The images of Skopas express the new attitude of the Greeks to the world, the loss of its clarity and harmony.

Man became acutely aware of tragic conflicts. The fragmentation of Greek cities led in the second half of the 4th century. to their conquest by Macedonia.

Artists of this time began to depend entirely on private orders. Lysippos was the court master of Alexander the Great.

He developed a new canon of art, which was fully embodied in the sculpture “Apoxiomen”.

The proportions of the human body have become new. Lysippos shows a man excited by an unsuccessful struggle and tired of it. Both states receive the right to plastic expression.

A feature of Greek culture is its competitive nature. The Greek agon - struggle, competition - personified character traits free Greek The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the Olympic Games. In the Greek agon, dialectics originates - the ability to fight.

The time frame of this period is the second half of the 4th - mid-1st centuries. BC e. This period is associated with the development of all artistic forms related to religion, science, technology, and philosophy. The boundaries of the Greek worldview are changing to more extensive ones. This was largely due to the conquests of the Greeks. The policy has lost the significance it had some time ago. The world needed to be known, understood and expressed in artistic forms.

Architecture is developing. This was largely due to the desire of the rulers to show their power and superiority. Libraries, baths, stadiums, palaestras, and bouleuteriums are being built.

Such famous structures as the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria and the Tower of the Winds in Athens appeared.

Art forms such as mosaics, decorative sculpture, and painted ceramics are flourishing. Artists stopped admiring the majestic beauty of the human body.

Now both decrepit old people and small children began to be depicted. Artists sought to convey purely human feelings in artistic forms. This is the Laoocoon of the sculptors Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenador. This plot was taken from Homer's Iliad. In the field of sculpture, three schools can be distinguished: the Rhodian school (Laocoon, Farnese bull); Pergamon School (sculptural frieze of the altar of Zeus and Athena in Pergamon); Alexandrian school (the image of the goddess Aphrodite).

This period was the final one in the development of Greece. Ancient Greek culture had a huge influence on the formation of the subsequent culture of Europe.

From the end of the 1st century. BC e. leading value Roman art acquired in the ancient world. The culture of Ancient Rome adopted a lot from the culture and art of Ancient Greece. The artistic culture of Rome was distinguished by its great diversity and diversity of forms. Roman art developed on the basis original culture local tribes. But the main influence was Greek culture.

The history of Ancient Rome is usually divided into three periods: the royal, republican and imperial periods.

Architecture played a leading role in Roman art. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture. Mostly they built public buildings designed for a huge number of people. The Romans introduced engineering structures - aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses - as architectural objects in urban and rural ensembles.

Roman culture acquired a very distinctive feature - the exaltation of the emperor, imperial power.

Hence the large-scale exaggerations, enormous sizes.

The Romans developed historical and domestic reliefs, which formed a large part of the architectural decoration.

The best legacy of Roman sculpture was the portrait. The Romans brought a lot of new things to this genre. They studied the face of an individual in its uniqueness.

Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their morals and ideals.

The civic ideals of the republican era are embodied in monumental full-length portraits - statues of Togatus. The Orator statue is widely known.

At the end of the 1st century. BC e. The Roman state transformed from an aristocratic republic into an empire.

The names of the architect Vitruvius, the historian Titus Livy, and the poets Virgil, Ovid, and Horace are associated with this time. The most gigantic Roman building is the Colosseum, the place of gladiatorial fights and grandiose spectacles.

The walls of the Colosseum are divided into four tiers. The Pantheon Temple competes with the Colosseum. Built by Apollodorus Domassky, it represents classic look central domed building.

During the imperial era, relief and round sculpture were further developed. A monumental marble altar was erected on the Campus Martius to commemorate the victory of Augustus in Spain and Gaul.

The leading place in sculpture was still occupied by the portrait. During the reign of Augustus, the character of the image changed dramatically; it reflected the ideal of strict classical beauty.

This is the type of new man that Republican Rome did not know. Full-length court ceremonial portraits appeared. Later, vital and convincing works are created.

The desire for individualization sometimes reached the grotesque in its expressiveness (portrait of Nero, Marcus Aurelius).

The late period of development of the portrait is marked by an external coarsening of the appearance and increased spiritual expansion. In Roman art there is new system thinking, in which the aspiration to the sphere triumphed spiritual origin, characteristic of medieval art.

Roman art completed a large period of ancient artistic culture. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern.

However, the image of Roman culture remains alive in subsequent eras. For example, Roman masters inspired the Renaissance masters.

Classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of the most important places in the history of great cultures. The Arab Caliphate is a state that was formed as a result of the Arab conquests of the 7th–9th centuries. With the advent of the Caliphate, Arab culture was born. Arab-Muslim culture has absorbed much from the culture of the Persians, Syrians, Copts, Jews, and the peoples of North Africa. The Arabs adopted a lot from the Hellenistic-Roman culture. Nevertheless, Arab culture has retained its originality and its own ancient traditions. Islam predetermined the culture of Islam - a phenomenon completely different from both European and Jewish culture. Islam became a system that organized the entire world of societies that existed at that time, subordinate to the power of the Caliphate.

The Koran is the main holy book of Muslims, a collection of sermons, spells, prayers pronounced by the Prophet Muhammad in the cities of Mecca and Medina. Allah is absolute perfection, and the set of laws and moral rules dictated by Him is absolute truth, eternity. They are suitable “for all times and peoples.”

Under the banner of Islam, the Arab people began their great history, created a vast empire, Arab-Muslim civilization and culture. Islam has formed a certain specific Muslim mentality, independent of previous folk, cultural and religious traditions.

For the self-awareness of Muslims, state and national affiliation played a lesser role than belonging to Islam. A Muslim does not recognize his own personality as an intrinsic value, because for him everything that is “given” is an attribute of Allah.

Islam contributed to the development of philosophy, art, humanities and natural sciences, and the creation of artistic culture. The main centers of medieval culture and science were located in Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba. Arabic is inextricably linked with the Koran and is an essential element of Arab-Muslim culture. Because of the need to comment on the Quran, philological studies of the Arabic language developed. Arabic became the official language of scientists and philosophers within less than a century.

Arabic has been a single language since the 7th century, and for seven centuries Arab-Muslim culture was at a high level, leaving European science and culture of that period far behind.

Mosques are like universities. They taught all religious and secular sciences. In accordance with the tradition of Arab-Muslim construction, mosques, schools, and hospitals were built in the new city.

In the field of exact sciences, the achievements of Arab scientists were enormous. The Arabic counting system was adopted and spread in Europe. The sciences of chemistry and medicine reached a high level of development among the Arabs, which also found recognition in Europe.

The tendency towards the synthesis of different areas of knowledge is presented in the collection of Arabic tales - “A Thousand and One Nights”, which reflected the theme of secular values Arabic culture IX–X centuries Poetry of the 7th–8th centuries. sang of military exploits, fun, wine, love. The Arab-Muslim culture did not create plastic arts, since Islam had a negative attitude towards the depiction of any living creature in painting and sculpture, which, it is believed, leads to idolatry.

Islamic painting contains ornamentation and abstraction. Calligraphy is the most noble visual art of Islam.

Muslim art is characterized by:

1) repetition of expressive geometric motifs;

2) change of rhythm and diagonal symmetry. Arabesque is a specific Muslim ornament, a typical example of Arab-Muslim artistic culture. The Arabs adopted the achievements of Iranian and Roman architecture. The art of miniatures developed. Miniatures decorated handwritten, medical works, collections of fairy tales, and literary works.

The culture of Ancient India has its origins in ancient times, spanning the period from III millennium BC e. until the 5th century n. e. The specifics of ancient Indian culture were determined by the characteristics of mythology and religion. The hymns of the Vedas are still sacred in India today.

The mythology of Brahmanism spread at the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. Collections of these myths are the poems “Ramayana” and “Mahabharata”. Later, Brahmanism was replaced by Buddhism, defined as a philosophical and religious culture “without a soul and without God.”

The postulates of Buddhism are the necessary movement of the soul towards nirvana and the improvement of man through a series of rebirths.

Such branches of science as medicine, astronomy, linguistics, philosophy, and mathematics achieved great success in Ancient India.

Ancient Indian scientists were the first to determine the value of pi, found effective method solving linear equations, developed theorems of algebra and geometry, and the decimal number system.

Already at that time, doctors in India could perform complex surgical operations.

In the first centuries AD, stone religious architecture began to develop in India.

During the reign of the Guptas, developments in the theory of art were created. Theorists believed necessary image spiritual experiences and feelings, and also noted the importance of beauty in art and life.

In treatises on theatrical art, the tasks of the theater, theatrical performances, and acting were posed and analyzed.

During the period of fragmentation that followed the decline of the Gupta Empire, the influence of religion on art and culture increased. Hinduism occupies a dominant position. Then, after the establishment of the power of the Delhi Sultanate, the ideas of Islam penetrated into India, which had a certain influence on the development of culture. During the emergence of the Mughal Empire, the process of interpenetration of Muslim and Hindu cultures began. New architectural trends became noticeable in the construction of mausoleums (Taj Mahal). The Mongolian school of miniatures and wall painting reached a high level of development.

At the same time, interreligious relations became aggravated during this period, which led to the need to search for new religious views that could reconcile Hinduism and Islam.

A characteristic feature of Chinese culture is that it developed in conditions of isolation from other cultures.

For the Chinese, the world is a celestial empire surrounded by “barbarians from the four corners of the world.”

This was a result of China's distance from Central Asia and other countries.

The uniqueness of Chinese culture is expressed in hieroglyphic writing. Its principle is a direct connection between a real object and a symbol, reflecting its detachment from the linguistic features of pronunciation.

The Chinese Middle Ages is characterized as a period of cultural flourishing, expressed in the spiritual rise of the country, development big cities, construction of luxurious temples, palaces and parks.

New genres are emerging in literature, such as the urban novel and the novel.

New phenomena in artistic culture – narrative painting and portraiture. It was in China that the world's first landscape compositions arose. Thanks to the development of science, Chinese painters could use a wide variety of paints: from ink to mineral paints.

Characteristic features of Chinese painting are the use of silk, in addition to paper, and the use of linear perspective.

The most important discoveries in the era of feudalism were the invention of porcelain and gunpowder, as well as the emergence of printing.

Chinese writing was further developed thanks to the invention of ink. The so-called a standard writing style, it laid the foundations for modern hieroglyph writing.

