Features of Arab culture. Arab culture

Federal Agency for Education

St. Petersburg State University of Service and Economics

Abstract on the discipline "Culturology"

Topic: “Culture of the Arab East. Specifics of Muslim culture"

1st year correspondence student

specialty 080109 C

Ruban Irina Valerievna

Velikie Luki

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3

Main part:

1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam………………………………………….4

2. Prophet Muhammad…………………………………………………………....4-5

3. Specifics of Islamic culture………………………………………………………5-8

4. The culture of the Arab East and its influence on world culture…………..9

4.1. Literature………………………………………………………………………………..10

4.2. Science………………………………………………………………………………..10-12

4.3. Architecture. Art……………………………………………………………...12-13

4.4. Life and customs of the Arabs……………………………………………………...13-14

4.5. The position of men and women…………………………………….14

4.6. Mythology of the Arab East………………………………………...14-15

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...17

Introduction

In the history of great cultures, classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of the most important places. At one time this highly developed, original culture flourished in the vast expanses from India to Spain, including the Near and Middle East and North Africa. Its influence was and is still felt in many parts of the world; it was an important link between the cultures of antiquity and the medieval West. The uniqueness of this culture is due to the peculiarities of Islam, which is not just a world religion, but an integral culture - law and state, philosophy and art, religion and science, which has its own uniqueness.

Islam played a huge role in the history and culture of not only the Arabs, but also all the peoples of the Middle Eastern region, as well as Iranians, Turks, Indians, Indonesians, many peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region, the Balkans, and a significant part of the population of Africa. As a result of the Arab conquest and under the direct influence of Islam, not only the destinies of the peoples of the “Islamic world” took shape, but also their cultural traditions, ideological baggage, moral norms, mythopoetic and epic images and legends, which today largely determine their lives.

Main part

1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam

The main part of the territory of Arabia is steppes, deserts and semi-deserts; only a small part of the land was suitable for farming. The majority of the population of the peninsula were Bedouin nomads who called themselves Arabs - the word “Arab” meant “dashing rider”. Already in the first centuries of our era, flying Bedouin troops, camel and horse, turned into a formidable force with which the sedentary urban population was forced to reckon. The nomads robbed caravans of townspeople - they considered their property their legitimate prey, attacked villages, and poisoned crops. The townspeople resisted and angrily ridiculed the “camel hunters.” However, it was difficult for both of them in difficult natural conditions, which required maximum effort in order to survive. In their attitude to the world there were more similarities than differences, and the life values of both sedentary and Bedouins were activity, enterprise and the ability to deny oneself everything. Islam, the future world religion, was born among nomadic tribes, having an exceptionally strong influence on the countries of the East and quickly spreading and being accepted by all residents of the Arabian Peninsula.

2. Prophet Muhammad

Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. The founder of Islam was a real person - the Prophet Muhammad.

Muhammad was born in 570 AD. Muhammad was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his grandfather and then by his uncle, a wealthy merchant. In his youth, Muhammad was a shepherd, and at the age of 25 he began working for a 40-year-old widow, the mother of several children. She organized caravans that went to other lands for goods. They got married - it was a marriage of love - and they had four daughters. In total, the prophet had nine wives.

Over time, Muhammad became less and less interested in trade and more and more in matters of faith. He received his first revelations in a dream - the angel Gabriel, the Messenger of Allah, appeared to him and announced his will: Muhammad must preach in his name, gentlemen. Revelations became more and more frequent, and in 610 the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca. Despite Muhammad's passion, the number of his supporters grew slowly. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca and moved to another city - a little later it would be called Medina - the city of the prophet. His like-minded people also moved to Medina with him. From this year of flight to Medina the Muslim calendar begins.

The people of Medina recognized Muhammad as their prophet, religious and political leader and supported him in his quest to defeat Mecca. The fierce war between these cities ended in the complete victory of Medina. In 630, Muhammad triumphantly returned to Mecca, which became the center of Islam.

At the same time, a Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the first leader of which was Muhammad himself. His associates and successors as heads of the caliphate carried out a number of successful campaigns of conquest, which led to a significant expansion of the territory of the caliphate and contributed to the rapid spread of Islam there. Islam (or Islam) becomes the state religion of the Arab East. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. His grave is the most important shrine of Islam.

3. Specifics of Islamic culture

A characteristic feature of Islamic culture is that it is not divided into secular and religious. This is due to a specific understanding of the nature of man’s connection with God: the initial principle of Islam is the ahistorical meeting of man with God and the handing over of his destiny to him. There is no description of historical events in the Koran, there is no chronology, it is illogical, so it is not the understanding that is important, but the interpretation of the “word” of the Koran. Unlike Jewish temples, which face the past, and Christian churches, which face the future, the mosque represents the entrance to the world of the Eternal Covenant, where the past, present and future are fused.