The development of the education system is associated with the name of Confucius (551–449 BC).

Characteristic features of the teachings of Confucius:

1) the predominance of practical philosophy, decisive problem harmony of social life, issues of moral education;

2) attention to the formation of a comprehensively developed personality capable of taking a worthy place in society;

3) recognition of the regulatory activities of the state. Ancient Chinese science, which owns many important discoveries and inventions.

Astronomy, geometry, and mathematics were leading in the Chinese knowledge system. The most important achievements of ancient Chinese scientists:

1) creating a globe;

2) an idea of ​​the planets of the solar system;

3) discovery of “spots” on the Sun;

4) the invention of paper, gunpowder and porcelain;

5) creation of agricultural science;

6) invention of varnish production and sericulture;

7) use of decimals and negative numbers. The main phenomena inhibiting development chinese art and science:

1) Mongol invasion at the end of the 13th century;

2) feudalism in its later stages of existence;

3) colonial policy of Western European countries. Despite all this, China's contribution to the development of world culture remains inestimable.

1. The cultural characteristics of Japan are determined by its isolated island position. It determined:

1) features of the national mentality;

2) the specifics of relations with nature and society;

3) the specifics of religion and art.

The culture of Japan arose and was formed during the Middle Ages.

Behavioral forms were consolidated by traditions and laws, largely borrowed from Confucianism and Legalism. In the 7th century the “Table of 12 Ranks” and the “Law of 17 Articles” were created, containing the principles of power and state.

The sovereign was identified with heaven, all the rest (servants) with the earth. Japanese society included free farmers, semi-free artisans and slaves.

Above them stood the nobility, who came from the family aristocracy.

2. In Japanese culture there is no antagonism between “nature and culture”, because the world does not oppose a person, but merges with him.

The Japanese are constantly looking for points of contact with it, ways of harmony. This determined the sense of beauty inherent in Japanese culture.

Japan's oldest religion Shinto reflected these ideas.

Shinto explains the divine origin of power from the sun goddess Amaterasu and the rest of the Japanese from other deities (kami).

Principles of Shinto:

1) the world is perfect in itself;

2) understanding of the natural power of life, the absence of division into pure and unclean;

3) the unity of nature and history, nature and culture;

4) recognition of polytheism;

5) Shinto is the religion of only the Japanese, because only the Japanese are the descendants of the sun goddess.

Shintoism adopted Chinese religious teachings, dissolving them into itself. In the VI century. Taoism and Buddhism come to Japan. The result of the assimilation of Buddhism was zen buddhism.

Its essence is self-deepening, as a result of which insight comes. The strongest influence was that of Confucianism, which spread to the entire system of human behavior in society.

The artistic traditions of Japan have not accepted the influence of other cultures.

The culture of Byzantium is a unique phenomenon in the history of European culture. This culture arose in a state that officially existed since the 4th century. to the middle of the 15th century. with the capital Constantinople after the division of the Roman Empire into two parts: Eastern and Western. The uniqueness of Byzantine culture is that it arose and existed in a border situation.

Byzantium is part of the ancient world, but it was in it that the Orthodox branch of medieval culture developed.

Characteristic features of Byzantine culture:

1) solemn pomp;

2) spirituality, depth of thought;

3) grace of form.

Features of Byzantine culture:

1) synthesis of Western and Eastern elements with the primacy of Greco-Roman traditions;

2) preservation of traditions ancient civilization, which became the basis of European culture of the Renaissance;

3) strong state foundations that contributed to the preservation of secular art;

4) the formation of Orthodoxy, which influenced the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values, on philosophical and theological views;

5) a mixture of pagan mythology and Christian personality. Byzantine philosophers raised the question of meaning human existence, about man’s place in the Universe and about his capabilities.

The thinkers of Byzantium - writers, preachers, theologians - borrowed all the best that ancient culture gave to humanity. The Byzantines saw art, first of all, as a tool for purposeful positive influence on the spiritual world of man. Music, painting, architecture, verbal art are mediators of comprehension of truth, sources of moral improvement of a person.

Compared to antiquity, the architectural forms of Christian churches have changed. A Christian church is a place where a community of believers gathers, so the architects first of all solved the problem of organizing the internal space.

The highest achievement of Byzantine culture is the Hagia Sophia.

The main forms of Byzantine painting:

1) monumental temple painting (mosaic and fresco);

3) book miniature.

Mosaic - a type of monumental painting - an image or pattern made of smalt (multi-colored stones) - received special significance in Byzantium.

Iconography and Christian easel painting were formed, which became an instrument of ideological influence of the Church. The accumulated knowledge is summarized, encyclopedias on history are created, agriculture, medicine, etc.

Byzantium influenced the formation of early Italian humanism.

It became a bridge between Western and Eastern cultures and had a profound impact on the culture of many European countries, primarily on countries where Orthodoxy was established.

The cultural life of European society of this period is determined by Christianity. It developed a new ethics of conduct, defined a new view of the world, of man’s place in it.

God is the creator of all visible forms. History is the fulfillment of the divine plan. Philosophy is the “handmaiden of theology.” Theology - generalization social practice man of the Middle Ages. Even mathematical symbols are theological.

Fundamentals of Christian Ethics:

1) people are perceived as initially equal;

2) the church addresses each member of the community individually;

3) perception of reality in grammatical complexity;

4) the doctrine of the existence of two worlds: the higher divine (spiritual) and the lower earthly, which is just a reflection of the first.

Fine art and architecture are in close connection with religion. The Christian temple is a model and image of the universe.

In fine art, the main thing is the narrative nature of subjects associated with Christian symbolism. Achievement of the Middle Ages - the concept of synthesis of arts. This is manifested in the development of monumental forms of architecture associated with other forms of art.

The next cultural achievement of the Middle Ages was the emergence of an artistic style. The first pan-European style was Romanesque, then it was replaced by Gothic, associated with the development of urban culture. The rise of cities demanded educated people. This contributed to the emergence of schools and universities. The first universities arose in Bologna, Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. The leading faculty in them was theological.

Scholasticism is a type of religious medieval philosophy, the goal of which is the theoretical substantiation of a religious worldview.

In secular culture, a special place is occupied by the knightly environment, which has developed a special framework of etiquette, a kind of knightly code. One of his provisions was the worship of a beautiful lady. A special place is occupied by the poetry of vagants - wandering students, which had satirical anti-clerical notes. A monument to the French heroic epic of the 12th century. is "The Song of Roland".

IN early Middle Ages heresy arises - a special teaching that contradicts the basic tenets of the Christian religion; the Inquisition is created - a judicial-police institution created by the Catholic Church to combat heresies.

At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. In line with medieval culture, there is a gradual formation of a new culture - the culture of the Renaissance.

Renaissance (Renaissance) is a period in the history of European culture associated with the establishment of humanistic philosophy and an attempt to recreate the ideals of antiquity. The era received its name due to interest in the ancient heritage. The birthplace of the Renaissance is Florence. Circles of educated people (humanists) formed there.

Humanists were called so from the circle of sciences, the object of study of which was man. Humanists found, copied, and studied literary and artistic monuments of antiquity.

Culture Italian Renaissance divided into four periods:

1) XIII century. – proto-Renaissance, pre-renaissance;

2) XIV century. – early Renaissance;

3) XV century. – high Renaissance;

4) XVI century - Late Renaissance.

In the pre-Renaissance period, Gothic still dominated, but features of a new style were already appearing.

Dante in The Divine Comedy creates deeply individual and psychologically reliable images. Psychological authenticity became one of the features of Renaissance art.

Humanism was proclaimed precisely in this era. Humanism is a philosophical worldview based on recognition of the value of the human person. Man is the center of the universe, its most valuable creation.

The ideal of a harmonious, comprehensively developed, creative personality is formed. An example of such a person was Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519).

The works of Raphael Santi (1483–1520) reflect the feeling of joy and beauty of earthly life.

The ideal of man acquires sublimely heroic, titanic features in the work of the sculptor and artist Michelangelo Buanorotti (1475–1564).

As part of the Renaissance, the Reformation took place - a social movement for the renewal of the Catholic Church.

The result was the victory of Protestantism in Germany.

Most significant features Protestantism:

1) the idea of ​​a person’s personal connection with God without the cooperation of the church and the priest;

2) translation of the entire service into the native language of the believers. Albrecht Dürer, a portrait painter, graphic artist, and creator of the graphic series “Apocalypse,” worked in Germany during the Renaissance. The beginning of the Renaissance in the Netherlands - the work of Jan van Dyck.

The Golden Age of Spanish painting and theater - the end of the 16th - the end of the 17th centuries. (Miguel Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Velasquez, etc.). Spanish culture characterized by the strongest commitment to Catholicism.

The English Renaissance created examples philosophical literature, poetry and drama.

Thomas More's work “Utopia” (1516) marked the beginning of the literary and philosophical movement of social utopia.

The “Titan” of the English Renaissance is William Shakespeare (1564–1616), who reflected in his work the conflict between the high ideals of the Renaissance and reality.

Humanism developed later in France - only at the beginning of the 16th century.

Bright example French Renaissance- the novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Francois Rabelais (1494–1553).

The chronological framework of the era was defined by the German scientist W. Windelband as the century between the Glorious Revolution in England (1639) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

The European Enlightenment is a very specific set of ideas that gave rise to a specific cultural system.

The culture of the Enlightenment has a number of specific features.

1. Deism (a religious and philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as the creator of nature and does not allow other ways of knowing God other than reason). Deism made it possible to oppose religious fanaticism.

2. Cosmopolitanism (condemnation of all nationalism and recognition of equal opportunities for all nations).

The spread of cosmopolitanism led to a decline in the feeling of patriotism.

The idea arose about the unity of humanity and culture (interest in the life, customs and culture of the countries of the East).

3. Scientific, renaissance, natural history . An independent and integral scientific worldview entered the historical arena.

Formation completed modern science with its ideals and norms that determined the development of technogenic civilization.

4. Faith that with the help of reason the truth about man and the surrounding nature will be found.

The Enlightenment is the age of reason. Reason is the source and engine of knowledge, ethics and politics: a person can and should act reasonably; society can and should be organized rationally.

5. Idea of ​​progress . It was during the Enlightenment that the concept of “faith in progress through reason” was created, which for a long time determined the development of European civilization.