The main credo of Islam is the well-known and often used phrase: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.” This saying clearly and definitely expresses the idea of monotheism, which was brought to its most consistent conclusion precisely in Islam. There is only one Allah - the only and faceless god, the highest and omnipotent, wise and all-merciful, the creator of all things and its supreme judge.

The basic ideas and principles of Muhammad are recorded in the Koran, the main source of Muslim doctrine.

The features of this religion are fatalism, humility (primarily in the reverence of Allah and his prophet Muhammad), as well as observance of the basic duties of a Muslim: confession, prayer (namaz), fasting, almsgiving (zakat) and hajj.

The principle of confession- central to Islam. To become a Muslim, it is enough to observe it, that is, to solemnly pronounce the phrase that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet. Thus, a person becomes submissive to Allah, a Muslim. But, having become one, he must observe the duties of a true believer.

Prayer (namaz) – a mandatory daily five-fold ritual, from which only sick, infirm and small children can be exempted. Those who do not pray five times a day are not faithful. Prayer is supposed to be performed at dawn, at noon, in the afternoon, at sunset and before going to bed. Most often it is performed individually, less often in groups, usually in mosques (at least 40 men, women do not pray in mosques). There on Fridays and on holidays - solemn services, which are led by respected leaders in the Islamic community - imams. Before prayer, the faithful are required to perform a cleansing ritual. If there is no water, for example in the desert, you can cleanse yourself with sand. The prayer is performed in clothes, in a clean place on a special rug and facing Mecca. So that the faithful do not forget about the time of prayer in their current affairs, high minarets are erected at mosques in cities and villages, and muezzins announce with loud voices that the time for prayer has come.

Fast. Muslims have only one main and obligatory fast, but it lasts for a whole month. IN Arab countries oh, this month is called Ramadan, and in Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan it is called Ramadan a little differently.

Muslim fasting is unique: the whole day you cannot eat, drink, let alone have fun, smoke, etc. The only thing you are allowed to do is swallow your own saliva. However, all of the above requirements must be met only during the day. IN dark time days, from evening to morning, the fast is broken.

Alms (or zakat). Every property owner is obliged to share his income once a year, allocating part of it as alms in favor of the poor. In addition to obligatory alms, which were perceived as a cleansing ritual for the wealthy and were usually calculated at several percent of their annual income, there was also additional alms, expressed in the form of retribution to individuals, alms to the poor, donations for well-maintained needs - the construction of mosques, schools, hospitals.

Hajj- the fifth and last of the obligatory pillars of faith, and the least obligatory of all. It is believed that every healthy Muslim can visit the holy places in Mecca and worship the Kaaba once in his life.

Some Muslim theologians consider the war against the “infidels” - jihad, which was one of the main duties of a Muslim, of the entire Muslim community at the first stage of the history of Islam, as another - the sixth pillar of religion. However, starting from the 9th-10th centuries, the concept of “jihad” (the original meaning was “effort”, “zeal”) was filled with new content. An idea emerged of the highest form of jihad as internal, spiritual self-improvement on the path of knowing Allah.

Geography of modern Arabic Arabic medieval culture also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the state language.

The greatest flowering of Arab culture occurred

for the 8th–11th centuries:

1) poetry developed successfully;

2) were compiled famous fairy tales"Thousand and One Nights";

3) many works of ancient authors were translated.

basis religious life the inhabitants of the East were Islam. Islam (Arabic for “submission”) is the youngest of the three world religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah - chief common prayer, which can be headed by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph. Main directions of Islam:

1) Sunnism;

3) Wahhabism.

The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic for “reading aloud”). The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems.

The Koran, in addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, and property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of moral, legal, cultural and other guidelines that regulate the entire public and personal life of a Muslim.

The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which were angels and demons, or genies. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye and believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. Great importance in the Arab East it was given to dreams. Various fortune tellings were also widespread.

Peculiarities culture Arabic countries. Religion. Islam. Life And morals Muslims. Sharia. Geography of modern Arabic the world is amazingly diverse. Arabic medieval culture developed in those countries who have undergone Arabization...

Peculiarities culture Arabic countries. Religion. Islam. Life And morals Muslims. Sharia.
Science, literature, fine arts, calligraphy and architecture Arabic countries. Since the 7th century. as applied sciences to religious disciplines are developing

Peculiarities culture Arabic countries. Religion. Islam. Life And morals Muslims. Sharia. Geography of modern Arabic the world is amazingly diverse. Arabic medieval culture complex... more ».

Peculiarities culture Arabic countries. Religion. Islam. Life And morals Muslims. Sharia. Geography of modern Arabic the world is amazingly diverse. Arabic medieval culture complex... more ».

Peculiarities culture Arabic countries. Religion. Islam. Life And morals Muslims. Sharia.
Arabic medieval crops. Theatre, painting, architecture, sculpture and decorative arts of Japan culture.