6. Absolutization the importance of education in the formation of a new person. The bet is on a new person, free from the heritage of one or another philosophical, religious or literary tradition.

"Experience about human mind"- a philosophical treatise by John Locke - a kind of manifesto of the Enlightenment. It contains ideas about the education of the human personality and the role of the social environment in this process.

The French Enlightenment consisted of teachings that varied in political and philosophical radicalism.

Representatives of the older generation – Sh.L. Montesquieu and Voltaire gravitated towards the gradual reform of feudal society on the model of England. Constitutional monarchy is a form government structure, in which the power of the monarch is limited by the framework of the constitution and a strong parliament.

D. Diderot, J.O. Lamerty, K.A. Helvetius, P.A. The Holbachs denied feudal property and feudal privileges, rejected monarchical power, while advocating an enlightened monarchy, the embodiment of an idealistic belief in the possibility of improving monarchical power through the active education of monarchs in the spirit of new ideas of the time.

The encyclopedia became the code of the French Enlightenment. It was a body of scientific knowledge, a form of struggle against social prejudices.

The Enlightenment saw art as a means of popularizing moral and political ideas. Literature was based on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons.

Voltaire (1694–1778) is a recognized leader of educators throughout Europe. His work expressed the social thought of the century.

The rationalist movement is compared with the activities of Voltaire and is called Voltairianism.

The greatest representative of the French Enlightenment was Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689–1755). He developed a theory of the dependence of social relations on the degree of enlightenment of society, on the mental state of the people, on the general structure of civilization.

The democratic trend in the Enlightenment is “Rousseauism” named after Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Rousseau idealized the “natural state” of humanity and glorified the cult of nature. He denied the progress of civilization.

In France in the second half of the 18th century. An artistic style was formed - Rococo, reflecting the taste of the court of Louis XV and the aristocracy.

Founder critical realism in painting - English artist William Hogarth (1697–1764). Entire series of paintings are united by one plot. They were translated into engravings and became available to a wide range of people. More democratic and cheaper than painting, engraving became the bearer of Enlightenment ideas.

European sculpture of the 18th century. reflected a change in public mood. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741–1828) is the most interesting sculptor of the era, the creator of an entire portrait gallery of his contemporaries.

The theater of the Enlightenment reflected a new view of the world in dramaturgy and stage techniques. Playwrights and actors from England, France, and Germany were united in their desire to present modern life as accurately as possible.

In creativity Austrian composer V.A. Mozart (1756–1791) reflected progressive ideas in music.

Most important stage in the development of the culture of Ancient Rus' is the Novgorod period, dating back to the middle of the 8th century. The year 862 marks the beginning of the reign of Rurik, the founder of the Rurik dynasty, in Novgorod.

Long before the start of the period Kievan Rus Rus' was called in the West Gardarika - “the country of cities and castles.” It found a place at the crossroads of the most important trade and cultural routes. What became a phenomenon for Western European culture only in the Gothic period of the Middle Ages was characteristic of Rus' much earlier:

1) activation of urban culture;

2) mass wooden urban planning;

3) abundance of public places;

4) development of a large number of crafts and folk arts;

5) active trading.

The worldview of the ancient Slavs is characterized by anthropopoteocosmism – indivisibility of the spheres of human, divine and natural. The ancient Slavs firmly believed in spirits that inhabit the world around them, accompanying a person from birth to death; in the struggle between light and dark forces.

The Eastern Slavs at different stages of their development worshiped different gods. The gods personified the most important forces of nature.

Used to record texts Proto-Cyrillic (recording Slavic words using the Greek alphabet). At the turn of the 9th–10th centuries. Cyrillic appears.

At the turn of the X and XI centuries. The process of Christianization of Rus' begins. It is associated with the name of the Novgorod prince Vladimir the Red Sun. Baptism contributed to the development of the country and culture:

1) construction stone buildings and temples;

2) organizing schools and spreading literacy;

3) improved chronicle writing;

4) the emergence of new types of monumental painting: mosaics and frescoes;

5) the emergence of easel painting (icon painting).

First place among monuments ancient Russian culture belongs to the chronicle. Russian chronicles appear in the 10th century. and continues until the 17th century. Chronicles are monuments of social thought and literature, a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge. A striking example of such a chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” created in the 11th century. monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor.

“The Sermon on Law and Grace” by priest Hilarion is a kind of political treatise created in the form of a church sermon. He contrasts Christianity (“grace”) with Judaism (“law”). A common genre of church literature is hagiography(hagiography).

The main idea of ​​the work “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” is the unity of the Russian land, the condemnation of princely civil strife. Vladimir Monomakh’s “Instruction” touches on social, political and moral issues.

“Instruction” is considered as a striking example of didactic literature.

Most outstanding work ancient Russian literature– “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” an epic reflection on the fate of the Russian land, which is its central image.

TO beginning of XIII V. A highly developed Christian culture developed in Ancient Rus'. A community of the Old Russian people appears, expressed in:

1) development of literary language;

2) national self-perception of unity;

3) the formation of common cultural forms.

At the end of the 14th century. An active revival of Russian culture begins, huge damage to which was caused by the Tatar-Mongol yoke. After the victory on the Kulikovo Field, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands is determined.

Mid-16th century characterized by a process of secularization - secularization, liberation of public and individual consciousness from the influence of the church.

The creation of the “Great Four Menyas” was of significant cultural significance.

Above the grandiose arch of original and translated literary monuments A large team of authors, editors, and copyists worked for more than twenty years.

Stone construction began in Moscow in the second quarter of the 14th century. In 1367, a stone Kremlin was erected in Moscow. Searching for new architectural forms led to the emergence of the tent style. The idea of ​​upward striving, embodied primarily in the Church of the Ascension (village of Kolomenskoye, 1532), became a reflection of the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 17th century. At the end of the century, the so-called Baryshkin baroque. Its main feature is the combination of external pomp and decorativeness with clarity and symmetry of the composition.

“The Golden Age of Wall Painting” – second half of the 14th – early 15th centuries. Feofan the Greek worked in Novgorod and Moscow. His best work was the fresco painting of the Novgorod Church of the Savior. The appearance of original icon painting is associated with the name of Andrei Rublev.

Painting shows interest in man, and the emergence and development of art in the 17th century is connected with this. parsuns – portrait painting.

New genres are appearing in literature - democratic satire, everyday stories. The first higher institution in Moscow was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Printing is widely and universally used.

“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum” is an outstanding monument of Russian literature of the second half of the 17th century.

Its distinctive features are the innovation of artistic form, individual style of writing, denunciation of social injustice and the arbitrariness of the new church government.

In the 17th century The first theaters appeared: court and school. Before this, theaters in Rus' were replaced by buffoons.

Court performances were distinguished by great pomp, sometimes accompanied by music and dancing.

The radical reforms of Peter I affected primarily culture. Signs of Peter's time:

1) approval of a new view of human life;

2) “compression” of the cultural process;

3) development of “worldliness”.

The school reform marked the beginning of secular education.

Appear vocational schools: artillery, mining, medical, engineering.

The result of Peter's reforms was the opening of the Academy of Sciences (1725), which combined scientific research and pedagogical functions.

In 1775, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna opened Moscow University (today MSU).

Peter's reforms affected not only politics and economics, but also public and private life.

New forms of social leisure and rules of conduct for young people were introduced.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. genre dominates in literature stories- stories. The heroes of these stories are energetic young nobles who declare themselves to be Europeans.

M.V. Lomonosov(1711–1765) became one of the most prominent representatives of this time - a scientist in the field of natural sciences and humanities, poet and artist, initiator of the creation of Moscow University.

To the middle of the 18th century. Russian fine art and architecture flourished. The architecture of this period is characterized by volumetric-spatial compositions.

The development of Russian classicism became a phenomenon of particular significance. He brought Russian culture to the pan-European arena. Having absorbed European traditions, painting, especially portraiture, achieved great success.

This was due to the understanding of man as versatile personality. Portrait becomes the leading genre of the Russian school of painting.

A feature of Russian classicism in literature was an interest in national themes and connections with folklore traditions. A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov created the foundation of a new literature.

Social thought found expression in the ideas of the Enlightenment. The activities of the publisher and journalist N.I. are indicative. Novikov (1744–1802), writer and publicist A.N. Radishcheva (1749–1802).

The formation of the national school of composition began in last third XVIII century The leading genre was opera. The composers were also close to folk traditions.

Along with the formation of Russian national culture, there was an intensive growth of national self-awareness. The establishment of the original features of Russian art occurred simultaneously with the assimilation of the traditions of Western European culture of modern times.

Culture of Russia in the 19th century. – this is an unprecedented rise to the heights of its achievement. At no other time have so many world-famous geniuses been born in Russia.

Let's remember their names: A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, M.I. Glinka, I.S. Turgenev, K.P. Bryullov, N.V. Gogol, N.N. Nekrasov, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.N. Kramskoy, I.E. Repin, M.P. Mussorgsky, N.S. Leskov.

This is not a complete list of those great masters whose names illuminated the golden age of Russian culture.

The Golden Age was prepared by all the previous development of Russian culture, and especially by Peter's reforms.

Since the beginning of the century, society has seen an unprecedented rise in patriotism. Intensified even more with the outbreak of the War of 1812, it contributed to a deepening understanding of the national community.

The development of realistic tendencies and national cultural traits intensified.

A cultural event of colossal importance was the appearance of “History of the Russian State” by N.M. Karamzin. The author was the first to feel that the most important thing in Russian culture in the coming century would be the solution to the problem of national self-identity.

Following Karamzin was Pushkin, solving the problem of correlating his national culture with other cultures. Then appeared “Philosophical Letter” by P.Ya. Chaadaeva.

A special place in the culture of the 19th century. was occupied by literature. The classics of Russian literature have always gravitated towards a three-dimensional worldview. Classic literature of the 19th century. became more than just literature.

It has become a synthetic cultural phenomenon. Many enlightened people built their lives on the basis of literary images.

By the middle of the century, Russian culture was becoming increasingly known in the West. N.I. Lobachevsky, who laid the foundation for modern ideas about the structure of the Universe, became the first Russian scientist to become famous abroad.

P. Merimee discovered Pushkin to Europe. Gogol's The Inspector General was staged in Paris.

In the second half of the 19th century. European and world fame of Russian culture is strengthened primarily thanks to literature.