Islam is not only faith and religion. Islam is a way of life, the Koran is “ Arab judge."
Sharia(from Arabic sharia - the right path, road, - a set of legal norms, principles and rules of behavior, religious life and actions Muslim.

Every Muslim knows Arabic sound and meaning of the Symbol religion Islam: “La ilaha illallah.
The main task Sharia there was an assessment of various life circumstances from the point of view religion.

Basic religion, common in country.
Their culture And everyday life indicate that these peoples have adapted well to life in the difficult natural conditions of the North.
Tatars, Bashkirs, many peoples of the North Caucasus profess Islam.

Islam. Originated in Arabia in the 7th century, therefore it is the youngest world religion.
Basic principles Islam set out in the Koran - the holy book Muslims(VII–VIII centuries).
Mostly Islam covers countries East.

Just download history cheat sheets culture- and you are not afraid of any exam!
Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome, but also all that it conquered countries And
The first work of the creator of the “new comedy” - comedy morals– Menander (342–291...

Similar pages found:10

Informative answers to all questions in the course “World History and national culture» in accordance with the State educational standard.

13. Features of the culture of Arab countries. Religion. Islam. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia

The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. Arab medieval culture It also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the state language.

The greatest flowering of Arab culture occurred

for the 8th–11th centuries:

1) poetry developed successfully;

2) the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were composed;

3) many works of ancient authors were translated.

The basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East was Islam. Islam (Arabic for “submission”) is the youngest of the three world religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah is the leader of a common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph. Main directions of Islam:

1) Sunnism;

3) Wahhabism.

The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which were angels and demons, or genies. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye and believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. In the Arab East, great importance was attached to dreams. Various fortune tellings were also widespread.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution of higher professional education

"ULYANOVSK STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY"

Specialty "PUBLIC RELATIONS"

Department of Cultural Studies

at the course "CULTURAL SCIENCE"

ARAB CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES AS A MIDDLE CULTURE

Is done by a student:

Golovacheva A.V.

Groups_sod-21

Checked by the teacher:

Petukhova T.V.

Ulyanovsk 2010

Introduction

2. History

4. Geography

5. Philosophy

6. Historical science

7. Literature

8. Fine arts

9. Architecture

10. Music

Bibliography

Introduction

Arab culture, medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in progress cultural interaction Arabs and the peoples of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and South-Western Europe they conquered. In scientific literature, the term “Arab culture” is used both to designate the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and as applied to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the concept of “Arab culture” is sometimes identified with the concept of “Muslim culture” (i.e., the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional.

Religion had a certain influence on the development of medieval art of the Arabs, as well as other peoples who professed Islam. The spread of Islam marked the abandonment of old, pre-feudal religions and the establishment of monotheism - the belief in one God. The Muslim idea of the world as a single whole created by God was important for the formation of a characteristic medieval era aesthetic idea about a certain, albeit abstract, harmony of the universe. At the same time, Islam, like all medieval religions, ideologically justified and consolidated feudal exploitation. The dogmas of the Koran darkened the consciousness of man and hindered his development. However, the views of the people of the medieval East, including their artistic views, cannot be reduced to religious ideas. The worldview of the Middle Ages man contradictorily combined idealistic and materialistic tendencies, scholasticism and the desire to understand reality. One of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the medieval East, Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), recognized the divine origin of the universe and at the same time argued that scientific and philosophical knowledge exists independently of religious faith. Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ferdowsi, Navoi and many other outstanding thinkers of the medieval East, in whose works and poetic works the progressive features of the era were especially clearly manifested, affirmed the power of human will and reason, the value and wealth of the real world, although, as a rule, , did not openly speak from an atheistic position. When it comes to the influence of Islam on the visual arts, they usually point to the prohibition of depicting living beings under pain of religious punishment. There is no doubt that from its very inception the teachings of Islam contained an iconoclastic tendency associated with the overcoming of polytheism. In the Koran, idols (most likely, sculptural images of ancient tribal gods) are called “an obsession of Satan.” Religious tradition resolutely rejected the possibility of depicting a deity. It was also not allowed to place images of people in mosques and other religious buildings. The Koran and other theological books were decorated only with ornaments. However, initially in Islam there was no prohibition on depicting living beings, formulated as a religious law. Only later, probably in the 9th-10th centuries, was the iconoclastic tendency of Islam used to prohibit a certain category of images on pain of punishment in the afterlife. “Unfortunate is the one,” we read in the commentaries to the Koran, “who will portray Living being! On the day of the last trial, the persons whom the artist presented will leave the picture and come to him demanding that he give them a soul. Then this man, who cannot give souls to his creatures, will be burned in an eternal flame"; "Beware of depicting gentlemen or people, and paint only trees, flowers and inanimate objects"History has shown that these restrictions, which left an imprint on the development of certain types of art, were not significant in all Muslim countries and were strictly implemented only during periods of particularly intensified ideological reaction. However, the explanation of the main features of the medieval art of the Arab peoples should not be sought in religion, which influenced, but did not determine its development.The content of the artistic creativity of the peoples of the Arab East, its paths and features were determined by the pace of new ideological and aesthetic tasks that were put forward by the progressive course of development of society that entered the era of feudalism.