Works by I.S. Turgeneva, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky gained worldwide fame. For the first time, cultural exchange between Russia and Europe acquired a bilateral character. Russian culture acquired European and world significance.

But, despite all the tremendous achievements of the culture of the golden age, the deep cultural split was not overcome. According to the Russian census in 1897, only slightly more than 20% of the population was literate.

Radical modernist ideas prevailed in their destructive form. The golden age of Russian culture has come to an end.

Beginning of the 20th century - This is the silver age of Russian culture. Russian belles lettres I have never known such a rich poetic diversity: A. Blok, S. Yesenin, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, V. Bryusov, I. Severyanin, N. Gumilev. The movement of cosmism, which was formed in the second half of the 19th century, finally took shape. Representatives of this movement were writers, philosophers, scientists: D.I. Mendeleev, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, V.S. Soloviev. N.F. Fedorov, P.A. Florensky, V.I. Vernadsky and others.

They were united by the conviction that the development of humanity is becoming more and more planetary in nature.

Space and man, nature and man turn out to be inseparable, and one must be able to study the future of humanity and the future of nature together.

The pinnacle of the scientific direction in cosmism was the teaching of V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere, very relevant today.

According to this teaching, humanity becomes the main force determining the evolution of the Earth through its activities, and at a certain stage it will have to take responsibility for the future of the biosphere in order to maintain the possibility of its existence and further development. The biosphere must turn into the noosphere, that is, into the sphere of reason.

A distinctive Russian philosophy emerged. Its outstanding representatives were N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, L.I. Shis-tov, P.A. Florensky, I.A. Ilyin et al.

One of the features of Russian philosophy, according to A.F. Losev, there was “purely internal, intuitive knowledge of existence, its hidden depths, which can be comprehended not through reduction to logical concepts and definitions, but only in a symbol, in an image through the power of imagination.”

Russian culture in the 19th – early 20th centuries. was on the verge of major changes that did not take place due to the revolution.

One of the most controversial periods in the development of Russian culture is the period of post-revolutionary culture. Negative features of this time:

1) destruction and destruction of cultural monuments of the past;

2) the division of Russian culture into directly Soviet and Russian culture abroad;

3) the death of many people.

Also positive were:

1) development of education;

2) electrification and industrialization;

3) active government support for the development of a “new” culture. The culture of the new state was designed to serve the people and, above all, the proletariat. 20-30s XX century marked by the functioning of Proletkult.

An integral part of the program of the cultural revolution were issues of attitude towards cultural heritage and domestic intelligentsia. The most important tasks of the “cultural revolution”:

1) elimination of illiteracy throughout the country;

2) introducing the people to the spiritual wealth developed by humanity;

3) the creation of a new Soviet intelligentsia from the working people.

The program of the Communist Party stipulated measures for the broad democratization of culture. In 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory, etc., became the property and disposal of the people. At the same time, revolutionary upheavals caused damage to Russian culture, expressed in:

1) massive renaming of cities, streets, squares, etc., which had a rich history;

2) the destruction of monuments that supposedly symbolized the power of the old regime;

3) destruction Orthodox churches, monasteries, burning of icons, church handwritten books, organized opening of holy relics;

4) seizure of church property;

5) abolition of ancient cemeteries.

From the very first days, the Soviet government sought to limit the opportunities of the intelligentsia to participate in the social and political life of the country. Glavlit, approved in 1922, was called upon to exercise control and prevent “hostile attacks” against the Bolsheviks. The repertoire of theaters and entertainment events was controlled by the General Repertoire Committee. In 1919, Gosizdat was founded, and the film industry and theaters were nationalized. At the same time, we cannot talk about a decline in the level of cultural works.

Artistic symbols of the new era:

1) the first Soviet poem about the revolution “The Twelve” by A. Blok;

2) the first performance on a Soviet theme “Mystery-bouffe” by V. Mayakovsky;

3) painting by B. Kustodiev “Bolshevik”;

4) Moore’s poster “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” etc. Cultural masters were involved in the process of creating a cult Soviet state. People who initially did not accept the Russian revolution were forced to emigrate. Almost the entire flower of the Russian intelligentsia ended up abroad. Among them are writers I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, I. Shmelev, M. Tsvetaeva, I. Severyanin, K. Balmont and others, composers I. Stravinsky, P. Prokofiev, S. Rachmaninov and others, artists L. Bakst , K. Somov, N. Roerich, A. Benois and others, outstanding theater figures. They multiplied the glory of Russian culture abroad.

The beginning of this period was marked by mass repressions in the 1930s. Their victims were the poets O. Mandelstam, N. Klyuev, the writer B. Pilnyak, the philosopher P. Florensky, the breeder N. Vavilov and many other cultural figures.

At the same time, this period is characterized by successes in the field of education, achievements in fundamental branches of knowledge, and the development of aviation.

Despite strict censorship, the most interesting literary works of M.A. appear. Bulgakova, M.A. Sholokhova, A.A. Fadeeva, B.L. Pasternak, A.T. Tvardovsky, K.G. Paustovsky, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, Y. Olesha and others.

Music 1930-1950s represented by the names of S.S. Prokofieva, D.D. Shostakovich, I.O. Dunaevsky, G.V. Sviridova, A.I. Khachaturyan and others.

Outstanding representatives of the performing arts: S. Richter, D. Oistrakh, L. Oborin.

The art of opera and ballet is on the rise: singers L. Sobinov, I. Kozlovsky, N. Ozerov and others are performing; dancers O. Lepeshinskaya, G. Ulanova, L. Lavrovsky, A. Messerer and others.

The drama theater of this time is associated with the names of outstanding directors and actors. Among them are V. Meyerhold, K. Stanislavsky, V. Nemirovich-Danchenko, I. Moskvin, V. Kachalov.

Painting, sculpture and architecture developed.

During the Great Patriotic War, Russian culture was called upon to serve the victory and defense of the Motherland.

During the war, many works by K. Simonov, L. Leonov, the poem “Vasily Terkin” by A. Tvardovsky, the seventh symphony by D. Shostakovich, the story “The Science of Hate” by M. Sholokhov, songs by composers A. Alexandrov, M. Blanter, M. Fradkina and others.

The feature films “Heavenly Slug”, “Air Cabby” and others were full of faith in victory.

After the war, due to the need to restore domestic industry, science received widespread development. On October 4, 1957, the first launch of an artificial Earth satellite was carried out, and on December 5, 1957, the world's first nuclear-powered icebreaker, Lenin, was launched.

All this predetermined the further development of science in the 1960s, the result of which, first of all, was a breakthrough in the field of astronautics.

The beginning of this period was marked by the first human flight into space in the history of mankind. The flight took place on April 12, 1961. The first cosmonaut was Yu.A. Gagarin. In 1956, Stalin's personality cult was condemned, but the authoritarian-bureaucratic regime remained in society. The rate of economic production has decreased significantly. The coming 1970s are called the “era of stagnation”. Having recognized the lag of the USSR from Western countries, the authorities in the 1980s. set a course for perestroika. Nevertheless, this time cannot be called lost for the country’s culture. In the literature of the 60-80s. XX century Several main directions stand out.

The works of Yu. Bondarev, A. Chakovsky, K. Simonov, V. Rasputin are devoted to the theme of the Great Patriotic War.

The problem of conservation becomes important cultural heritage, careful attitude towards domestic cultural traditions.

The works of Academician D.S. are indicative in this regard. Likhacheva, V.A. Soloukhina, D.A. Granina. At this time, V.M.’s talent was revealed. Shukshin, in the 1960-1970s. Vampilov's theater appears.

Soviet cinema also addresses the theme of “man and war” (“They fought for the Motherland”, “And the dawns here are quiet”, “Twenty days without war”, etc.).

Theatrical art is developing. Overcoming obstacles, performances were staged by Y. Lyubimov, O. Efremov, V. Pluchek, A. Efros, I. Vladimirov and others. In ballet art, the production of the ballet “Spartacus” by A.I. Khachaturian in Bolshoi Theater. In 1975, the premiere of I. Grigorovich’s ballet “Ivan the Terrible” was a great success.

Despite all the ideological costs of Soviet censorship and strict party control, the culture of the Soviet period greeted the 1990s. in a holistic and harmonious state.

Nowadays, culture is increasingly recognized as the center of human existence. The conviction is being strengthened that any people or nation can exist and develop only if they maintain their cultural identity, while not fenced off from other nations, interact with them, exchange cultural traditions and values.

In the prevailing historical and natural conditions, Russia survived and created its own original culture, which absorbed the influence of the West and the East.

Modern culture is faced with the task of developing its strategic course for the future in a rapidly changing world.

There is an important prerequisite for this - the achievement of universal literacy and a significant increase in education among the people. Nevertheless, the solution to this global problem is extremely difficult, because it rests on the need to understand the deep contradictions inherent in our culture throughout its historical development.

The mysterious antinomy of Russian culture in literally everything was beautifully described by N.A. Berdyaev in his work “Russian Idea”. Russia, on the one hand, is the most stateless, most anarchic country in the world, on the other hand, the most state-owned, most bureaucratic country in the world. Russia is a country of boundless freedom of spirit, the most non-bourgeois country in the world and at the same time a country devoid of consciousness of individual rights, a country of merchants, money-grubbers, and unprecedented bribery of officials. Russians combine endless love for people with cruelty and slavish disobedience.

The time of troubles that Russia is now experiencing is far from a new phenomenon, but a constantly recurring one, and culture has always found one or another answer to the challenges of the time and continued to develop.

Moreover, even in the most difficult periods, the greatest ideas and works were born, new traditions and value orientations arose. The peculiarity of the current time of troubles is that it coincides with a global crisis. The Russian crisis is part of the global crisis, which is felt quite acutely in Russia.

At the end of the 20th century. Russia again faced a choice. Today, culture, like the country, has again entered an intertemporal period fraught with different perspectives. The material base of culture is in a state of deep crisis. Libraries are being destroyed and burned, there is a shortage of concert and theater halls, and there are no allocations aimed at supporting and disseminating the values ​​of folk classical culture.

The complex problem of the present time is the interaction between culture and the market. A certain commercialization of culture occurs when the so-called. non-commercial works of artistic culture go unnoticed, and the possibility of mastering the classical heritage suffers. Despite the enormous potential accumulated by previous generations, the spiritual impoverishment of the people and mass lack of culture occur.