2. History

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arab culture was preceded by the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs - a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the stage of transition to early form class society. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemenite, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. Characteristic element The pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) had a developed oral folk literature. The formation of Arab culture proper dates back to the period of the emergence of Islam (7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which, as a result of the Arab conquests, turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by religious and, in most areas, linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life of the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of Arab culture was mainly a process of assimilation, revaluation and creative development in new ideological and socio-political conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of conquered peoples (ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.). The Arabs themselves gave Arab culture such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language and the traditions of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to Arab culture was made by the peoples who, having converted to Islam, retained national and then revived state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by the part of the population of the Caliphate that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Western Asia); Their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabians of Harran) are associated, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. many scientific and literary monuments antiquities, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic written language and contributed to the establishment of a continuous connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization. From the end of the 7th century. until the middle of the 8th century. Along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads, the main centers that determined the formation of Arab culture were Mecca and Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra in Iraq. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. received distribution and further development in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, over a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the Indus River. With the formation of the Abbasid Caliphate (750), the center of Arab culture in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the focus of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. Arab culture reached its peak. Her achievements enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development material culture and art (architecture, artistic craft). The division of branches of knowledge in Arab culture is conditional, because for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the lack of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of the majority of figures in Arab culture are typical. The philosopher and mathematician was often also a major historian, physician, geographer, poet and philologist. An important factor in the flourishing of Arab culture was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). The enrichment of Arab culture was facilitated by ample opportunities for communication and exchange cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively connections with many countries of the East and Europe. The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century) due to the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the spread of Arab culture and a gradual decrease in its role in the overall development of world culture. In Muslim Spain, which separated from the Abbasid Caliphate back in the 8th century, the so-called Arab-Spanish culture began to develop independently. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th century. centers of the Iranian cultural and national revival are being formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language first from literature and poetry, and then from some humanities(history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its importance here as the language of the Koran, religious canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural science disciplines (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. The centers of Arab culture move to Syria, Egypt, Spain. All in. Africa under the Fatimids (10-12 centuries) and Ayyubids (12-13 centuries) continued to develop the best traditions of Arab culture in the field of science, literature, art and material culture, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th century. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo. The significance of Arab culture 8-10 centuries. in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious, philosophical and artistic knowledge world and man. The main efforts of Arab cultural figures of subsequent periods were directed mainly at systematizing and detailing this heritage. Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of Arab culture were not interrupted, from the 2nd half of the 13th century. In the work of figures of Arab culture, the epigonic direction, compilative in science and imitative in literature, prevailed. Individual exceptions could not affect the general state of spiritual stagnation and the increasingly noticeable lag in the development of Arab culture from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, middle Asia in the 14th-15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century) and in Europe. The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flourishing in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. Greatest successes were achieved in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arab philosophy continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], represented by the works of Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that were among the best artistic monuments of Arab culture. Monuments of Spanish-Moorish architecture and applied art became world famous. A major achievement of Arab culture of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) of a historical and philosophical theory of social development.

In the 16th century Arab countries turned into provinces Ottoman Empire. Arab culture declined, although even during this period the old cultural centers Syria, Iraq and Egypt have traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scientists. A qualitatively new period in the development of Arab culture begins in the 1st half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of Arab countries in modern times, in the context of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of modern Arab culture is taking place, mainly within each of the Arab countries.