One of the main problems in the economy is environmental disasters. Because of lack of spirituality, crime and violence grow, and morality declines. The danger to the present and future of the country is the plight of science and education.

Russia's entry into the market led to many unforeseen consequences for spiritual culture. Many of the representatives of the old culture found themselves out of work, unable to adapt to new conditions. The establishment of freedom of speech deprived many branches of art of the opportunity to express the truth, improving the “Aesopian language.”

There is a commercialization of culture, which is now forced to focus not on spiritual person, but on the economic man, indulging his lowest tastes and passions.

Determining the paths for further cultural development became the subject of heated debate in society, because the state stopped dictating its demands to culture, the centralized management system and a unified cultural policy disappeared. One of the points of view is that the state should not interfere in the affairs of culture, and culture itself will find the means to survive. Another point of view seems more reasonable, the essence of which is that, ensuring freedom of culture and the right to cultural identity, the state takes upon itself the development of strategic tasks of cultural construction and responsibilities for the protection of cultural and historical national heritage, the necessary financial support of cultural values. The state must realize that culture cannot be left to businessmen.

An analysis of the state of the modern cultural situation reveals the absence or weakness of stable cultural forms that reproduce the social system.

The collapse of the totalitarian regime quickly revealed the underdetermination and non-manifestation of many forms of our life, which was characteristic of Russian culture before. BUT. Lossky pointed out that the lack of attention to middle region culture, no matter what justifying circumstances we find, there is still a negative side of Russian life. Hence the extremely wide range of good and evil. On the one hand, colossal achievements, on the other hand, stunning destruction and cataclysms.

Our culture may well provide an answer to the challenge of the modern world, but for this we need to move to such forms of its self-awareness that would cease to reproduce the same mechanisms of irreconcilable struggle. It is absolutely necessary to get away from thinking that is oriented towards materialism, a radical revolution and the reorganization of everything and everyone in the shortest possible time.

The process of forming a cultural environment is the basis of cultural renewal; without such an environment it is impossible to overcome the actions of social and psychological mechanisms that divide society.

Academician D.S. Likhachev believes that preserving the cultural environment is no less important than preserving the surrounding nature. The cultural environment is as necessary for spiritual and moral life as nature is necessary for man for his biological life.

Culture is a holistic and organic phenomenon. We need to understand that it is not artificially constructed or transformed; such experiments only lead to its damage and destruction. With great difficulty, the idea of ​​specificity and diversity of development is established in the minds of many people. different cultures, each of which develops in its own way and is integrated into the global process. The human world is colorful and interesting precisely because the basis of the culture of each nation is its own religious shrines. They are not subject to any logical justification and are not translated into the language of another culture.

Lectures on the course "World Art Culture". Leskova I.A.

Volgograd: VSPU; 2009 - 147 p.

A course of lectures is presented in which, through world art, the fundamental principles of the development of artistic culture in Europe, Russia and the countries of the East are revealed. For students, undergraduates, graduate students of art specialties.

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CONTENT
Lecture 1. World artistic culture as a subject of study 3
Lecture 2. Basic concepts of world artistic culture 7
Lecture 3. The archetypal basis of Western artistic culture 18
Lecture 4. Archetypal basis of the artistic culture of the East 30
Lecture 5. Categories of space and time in artistic culture 42
Lecture 6 Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of antiquity and the Middle Ages 47
Lecture 7. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the Renaissance 54
Lecture 8. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the New Age 64
Lecture 9. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of modern times 88
Lecture 10. Artistic culture of Russia 108

The history of world artistic culture goes back thousands of years, but it became an independent object of scientific analysis only in the 18th century. The study process was based on the idea that this area of ​​spiritual activity of society is a simple collection of art forms. Philosophy, aesthetics, historical sciences, art criticism, literary criticism studied artistic culture mainly from an internal artistic perspective: they analyzed ideological aspects of art, identified the artistic merits of works, the professional skills of their authors, and paid attention to the psychology of creativity and perception. From this perspective, world artistic culture was defined as the totality of artistic cultures of the peoples of the world that developed in various regions during the historical development of human civilization.
Many discoveries made along this path led to the formation of an idea of ​​world artistic culture as an integral process with its own dynamics and patterns. This idea began to take shape by the beginning of the 20th century. and fully manifested itself already in the first half of the last century in the studies of O. Benes, A. Hildebrand, G. Wölfflin, K. Voll, M. Dvorak and others. There was an understanding that there is a common spiritual-sensual basis expressed languages ​​of various types of art, and world artistic culture began to be viewed as a way of intellectual and sensory reflection of existence in artistic images.

Synopsis of the MHC lesson on the topic "Gothic Cathedral - the image of the world"

Lesson topic: Gothic cathedral - an image of the world.

The purpose of the lesson: developing in students the ability to personally perceive and comprehend the features of the Gothic style embodied in the architecture of the cathedral.

Lesson objectives:
1. expanding the cultural and artistic horizons of students through familiarization with the specifics and figurative system of Gothic architecture;
2. development in students of the ability to analyze, synthesize and critically comprehend material (based on independent mastery of art history and literary texts);
3. comprehension of ideological accents gothic art preserved in architectural monuments.

During the classes

The music sounds “The time has come for cathedrals...”
The Middle Ages... Whatever words they call it: dark, and gloomy, and cruel, and ignorant... Everything is so, but in every city a Gothic cathedral was certainly built, and such that it could accommodate all the inhabitants at once, and modern tourists with The sight of such a miracle still takes my breath away. Then people could not imagine their life without the Temple. The great composer Alfred Schnittke expressed a profound thought: a Gothic cathedral is always a kind of model of the world.
Updating personal meanings, knowledge, existing ideas about Gothic, identifying emotional attitudes towards Gothic art.
- What meanings do the words “Gothic”, “Gothic art” convey to you?
- What associations do you have, what emotional attitude do these words evoke?
- Using the text of the textbook, give short answers to the questions:
Where did the name Gothic come from and when did it become attached to the art of this period?
Mark the time boundaries of Gothic art.
In which country did this architectural style originate? What style preceded it?

Romanesque and Gothic styles. Comparison.

Since the 13th century, the city cathedral has become not only a place of worship. On the square in front of the cathedral and in the cathedral itself, debates take place, lectures are given, and theatrical performances. The cathedral must now accommodate the entire population of the city. Often cathedrals took a very long time to build and rebuild, and now we can see the features of different architectural styles in one building.
Watch the video clip “Canterbury Cathedral”. Task before viewing:
- What is the difference between the Romanesque and Gothic parts of the cathedral? What are your impressions of the Gothic cathedral?
- Why did the Gothic style become “revolutionary” for that time?
Overcoming the weight of the stone mass, the frame of the building grew upward. And the wall, cut through by huge windows of bright stained glass, seemed to dissolve in streams of light.

3.

Secrets of the Gothic Master.

Introduction to the architectural features of the Gothic style. Vertical as the embodiment of the idea of ​​Ascension.
Cathedrals must have been enormous in size. New tasks required unprecedented engineering solutions. A striking effect was achieved in Gothic architecture: the space of the Gothic cathedral inside seems larger than the cathedral itself when viewed from the outside.
Display of an interactive model of a Gothic temple http://school-collection.edu.ru).
Teacher's explanation using a presentation (showing a sectional diagram of a Gothic temple), students' work with terms (handouts, textbook).

4. Gothic cathedral as an image of the world. Synthesis of arts.
4.1. Saints and chimeras. Sculptural decoration of a Gothic cathedral.
A Gothic cathedral is a whole world, with its own life and its inhabitants. It is inhabited by angels and demons, saints and chimeras, kings and bizarre monsters. And everyone has their own place in the temple.
Slides showing sculptures of Gothic cathedrals are shown.

Beauty like divine harmony.

In O. Mandelstam’s collection “Stone” (1913) there is a poem “Notre Dame”, which ends with these words
But the closer you look, the stronghold of Notre Dame,
I studied your monstrous ribs
The more often I thought: out of unkind heaviness
And someday I will create something beautiful.

What is beauty?
Thomas Aquinas, a 13th-century philosopher and theologian, considered beauty to be a sum, a combination of three properties: integrity, proportionality, radiance. How can you explain this?
Beauty is divine harmony, “the order of all things.” Auguste Rodin wrote about the Gothic cathedral: “A forest thicket ordered by human harmony”
Harmony gives birth to peace:
the parts of the Universe, in agreement with each other, form the universe;
the stones, corresponding to each other, give birth to a building;
sounds, in agreement, give birth to music.
This general laws, explaining the existence of the world.
The temple embodies the image of a world where everything was created at the behest of God and harmoniously connects and interacts.

“A candle is burning: a tiny point of light. To get to it, you need to overcome the heavy masses of shadow. Everything is half lit, but the building is full of thought! Centuries, millennia are captured here. This is the face of human infinity itself. Strange! We live next to such beautiful things, but most of us don't see them! Our ignorance of masterpieces is oblivion of the truth. Penetrating into the eyes, beauty awakens the heart to love, and without love nothing has value.”
This is how the sculptor Auguste Rodin wrote about the Gothic cathedrals of France at the end of the 19th century.
Today we have touched the “living stone”, which through the centuries is capable of igniting in us a spark of admiration for the great creation of the Middle Ages. The Gothic cathedral is truly an image of the world and - moreover - it represents the whole world.

Lectures on the course "World Art Culture". Leskova I.A.

Volgograd: VSPU; 2009 - 147 p.

A course of lectures is presented in which, through world art, the fundamental principles of the development of artistic culture in Europe, Russia and the countries of the East are revealed. For students, undergraduates, graduate students of art specialties.