3. Exact and natural sciences

The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was initially the territory of Syria and part of the South-West of Iran. Here the beginning of translations into Arabic and commentary on the works of ancient authors was laid. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which familiarized scholars of Islamic countries with a significant part of the ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources through which Western Europe could become acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron's Mechanics and many of Archimedes' treatises have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of Arab culture, many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use; some of them were adopted from China and India. 9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is becoming a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and commentaries on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape here, closely related to the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are intensively developing. In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), new scientific centers emerged along with Baghdad: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. IN different time large scientific centers there were Bukhara, Isfahan, where from the end of the 11th century. The Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam (about 1048 - after 1122) worked at the observatory, writing his scientific treatises in Arabic. In Cairo from the beginning of the 11th century. the “House of Knowledge” functioned, in which the astronomer Ibn Yunus (950-1009) and the mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (about 965-1039) worked; in 1004 an observatory was built here. On the formation of mathematics in Islamic countries, in addition to the Greek heritage, big influence The Indian scientific tradition also had an impact. The decimal positional number system using zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the largest representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (9th century). In the 15th century Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions into use and described the rules for operating them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scientist al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasireddin Tuei (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Methods for extracting roots with natural indicators were developed and systematized. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline was extremely great. Khorezmi's algebraic treatise contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for solving them; treatise by Omar Khayyam - theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational techniques of Viruni, Kashi, and others were significantly improved. Big interest represent the geometric treatise of the brothers "sons of Musa" ("Banu Musa") of the 9th century, the works of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Kurra (about 836-901), the treatise of Ibn al-Haytham on the quadrature of conic sections and the cubature of bodies , obtained from their rotation, research by an-Nayrizi (9-10 centuries), Ibn Kurra, Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuy and others on the theory of parallel lines. Mathematicians from Islamic countries turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary branch of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasireddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were studied, the most important theorems of trigonometry were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which were distinguished by great accuracy. Astronomy has achieved significant success. First, translation and commentary were carried out on the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical works - siddhantas. The center of translation activity was the “House of Wisdom” and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari - father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Departing from Greek methods of motion modeling celestial bodies and Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for transitioning from one of the three coordinate systems used to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important natural science knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - have become widespread. About 100 zijs from the 13th to 15th centuries have reached us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors’ own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasireddin Tuei in Maragha, Kashi in Samarkand, etc. Arab astronomers achieved significant accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (9th century), the meridian degree was measured to determine the size of the globe. Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Kurra's treatise on lever scales - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on the determination of the specific gravities of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general issues of mechanics originates from the translation and commentary of the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on Aristotle's natural science works were Biruni and Ibn Sina. Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and physician al-Razi]. Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the “Canon of Masud”, “Mineralogy” by Biruni, and in the “Book of Knowledge” by Ibn Sina. Ibn al-Haytham's "Optics" was widely known in Western Europe. Great strides have been made in medicine. Ibn Sina's "Canon of Medicine" has long been the main guide to medical practice in both the medieval East and Western Europe. Among Biruni's works there is a treatise on pharmacology. The body of medical knowledge of al-Razi (864-925) is known. Issues of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, and psychiatry were developed. Chemistry and botany received some development.

4. Geography

arab culture civilization islam

In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arab geography, literature has no analogues in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, the North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence about many peoples of the Middle Ages. A characteristic feature of Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, despite the real information it had accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemaic maps or schematic maps that went back to ancient Iranian prototypes. The geographical ideas of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, marked the beginning of Arab scientific geography, which applied calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arab geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical, geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century The first examples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh (about 820 - about 912/913), Qudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yaqubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories, containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zaid al-Sirafi, early 10th century; works by Buzurg ibn Shahryar and others). The genre of travel descriptions developed further (notes of Ibn Fadlan, 10th century, Abu Dulafa, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubayr, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta, 1304-1377, travel description to Russia Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.). The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls in the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arab geography, devoted to the description trade routes and regions Muslim world and containing the richest geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000). in the 11th-14th centuries. genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies, summarizing the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries of Yakut, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, cosmographies of al-Qazwini, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abu-l- Feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His works with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to a description of the Muslim East, it contains various information about the countries and peoples of the West. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly through the creation of extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographical descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Maqrizi). The geographical sections in the works of al-Nuwayri, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi and others are of great value. Large contribution The works of the pilot Vasco da Gama - Ibn Majid (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century), which summarized the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation, appeared in Arab geographical science.

5. Philosophy

The main content of the history of medieval Arab philosophy was the struggle between the Eastern Peripatetics, who proceeded from the Hellenistic heritage, and the supporters of religious idealistic teachings. The background to the emergence of philosophical thought proper in the Arab East dates back to the 2nd half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites, early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of questions about divine attributes and free will, ended with the development of concepts that not only went beyond the scope of religious issues, but also undermined faith in some of the basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the presence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; Denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of the eternity of the Koran and on this basis concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. The Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the inability of the creator to change the natural order of things. The idea of the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, and on the other, they cleared the ground for the emergence of purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics. As a reaction to the ideas of the Mu'tazilites, the doctrine of the Ash'arites (followers of al-Ash'ari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term "kalam" is often associated and the main thus its representatives are called mutakallim). According to the teachings of the Ash'arites, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no cause-and-effect relationships, for the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any shape and any movement. In contrast to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using, together with elements of the Muslim worldview, the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, Sufis developed a doctrine of the paths leading a person through renunciation of worldly passions and thought of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and the final merger with Him. At the same time, at some stages of their development, Sufi ideas were interpreted in the spirit of naturalistic pantheism. The mysticism of the Sufis, which at first was persecuted by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111) - largest representative religious-idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the “heretical” and “anti-religious” views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended the position of the Ash’arites along with mystical Sufism, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240) can also be considered one of the influential representatives of Sufism. Eastern Peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which was passed on to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened up the possibility of atheistic and even materialistic concepts. Thus, the position of dual truth, already contained in a hidden form in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, suggested allegorical interpretations of the dogmas of Islam. The founder of Eastern Peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arab philosophy to set out the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (based on the classification of intellects going back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the introduction of the individual’s mind to the universal, the deity, the mind. Kindi's deism, his idea of God as a faceless "distant cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's Neoplatonic theory of emanation. Farabi's ontological and epistemological ideas were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who affirmed the eternity of matter and the independence of private phenomena of life from divine providence. In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moves to the West of the Muslim world - to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baj, reflecting on man’s ability through purely intellectual improvement, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with the active mind, and Ibn Tufail, in a philosophical Robinsonade describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out at the same time in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian, and with it the entire medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Ash'arites and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teaching of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with a thesis about the immanence of forms in matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering eternal only the human intellect, which joins the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. Ibn Rushd’s development of the concept of dual truth played a major role in the history of medieval philosophy. Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history. Arabic philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd) and other fighters against the official ideology of Catholicism.