Format: pdf

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Watch, download: drive.google

CONTENT
Lecture 1. World artistic culture as a subject of study 3
Lecture 2. Basic concepts of world artistic culture 7
Lecture 3. The archetypal basis of Western artistic culture 18
Lecture 4. Archetypal basis of the artistic culture of the East 30
Lecture 5. Categories of space and time in artistic culture 42
Lecture 6 Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of antiquity and the Middle Ages 47
Lecture 7. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the Renaissance 54
Lecture 8. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the New Age 64
Lecture 9. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of modern times 88
Lecture 10. Artistic culture of Russia 108

The history of world artistic culture goes back thousands of years, but it became an independent object of scientific analysis only in the 18th century. The study process was based on the idea that this area of ​​spiritual activity of society is a simple collection of art forms. Philosophy, aesthetics, historical sciences, art criticism, literary criticism studied artistic culture mainly from an internal artistic perspective: they analyzed ideological aspects of art, identified the artistic merits of works, the professional skills of their authors, and paid attention to the psychology of creativity and perception. From this perspective, world artistic culture was defined as the totality of artistic cultures of the peoples of the world that developed in various regions during the historical development of human civilization.
Many discoveries made along this path led to the formation of an idea of ​​world artistic culture as an integral process with its own dynamics and patterns. This idea began to take shape by the beginning of the 20th century. and fully manifested itself already in the first half of the last century in the studies of O. Benes, A. Hildebrand, G. Wölfflin, K. Voll, M. Dvorak and others. There was an understanding that there is a common spiritual-sensual basis expressed languages ​​of various types of art, and world artistic culture began to be viewed as a way of intellectual and sensory reflection of existence in artistic images.

New social demands reflected in the Federal State Educational Standard define the main goal of education as the general cultural, personal and cognitive development of students, providing such a key competence of education as “teaching how to learn.”

How to structure Russian language and literature lessons in order to implement the requirements of the Second Generation Standards? To do this, you need to know the criteria for the effectiveness of a lesson, the requirements for its preparation and delivery, analysis and self-analysis of the activities of the teacher and students.

It is known that, along with common approaches to planning lessons in all subjects (thought-out goals and objectives; optimal methods, techniques and forms of working with the class; competent use of new pedagogical technologies, including ICT; cooperation between teacher and student, based on problem-search forms of work, etc.) the teaching of each subject has its own specifics, its own characteristics. With the introduction of the Federal State Educational Standard for basic general education, the problem of an activity-based lesson model containing certain structural and content stages is becoming increasingly relevant in school education.

Concerningliterature lessons , then the requirements for their construction are, in principle, not outdated: the trinity of goals (teaching, developing and educating) is a mandatory component of any lesson, including a literature lesson. However modern reality makes adjustments to the methodology of teaching literature. To make the lesson interesting for children, the teacher has to master new methods of presenting material, use non-standard techniques and innovative technologies in his practice.

When analyzing the story “Heart of a Dog” by M. Bulgakov, I used materials from the book “The Path to Bulgakov” by T.V. Ryzhkova.

Literature lesson notes based on M.A. Bulgakov’s story “Heart of a Dog”

Lesson objectives:

1. Educational: conducting compositional and stylistic analysis of the text of the story; comparison of the images of Sharik and Sharikov; comprehension of the author's concept.

2. Developmental: developing the skill of working with literary text; development of skills to characterize the characters of the story; improving the skills of group and independent work; improving logical and creative thinking.

3. Educational: understanding what education and self-education means, culture, traditions in the life and fate of a person and society; formation of a value system.

Forms of work: collective, group, individual

Lesson type: discovery of new knowledge

Lesson No. 1 Dispute about a dog's heart.

Purpose of the stage : inclusion of students in activities at a personally significant level.

Creating a setup for analyzing a work.

Slide 1 (portrait of the writer, title of the story)

Teacher's word .

For today's lesson, you read M. Bulgakov's story “The Heart of a Dog.”

March 1925. Mikhail Bulgakov is finishing work on the satirical story “The Heart of a Dog.” He wrote it at the request of the Nedra magazine. But the story came to the reader in our country only in 1987...

Slide 2

How do you think,Why was the story, written in 1925, published in Russia only in 1987? What was there in this story that the government of the Soviet Union did not like?

Students make assumptions (forbidden to publish because the story is a satire on modernity)

Teacher: Indeed, the Soviet era persecuted dissent, and even from high stands it was ironically said:“We are for laughter, but we need kinder Shchedrins and such Gogols so that they don’t bother us.” Bulgakov's view of modernity was very sharp, satirical attacks were considered seditious. M.A Bulgakov wrote:

Slide 3: “On the wide field of Russian literature in the USSR, I was alone - the only one literary wolf. I was advised to dye the skin. Ridiculous advice. Whether a wolf is dyed or shorn, it still doesn’t look like a poodle.” Well-known critic, researcher of the writer’s work Vsevolod Ivanovich Sakharov (born in 1946, member of the Union of Writers of Russia, Doctor philological sciences) gave the following assessment of the story:

Slide 4:

“Heart of a Dog” is a masterpiece of Bulgakov’s satire.

Bulgakov’s satire is smart and sighted.” V. Sakharov

These words will become the epigraph for today's lesson.

Choose a contextual synonym for the wordsighted.

Students: (honest )

UUD: personal, meaning formation

Stage 2 Updating knowledge

Purpose of the stage

Consolidating the concept of satire, overcoming ambiguity in the perception of characters and events.

Teacher: Indeed, satire is always honest, but rarely permitted. Let's remember what satire is.What is satire directed against? What is the source of satire?

Students' answers

Teacher opens the slide, students check their answers with the correct one

Slide number 5.

(Satire - kind of comic. Subject of satire serve human vices.

Source of satire - a contradiction between universal human values ​​and the reality of life.)

Let's try to figure out what human vices and contradictions between universal human values ​​and real life became the subject of M. Bulgakov's satire.

UUD: educational

Stage 3 Setting a learning task

The purpose of the stage: setting goals for educational activities, choosing a way to implement them.

Teacher : The story was considered seditious in 1925 and banned.

However, in 1988, the film “Heart of a Dog” directed by V. Bortko was released, which viewers still watch with pleasure, and theaters continue to stage performances based on Bulgakov’s story.

Why does the story attract film and theater directors?

Students: Suggested answers:

The story is very modern. Our time and Bulgakov's time are similar.

Teacher: So, the story is relevant in our time, which is why it is read, films are made and plays are staged in theaters. Let us assume that the problems that worried the writer are also of concern to us. What are these problems?

Students: Suggested answers:

The Sharikovs live among us, and the writer warned how dangerous they are.

Animals are now being cloned and there is talk of human cloning.

Teacher: Maybe you're right. Let's try to figure it out.

Modeling a problem situation and approaching the lesson problem.

Include movie clip from the film “Heart of a Dog” directed by V. Bortko, where Bormental argues with Professor Preobrazhensky.

What do you think the topic of today's lesson will be?

Students.

Suggested answers: the dog's heart debate.

Teacher: Write down the topic of the lesson: “Dispute about a dog’s heart.”

Let's think about what is the main problem we should solve in class?

Students. Who is right: Doctor Bormental, who believes that Sharikov has a dog’s heart, or Professor Preobrazhensky, who claims that Sharikov “has exactly a human heart”?

Teacher: Can we answer this question right away?

No.

What goals of our future actions do we need to identify in order to answer this problematic question?

Students.

Analyze the text and compare the images of Sharik and Sharikov.

Understand what answer the author of the story would give to this question, what the author thought, what worried him.

UUD: regulatory (goal setting, planning); communicative

(ability to listen, engage in dialogue)

Stage 4 Construction of a project to overcome difficulties

Purpose of the stage

Analytical conversation.

a) The technique of “immersion in the text.”

Teacher: The story opens with paintings of Moscow in the mid-20s. Imagine and describe Moscow. Through whose eyes do we see life?

Students: a city where wind, blizzard and snow reign, where embittered people live. Concretize big picture It will help to turn to the details of the text that could confirm the students’ impressions (the normal food canteen and bar, the fate of the “typist” and her lover, the cook and the doorman, the history of the Kalabukhovsky house).

Teacher: Is there anything in the story that counters this chaos and hatred?Students : rasskhabout Philip Philipovich’s apartment, where comfort, order, and human relationships reign.Butthis life is under threat because the house committee, headed by Shvonder, seeks to destroy it, to remake it according to its own laws.

Teacher: What connects these two worlds?

Students: This is Sharik, who was picked up by Professor Preobrazhensky. Thanks to Philip Philipovich, the dog was transported from the world of hunger and suffering, a world that doomed him to death, into a world of warmth and light.

Teacher: M. Bulgakov continued the traditions of Russian satirists M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and N.V. Gogol. Bulgakov took the topical sound from Saltykov-Shchedrin, and from N. Gogol - his teacher, the fantastic nature of the plot, images and even the compositional structure of the work.While doing your homework, you should have observed the composition of the story.What is the composition of the story?

b) Students present a presentation prepared at home , in which the story is clearly divided into two parts

1 part

(The composition is symmetrical. Ring composition: The ball again became a dog.)

Teacher: what arethe reasons for this construction of the work?

Students conclude: the mirror composition of the story emphasizes the changes taking place in the professor’s house and in the people inhabiting it. The conclusion is written down in a notebook.

c) “verbal drawing” technique

Teacher : so, Bulgakov gives many events of the first part through the eyes of a dog, perhaps in order tocompare Sharik and Sharikov. Imagine that you are making illustrations for a story. How would you depict the meeting between the dog and the professor? What should you do to draw an oral illustration more accurately?

Students : necessaryreread chapter 1 . Re-read, clarify details. Possible description:

On foreground- a dark gateway, a blizzard snakes. In the distance we see from a gateway a street, a brightly lit store and a piece of a poster blown by the wind. A man in a dark coat has just left the store, he is moving towards the gateway in the “pillar of a blizzard”. A dog is crawling into the street in the gateway. This is a tattered mongrel, she has dirty matted fur and a terrible scalded side. It is clear that movement is given to the dog with great difficulty. His head is raised, he is watching the person walking towards him.

Teacher: — Which qualities of Sharik do you like and which do you not?

Students : intelligence, wit, observation, irony, hatred of proletarians, janitors and doormen; the ability to both sympathize and hate, lackey servility.

UUD: cognitive - general educational (semantic reading, information search), logical (analysis, classification, selection of bases for comparison); personal (moral and aesthetic assessment); communicative.

Stage 5 Independent work

Purpose of the stage: improving the skills of independent work and the ability to build cooperation in a group.

Students work in groups (independent text analysis). Execution time – 5-8 minutes. Each group prepares a speaker; response time is 2 minutes.

Group I , analyzing chapters 1-3, should answer the question:

— What does Sharik notice in the reality around him and how does he react to it?

2nd group , analyzing chapters 2-3, answers the question:

— What does Sharik like about Professor Preobrazhensky’s house and what doesn’t?

3 group , working with the same chapters, prepares an answer to the question:

— How does the dog perceive the inhabitants of the apartment?

4 group (same chapters):

How do the residents of the apartment feel about Sharik?