6. Historical science

Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline emerged at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. The first historical records date back to the end of the 7th century. Material for early monuments historical literature in Arabic was based on historical and genealogical legends of Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in South Arabia and about Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lakhmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme accepted in Arab historiography world history formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected the family tree of the Arabs with the biblical “table of nations.” A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic traditions (translations of the “Book of Kings” of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arab historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the implementation of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of man for his actions and sees the task of the historian in teaching historical experience. The idea of the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawaih (died 1030). Arab historians went no further narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to move on to the presentation of historical events in their causal relationship, developing an original doctrine of the general laws of development of human society. The predecessors of professional Arab historians were experts and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), expanded and recorded by his son Hisham (died c. 819). In addition to Hisham al-Kalbi's monumental collection of Arab genealogies, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaim ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubayri (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Qalqashandi (1355-1418), etc. The largest figure in the initial period of Arab historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called magazi). The first major historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the biography of Muhammad) by Ibn Iskhan (about 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent works on this topic. The most significant works are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sad (died 845), the later compilations of Ibn Said an-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi and others. Adjacent to them is the one popular in the Middle Ages hagiographic literature, for the most part fantasy stories about prophets and Muslim saints. For the 2nd half of the 8th - mid 9th centuries. characterized by the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events, mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate of the 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaidah (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the 9th century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th century. works appear that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Belazuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri (died about 895) and al-Yaqubi on general history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and political history Caliphate (rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume “History of Prophets and Kings” by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923). Also became famous General history al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawaih, and later Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians 9 -10th centuries distinguished by their breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yaqubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside Muslim countries).

In connection with the formation of local political identity in the states that emerged on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate, in historiography from the 2nd half of the 10th century. dynastic and local chronicles predominate, the authors of which were mainly court historiographers (usually official secretaries, viziers, etc.), rather than scholarly historians. Biographical chronicles were developed devoted to the history of secretaries, viziers (for example, al-Azhakhshiyari, died 943; Hilal al-Sabi. 969-1056), judges (Waqi al-Qadi, died 918; al-Kindi, died 961; al-Khusani , died 971). Local historiography is represented by works on the history of individual cities, regions and provinces, for example the history of Mecca - al-Azraqi (died about 858), Baghdad - Ibn Abu Tahir Taifur (819/20 - 893), Egypt - Ibn Abd al-Hakam (about 798 -871), Muslim Spain - Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (about 796-853). Deserves special attention historical encyclopedia Yemeni historian al-Hamdani (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), which collected information on genealogy, history, archeology, geography and literature of the South. Arabia. In more late time in works of this kind, the main attention is given to the biographies of local political, religious and cultural figures, and many of these biographical works are characterized by a combination of annals with political biography.

This is the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adim (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). One of the main places in Arab historiography is occupied by biographical literature itself: general biographical dictionaries Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), sets of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences Ibn al-Qifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) etc. Historical works in Arabic were written not only in Arab countries, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish rule (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigonian compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographical collections. The most valuable are the history of Andalusia al-Makkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659).

7. Literature

In the first centuries of Islam, the art of rhyming became a court craft in large cities. Poets also acted as literary critics. In the VIII-X centuries. Many works of pre-Islamic Arabic oral poetry were recorded. So, in the 9th century. Two collections of "Hamas" ("Songs of Valor") were compiled, which included poems by more than 500 Old Arab poets. In the 10th century Writer, scientist, musician Abul-Faraj Al-Isfahani compiled a multi-volume anthology “Kitab al-Aghani” (“Book of Songs”), including works and biographies of poets, as well as information about composers and performers. The attitude of the Arabs towards poets, for all their admiration for poetry, was not unambiguous. They believed that the inspiration that helps them write poetry comes from demons, the devils: they eavesdrop on the conversations of angels, and then tell priests and poets about them. In addition, the Arabs were almost completely uninterested in the specific personality of the poet. They believed that little should be known about the poet: whether his talent was great and whether his ability to clairvoyance was strong. Therefore, not all the great poets of the Arab East have been preserved complete and reliable information. An outstanding poet was Abu Nuwas (between 747--762 - between 813--815), who masterfully mastered the form of verse. He was characterized by irony and frivolity. he sang of love, merry feasts and made fun of the then fashionable passion for old Bedouin poems. Abu l-Atahiya sought support in asceticism and faith. He wrote moral poems about the vanity of all earthly things and the injustice of life. Detachment from the world was not easy for him, as evidenced by his nickname - “without a sense of proportion.” Al-Mutanabbi's life was spent in endless wanderings. He was ambitious and proud, and either praised the rulers of Syria, Egypt, and Iran in his poems, or quarreled with them. Many of his poems became aphorisms and turned into songs and proverbs. The work of Abu-l-Ala al-Maari (973-1057/58) from Syria is considered the pinnacle of Arab medieval poetry, and a magnificent result of the synthesis of the complex and variegated culture of Arab-Muslim history. It is known that at the age of four he suffered from smallpox and went blind, but this did not stop him from studying the Koran, theology, Islamic law, ancient Arabic traditions and modern poetry. He also knew Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, traveled a lot in his youth, and his poems reveal colossal erudition. He was a seeker of truth and justice, and in his lyrics there are several clearly dominant themes: the mystery of life and death, the depravity of man and society, the presence of evil and suffering in the world, which was, in his opinion, the inevitable law of existence (book of lyrics "The Obligation of the Optional ", "Message of Forgiveness", "Message of Angels"). In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, the now world-famous collection of Arabian folk tales, “A Thousand and One Nights,” was formed. They were based on revised plots of Persian, Indian, and Greek tales, the action of which was transferred to the Arab court and urban environment, as well as Arab fairy tales themselves. These are fairy tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. The heroes of fairy tales were also princesses, sultans, merchants, and townspeople. The favorite character of medieval Arabic literature was - daring and cautious, crafty and simple-minded, the keeper of pure Arabic speech. Enduring world fame was brought to Omar Khayyam (1048-1122), a Persian poet and scientist, his poems are philosophical, hedonistic and free-thinking rubai. In medieval Arab culture, poetry and prose were closely intertwined: poetry was most naturally included in love stories, and in medical treatises, and in heroic stories, and in philosophical and historical works, and even in the official messages of medieval rulers. And all Arabic literature was united by the Muslim faith and the Koran: quotes and phrases from there were found everywhere. Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture in general occurred in the 8th-9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world stood at the head of world civilization. From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, oppression secular culture, pressure on natural sciences is increasing. Public burning of books became common practice. The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists and cultural figures thus date back to the Early Middle Ages.

8. Fine arts

The specifics of medieval art in the Arab countries, as well as throughout the Near and Middle East, are very complex. It reflected live content reality, but, like the entire culture of the Middle Ages, deeply imbued with a religious-mystical worldview, it did this in a conditional, often symbolic form, developing its own special figurative language for works of art. The innovation of Arabic medieval literature and at the same time its vital basis is characterized by an appeal to the spiritual world of man, the creation moral ideals that had universal human significance. The fine art of the Arab East is also imbued with great figurative power. However, just as literature used predominantly a conventional form to embody its images, so in the visual arts the life content was expressed special language decorative arts. The convention of the “language” of medieval fine art among most peoples was associated with the principle of decorativeness, characteristic not only of external forms, but also of the structure itself, figurative structure work of art. The wealth of decorative imagination and its masterful implementation into applied arts, miniature and architecture constitute an integral and valuable quality wonderful works artists of that era. In the art of the Arab East, decorativeness acquired especially bright and original features, becoming the basis of the figurative structure of painting and giving rise to the richest art a pattern with a complex ornamental rhythm and often increased color sonority. Within the narrow framework of the medieval worldview, the artists of the Arab East found their way to embody the richness of the life around them. The rhythm of the pattern, its “carpet-like quality,” the subtle plasticity of ornamental forms, and the unique harmony of bright and pure colors, they expressed great aesthetic content. The image of a person was not excluded from the attention of artists, although appeal to it was limited, especially during the period of increasing religious prohibitions. Images of people fill out illustrations in manuscripts and are often found in patterns on objects of applied art; There are also known monuments of monumental painting with multi-figure scenes and sculptural pictorial reliefs. However, even in such works human image subordinated to the general decorative solution. Even when they endowed human figures with many vital features, the artists of the Arab East interpreted them in a flat, conventional way. In applied art, human figures are most often included in the ornament; they lose the meaning of an independent image, becoming an integral part of the pattern. Ornament - “music for the eyes” - plays a very important role in the medieval art of the peoples of the Arab East. It to a certain extent compensates for the visual limitations of some types of art and is one of the important means of expression artistic content. The arabesque, which basically goes back to classical ancient motifs and became widespread in the countries of the medieval East, was a new type ornamental composition, which allowed the artist to fill planes of any shape with a complex, woven, lace-like pattern. Initially, arabesque was dominated by plant motifs. Later, girikh, a linear-geometric ornament built on a complex combination of polygons and multi-rayed stars, became widespread. In the development of the arabesque, which was used to decorate both large architectural planes and various household objects, the masters of the Arab East achieved amazing virtuosity, creating countless compositions that always combine two principles: a logical, strict mathematical construction of the pattern and the great spiritualizing power of artistic imagination . The peculiarities of Arab medieval art also include the widespread use of epigraphic ornament - the text of inscriptions organically included in the decorative pattern. Let us note in passing that the religion of all arts especially encouraged calligraphy: rewriting a text from the Koran was considered a righteous deed for Musu Lmanin. One of the main features of the fine arts of the medieval Arab East, (in contrast, for example, to the fine arts European Middle Ages), was that sculpture and painting, as a rule, were purely decorative in nature and were an ornamental addition to architecture.