5 group (same chapters):

Students (preferred answers):

Group I:

— The dog is very observant, he knows life well, especially what is connected with nutrition. He knows that the world is divided into hungry and well-fed. The one who is “eternally full” is “not afraid of anyone”, therefore “he will not kick.” Hungry people, those who “are afraid of everything themselves,” are dangerous. Sharik hates lackeys. He says that “human cleansing is the lowest category.” But he also sympathizes with people who are deceived and bullied by those who have recently gained power.

Group II:

“Sharik likes it in the professor’s house, although after seeing patients he calls the apartment “obscene.” But it is warm and calm. After Philip Philipovich’s conversation with Shvonder, Sharik becomes convinced that the professor has great power. Sharik decides that he will be completely safe here: “Well, now you can beat me as much as you want, but I won’t leave here.” The dog also likes the fact that in the house he is fed well and tasty, and is not beaten. The only thing that annoys him is the owl. The dog is afraid of hunger and evil people, but in the house it’s the other way around. Sharik’s favorite place is the kitchen: food is prepared there, and there is a fire there.

III group:

- After Sharik realized that in the professor’s house he had nothing and no one to fear, since his owner was not afraid of anyone, he decided that the professor was “a wizard, magician and magician from a dog’s fairy tale.” During lunch, Philip Philipovich finally received the title of deity. As already mentioned, food, warmth and safety are the main thing for Sharik, and he is ready to faithfully serve the one who gives it to him. Sharik studied the professor’s call and greeted him with a bark.

He quickly won over Daria Petrovna, the cook. The kitchen is “the main part of heaven” for Sharik. And so he sucks up to the cook. He treats Zina with disdain, calling her “Zinka”; he doesn’t love her because she scolds him all the time and says that “he ate the whole house.” The dog calls Dr. Bormenthal “bitten” and does not communicate with him at all.

IV group:

- Professor Preobrazhensky generally feels sorry for Sharik: he orders him to be fed properly, saying that “the poor fellow is hungry”; he treats him kindly because he believes that affection is “the only way to treat a living being”; he never hits Sharik, even when he “clarified” the owl. For Zina, Sharik is the reason for the eternal chaos in the house. She thinks that the professor spoils Sharik too much and offers to give the dog a beating. She doesn’t understand why Sharik is shown such courtesy. For her, he is an ordinary mongrel. And Daria Petrovna at first called Sharik a “homeless pickpocket” and did not let him into the kitchen, but the dog “won her heart.”

Teacher: What is the value system of an unusual dog?

Students : The main things for Sharik are food, warmth and safety. This is what determines his attitude towards people. In general, he “sells his soul” for a piece of Krakow sausage. Sharik’s attitude towards people is determined by the same thing: the professor is the master, and Sharik is ready to please him, Daria Petrovna is the “queen of the kitchen,” the dog fawns on her, Zina is the servant in the house, and Sharik believes that she should serve him too. Dr. Bormenthal is in no way connected in the dog’s mind with food and warmth, and since the bite of his leg went unpunished, the doctor simply turns into a “bite.”

Teacher : Do you like this philosophy of life? Why? What word would you call it?

Students : Slave

Group V identified the stages of change in Sharik:

- Firstly, Sharik has changed in appearance. The professor picked up a dying dog, with a scalded side, dirty matted fur, and emaciated from hunger. In a week he turned into a shaggy and “surprisingly fat” “handsome dog.” Secondly, he changed internally: at first he was worried: “Why did the professor need me?” (his experience told him that no one does anything for nothing). Having just got into the house, he thought that he found himself in a “dog hospital” and defended his life - he has a very developed instinct of self-preservation. But seeing that he is not in danger, but, on the contrary, is being fed and caressed, Sharik begins to be afraid of losing all this and thinks: “Beat him, just don’t kick him out of the apartment.” He decides that Philip Philipovich chose him for his beauty. He will become impudent before our eyes. Having quickly assessed the collar, because all the dogs he meets are madly jealous of it, he comes to the conclusion that the collar is a kind of pass to a better world and gives him certain rights, for example, to lie in the kitchen. He forgets that he was recently an ordinary homeless mongrel, and no longer doubts that nothing will deprive him of warmth and food, and is finally convinced that he is an “incognito dog prince.” He exchanged freedom, hungry and full of dangers, for a well-fed, calm life, and pride for lackey servility.

Teacher : What associations does the dog’s story evoke in you?

Students : Suggested answers:

After the revolution, many people who lived in poverty and hunger reached out for a warm and well-fed life, believed many promises, and decided that they would instantly “become everything.” The revolution is an experiment that the Bolsheviks carried out on the entire people.

UUD: cognitive (search for information, ability to construct a speech statement); communicative (the ability to cooperate in a group, enter into dialogue), personal (knowledge of moral standards and the ability to highlight the moral aspect of behavior)

Stage 6 Reflection

Purpose of the stage: students’ self-assessment of the results of their educational activities

Let's summarize the lesson:

Teacher : Has your attitude towards the ball changed? How? Why? (This is a written question.)

Students conclude:

Sharik’s inner speech, his assessments of events, reflections, together with the author’s description of his behavior, create for the reader a complete picture of the dog’s inner world.

Teacher :

— Have we answered the problematic question of the lesson: who is right: Doctor Bormental, who believes that Sharikov has a dog’s heart, or Professor Preobrazhensky, who claims that Sharikov “has exactly a human heart”?

Students: - No.

Teacher: — What questions did we get the answer to?

Students: — We compared the images of Sharik and Sharikov, saw what changes had occurred, understood through what techniques the author expressed his attitude towards the character and what worried him.

Teacher: the next lesson will be the next step in resolving the problem situation that we identified in this lesson, and for this you must work on the questions homework. What questions would you like to ask me or your classmates?

UUD: regulatory (assessment), personal (self-determination), cognitive (problem solving), communicative (ability to participate in collective discussion)

Homework:

1. Highlight the stages of Sharik’s transformation into Sharikov and the stages of Sharikov’s formation by preparing an electronic presentation (assignment for the whole class).

2. Compare the behavior of Sharik and Sharikov in episodes of parts I and II: choosing a name (individual task), lunch (individual), visiting the apartment by the house committee (individual).

3. What do you think is from the dog in Sharikov, what is from Chugunkin? Justify your opinion with examples from the text (general task).

4. What is Shvonder’s role in Sharikov’s upbringing? Why does Professor Preobrazhensky say that “Shvonder is the biggest fool”? ( Individual task, it is performed by 3-4 people.)

Lesson #2

Topic: Dispute about a dog's heart (continued)

Stage 1 Motivation for learning activities

Purpose of the stage : inclusion of students in activities at a personally significant level. Create a setup for analyzing the work.

Watching a fragment of the film “The transformation of Sharik into Sharikov” , an excerpt from the film adaptation of the story directed by Bortko.

Teacher : before we answer the key question, think about why M. Bulgakov needed to introduce into the story, to make the transformation of a dog into a man the spring of intrigue. If in Sharikov only the qualities of Klim Chugunkin are manifested, then why shouldn’t the author “resurrect” Klim himself? However, before our eyes, the “gray-haired Faust”, busy searching for means to restore youth, does not create a man in a test tube, does not resurrect him from the dead, but turns a dog into a man.

Stage 2 Updating knowledge

Purpose of the stage : preparing students’ thinking, their awareness of the internal need to construct educational actions and recording individual difficulties in each of them.

Teacher : Find it difficult to answer?

I remind you of the diary of Dr. Bormenthal (exacerbating problematic situation additional question):

Why is it Dr. Bormental who keeps the diary, and not Professor Preobrazhensky?

Search activity students are looking for real explanations:

“We can see from the records how excited the doctor is.” At first he rejoices at the success of the operation and the new discovery. Then he is horrified by what the apartment has become. He admits that he doesn’t understand much.

- Philip Philipovich has no time to keep a diary, he is much busier than the doctor... After all, it is no coincidence that the professor needs an assistant, that is, an assistant. Then Philip Philipovich, much less than Bormental, realized that the new creature was related to Klim. Bulgakov does not want to solve the riddle ahead of time - we also don’t know anything about Klim. But if the diary was kept by a professor, it would not be so interesting.

— Dr. Bormenthal puts forward his hypothesis in his diary: “Sharik’s brain in the dog period of his life accumulated an abyss of concepts,” and, of course, writes down not only his assumptions on this matter, but also the professor’s opinion. But the professor would not write down Bormenthal’s hypothesis, since he is absolutely confident that he is right. And there wouldn't be any problem. We would also believe the professor, but there are some doubts

Students together with the teacher come to the conclusion:

- The “elimination” of the author and the transfer of the narrative to a young scientist who does not have the experience and insight of his teacher, who harbors bright hopes for the result of the experiment, create a new and at the same time central opposition to the story (what is Sharikov - a dog that has changed its external form or the “resurrected” Klim? ), enhance the reader's interest, keep him in suspense, giving him the opportunity to make his own guesses about the events and results of the operation.

Checking homework.

Demonstration of an electronic presentation with the results of the task: Highlight the stages of Sharik’s transformation into Sharikov and the stages of Sharikov’s formation.

(swearing (“all the swear words that exist in the Russian lexicon”);

smoking;

sunflower seeds (uncleanliness);

balalaika at any time of the day or night (disregard for others);

vulgarity in dress and behavior;

immorality;

drunkenness;

theft;

denunciation;

assassination attempt.)

The list is corrected, and the following conclusion is drawn together with the teacher:The formation of a “new man” is a loss of humanity, an increase in immorality, that is, not evolution, but degradation.

Checking individual assignments.

Compare the behavior of Sharik and Sharikov in similar situations. (One student shares his observations with classmates, others, if necessary, complement him. No more than 2 minutes are allotted for the message, about which the guys are warned in advance). Suggested answer:

— The dog was first called "ball" by a typist. The dog himself does not agree with this name: “Sharik means round, well-fed, stupid, eats oatmeal, the son of noble parents,” and he is “shaggy, lanky and ragged, a lean little gang, a homeless dog.” For the second time with a ballThe dog is called Philip Philipovich, probably because it is a common dog name: Sharik, Tuzik... And the dog accepts this name: “Call it what you want. For such an exceptional act of yours (for the sausage). He doesn't really care what they call him, as long as they feed him.

— The “laboratory creature” demands a document from Flip Filippovich for himself. Then the question of his name arises. Now the name is chosen not by the “creators” of the new creature, but by the creature itself, but on the advice of the house committee. The new government brings new names into the world. For Philip Philipovich, the name Poligraf Poligrafovich sounds wild, “but the laboratory creature” defends its rights. Most likely, students will not notice the parody roll call - let us draw their attention to some similarities between the names of Sharikov and his creator, which consists in duplicating the name itself with a patronymic. Sharikov creates his name on the advice of the house committee, but by analogy with the name of “dad”.

“After the first dinner at the professor’s house, Sharik promoted him to the rank of “highest deity.” The dog's head is dizzy from various smells. He, of course, hears what the professor and doctor are talking about, but the main thing for him is food. When he had eaten too much, he dozed off. He feels good and calm now. The “dog’s respect” for the professor is growing all the time and is not in doubt. The only thing that worries Sharik is whether this is all a dream.

For Sharikov, lunch, on the one hand, is an opportunity not only to eat deliciously and a lot, but also to drink. and on the other hand, it is torture: he is taught and educated all the time. And if Sharik respects Philip Philipovich, then Sharikov seems to laugh at him. He says that the professor and the doctor are “tormenting themselves” with some stupid rules. He does not at all want to become cultured and behave decently, but he is forced to do this, because otherwise he will not be allowed to eat (this is how animals are trained in the circus!). Sharik sat at the professor’s feet and did not bother anyone, only Zina was angry, and Sharikov was a stranger at this table. Bulgakov writes that “Sharikov’s black head sat in the napkin like a fly in sour cream” - both funny and disgusting. Sharikov and the professor exchange all the time sideways glances.

UUD: cognitive (process, systematize information and present it in different ways, the ability to construct a speech statement, the ability to analyze and draw conclusions); personal (meaning formation); communicative (ability to listen, enter into dialogue).

Stage 3 Construction of a project to overcome difficulties

Purpose of the stage : students’ choice of a way to resolve a problem situation.

Improving the ability to conduct compositional analysis of a text, activating students’ imagination and attention to the details of the text through verbal drawing, developing the ability to characterize a hero and give a moral assessment of his actions.

Characteristics of Sharikov.

Watching an excerpt from a movie directed by V. Bortko “Heart of a Dog” - an episode of a conversation between Sharikov and Philip Philipovich. (In Bulgakov, the corresponding fragment begins with the words: “Philip Philipovich was sitting in a chair at the table.”)

Analytical conversation.

Teacher : compare the image of Sharikov, created by the actor and director in the film, with Bulgakov’s description.

— Is this how Sharikov seemed to you when you read the story?

— What did the filmmakers keep and what did they “forget”?

Suggested Answers :

— outwardly Sharikov in the film is exactly the same as Bulgakov’s, that the actor plays his role very talentedly, but the film is not in color. Maybe the authors decided to do this because the dog does not have color vision. But Bulgakov’s Sharik could distinguish colors. The story says: “Sharik began to learn by colors.” The lack of color in the film did not allow the authors to convey the absurdity of Sharikov’s costume.

— In the film, Sharikov constantly makes excuses, you even feel sorry for him. Indeed, the professor attacks and attacks him. And in the book, Sharikov behaves confidently, and sometimes harshly: he does not make excuses, but attacks himself: “A bold expression lit up in the little man.”

Bulgakov's Sharikov is often ironic, but in the film he is stupid. And also, when you read the story, it’s funny, but in the film everything is somehow serious. It's hard to explain why this is so.

(if the students do not see this important detail, then the teacher will be able to lead them to it with additional questions. The “claims” of the students are weighty and thorough: they caught the stylistic and semantic discrepancy between V. Bortko’s interpretation and Bulgakov’s text. The film really lacks color, and that’s the point not only that it is black and white, but that the entire film is shot in a serious and very boring way: it lacks Bulgakov’s irony, humor, sarcasm - shades of meaning!

What did Sharikov inherit from Klim Chugunkin? What do we know about Klim from the text of the story?

3) Working with a block diagram.

The great operation was completed, but who became the donor to create a new person?

(Klim Chugunkin)

What can you say about this person? Read it.(end of chapter 5, p. 199)

(“Klim Grigorievich Chugunkin, 25 years old, single. Non-party member, single, tried three times and acquitted: the first time due to lack of evidence, the second time the origin saved, the third time - suspended hard labor for 15 years. Thefts. Profession - playing the balalaika in taverns.

Small in stature, poorly built. The liver is dilated (alcohol). The cause of death is a stab in the heart in a pub (“Stop Signal” at the Preobrazhenskaya outpost).

From Doctor Bormental's diary we learn that the new creature has adopted all the worst qualities of its donors (Sharik and Klim Chugunkin). Find and read the description of the new creature.

( Bad taste in clothes: a poisonous sky-colored tie, jacket and trousers are torn and dirty; patent leather boots with white leggings. Ch.6, p.203)

In addition, it constantly speaks after its mother, smokes, litters cigarette butts, catches fleas, steals, loves alcohol, is greedy for women...(p. 194, 195)

Teacher: but this is only an external manifestation. Is there anything left of Sharik's moral position? What determined Sharik’s behavior and what was most important for Sharikov?

Suggested Answers : - The instinct of self-preservation. And Sharikov defends the right to his own existence. If someone tried to take Sharik’s “full life” away, he would recognize the power of a dog’s teeth. Sharikov also “bites”, only his bites are much more dangerous.

Conclusion: the ball did not die in Sharikov: we discovered all its unpleasant qualities in the person.

Conversation

Teacher : Let’s try to figure out why the professor was a model and strength for Sharik, and Shvonder for Sharikov? Why does the professor say that “Shvonder is the biggest fool”? Does he understand who he is dealing with?

Students: Sharikov’s brain is very poorly developed: what was almost brilliant for a dog is primitive for a person: Sharik turned into a person, but did not receive human experience.Shvonder takes him for a normal adult and tries to instill the ideas of Bolshevism.

Teacher: Why is this so dangerous?

Students: Usually, when a person develops naturally, he gradually gets acquainted with the world, they explain to him what is good and what is bad, they teach him, and pass on the accumulated experience and knowledge. How more people learns, the more he can understand on his own. But Sharikov knows practically nothing: he just wants to eat, drink and have fun. Shvonder indulges him, talking about rights, about the need to divide everything. Shvonder himself fervently believes in what he preaches; he himself is ready to give up benefits and conveniences in the name of a bright communist future.

Philip Philipovich and Doctor Bormental are trying to educate and instill in Sharikov normal human manners, so they constantly prohibit and point him out. Sharikov is extremely irritated by this. Shvonder does not prohibit anything, but, on the contrary, tells Sharikov that he is being oppressed by the bourgeoisie.

Teacher: Are Shvonder himself and the representatives of the house committee highly developed personalities?

Students: Obviously not.

Teacher: Does Shvonder really understand complex political and ideological issues?

Students: Already from the first conversation between the members of the house committee and the professor, it is clear that these people in their development did not go much further than Sharikov. And they strive to divide everything, although they cannot even really direct the work of the house committee: there is no order in the house. You can sing in a choir (no matter what Philip Philipovich says, he himself often hums in a false, rattling voice), but you cannot sing in a choir instead of your main work.

Teacher: Why do Sharikov and Shvonder find a common language so quickly?

Students : Shvonder hates the professor because, feeling the scientist’s hostility, he is unable to prove it and “clarify” his true anti-revolutionary essence (and here Shvonder can’t deny his intuition!) For Shvonder, Sharikov is a tool in the fight against the professor: after all, it was Shvonder who taught Sharikov to demand living space , together they write a denunciation. But for Shvonder, this is the right thing to do, and denunciation is a signal, because the enemy must be brought to light and destroyed in the name of a future happy life. Shvonder’s poor head just can’t figure out why a person who by all accounts is an enemy Soviet power, is under her protection!

So, the “godfather” of Poligraf Poligrafovich instills in his pupil the ideas of universal equality, brotherhood and freedom. Finding themselves in a consciousness in which animal instincts predominate, they only multiply the aggressiveness of the “new man.” Sharikov considers himself a full-fledged member of society not because he has done something for the benefit of this society, but because he is “not a NEPman.” In the fight for existence, Sharikov will stop at nothing. If it seems to him that Shvonder is taking his place in the sun, then his aggressiveness will be directed at Shvonder. “Shvonder is a fool” because he does not understand that soon he himself could become a victim of the monster that he is “developing” so intensively.

Teacher: Who is right in the dispute - Professor Preobrazhensky or Doctor Bormental?

Students: it is obvious that both scientists are only partly right: it cannot be said that Sharik’s brain is only “the unfolded brain of Sharik,” but it cannot be said that we are faced with only the reborn Klim.Sharikov combines the qualities of a dog and Chugunkin, and Sharik’s slavish philosophy, his conformism and instinct of self-preservation, combined with Klim’s aggressiveness, rudeness, and drunkenness, gave birth to a monster.

Teacher: Why were scientists wrong in their assumptions?

Students: by the will of the writer, his characters did not know about Sharik what the author himself and his readers know.

Expected results:

These final conclusions resolve the problematic situation of 2 lessons, in understanding which students had to understand the role of composition, master Bulgakov’s language, learn to realize the importance of details in the story, and compare the images of the characters; comprehend the author's concept. In addition, the technique of comparing a work with its interpretation in another form of art allows schoolchildren to concretize their impressions.

UUD: cognitive (logical - analysis, synthesis, building cause-and-effect relationships; general educational - creating models, semantic reading, ability to construct a statement); communicative; personal (moral and aesthetic orientation); regulatory (correction).

Stage 4 Reflection

Exercise "Interesting".

Fill out the table:

In the “plus” column, students write down what they liked during the lesson, information and forms of work that caused positive emotions or may be useful to them. In the “minus” column they write down what they didn’t like and remained unclear. Write everything in the “interesting” column Interesting Facts. If there is not enough time, this work can be done orally.

UUD: regulatory (assessment)

Homework for the next 2 lessons it will be like this:

1. Come up with a title for chapter 4 of “Heart of a Dog.”

3. Draw up a “code of honor” for Professor Preobrazhensky.

4. Explain the theory of education according to Professor Preobrazhensky and Dr. Bormental.

5. Describe the professor in the scenes of receiving patients, visiting the house committee, and at lunch. Prepare an expressive reading of these scenes.