9. Architecture

The architectural features common to many peoples of the Near and Middle East were associated with the natural and climatic conditions of the countries and the capabilities of construction equipment. In the architecture of homes, techniques have long been developed for planning houses with courtyards and terraces protected from the heat. Construction technology gave rise to special structures made of clay, brick and stone. The architects of that time created various forms of arches - horseshoe-shaped and especially pointed, and invented their own systems of vaulted ceilings. They achieved exceptional skill and artistic expressiveness in the laying of large domes resting on trumps (a structural system that arose in the pre-feudal period). Medieval architects of the Arab East created new types of monumental religious and secular buildings: mosques that accommodated thousands of worshipers; minarets - towers from which believers were called to prayer; madrassas - buildings of Muslim religious schools; caravanserais and covered markets, corresponding to the scale of trading activities of cities; palaces of rulers, fortified citadels, fortress walls with gates and towers. Arab architects, authors of many masterpieces of medieval art, great attention paid attention to the decorative possibilities of architecture. Therefore, one of the characteristic features of the synthesis of arts in monumental architecture is the important role of decorative forms and the special significance of ornament, which sometimes covers the walls and vaults of buildings with monochrome lace or a colorful carpet. Stalactites (muqarnas) were widely used in the architecture of the Arab East - decorative filling of vaults, niches and cornices in the form of prismatic figures with a thread-like cutout, arranged in rows protruding one above the other. Stalactites arose from a constructive technique - a special brick laying to create a transition from the square of the walls to the circle of the dome in the corners of the rooms.

Types architectural structures were diverse. The most iconic monuments architecture were: mosques, minarets, palaces, madrassas, caravanserais, mausoleums (turbe) - tombs topped with a dome. By the 11th century, a specific type of columnar Arab mosque (Muslim temple) had developed. The appearance of the mosque resembles a fortress, surrounded by blank walls in which entrances are punched without marking the main entrance. Unlike a Christian temple, in the pillared hall of a mosque there is no central axis that would direct the movement of worshipers towards the sanctuary. On the contrary, upon entering the hall of the mosque, you need to stop to take in the rows of supports extending in all directions, located across the movement towards the mihrab (a richly decorated niche in the wall indicating the direction to Mecca). Since ancient times, a minaret was erected next to the mosque (a high tower from which the muezzin - a special employee at the mosque - calls Muslims to prayer). The minaret is directly adjacent to the mosque, less often it is located separately. It unites the mosque with other urban buildings, with the space of the surrounding world and with the infinity of the sky. In the Islamic world, many original and different forms of minarets were created. Thus, in the Near and Middle East, the round shape of the minaret, slightly tapering upward, was dominant. The minarets of Ottoman Turkey were distinguished by their unique silhouette, very tall, multi-faceted and multi-tiered; in appearance resembling sharply sharpened giant pencils directed into the bottomless sky. One of the most famous monuments of Arab architecture was the Great Mosque of the Umayyad dynasty, erected in 705-715. by order of Caliph Walid in Damascus (the capital of Syria). This mosque made a stunning impression on its contemporaries with its exquisite and rich marble inlays; magnificent mosaics and gilding of column capitals. The desire to enclose the space of a building is one of the main features of Arab medieval architecture. The walls of architectural structures were a barrier that hid what was behind it. Thus, the meaning of the building was concentrated inside.

10. Music

The flourishing of classical Arabic music dates back to the end of the 11th century. In the Middle Ages, rich secular vocal and instrumental Arabic music had a strong impact on the musical art of Spain and Portugal, on the formation of some types of European musical instruments. By this time, Arabic musical science had also reached a high level of development. Traditionally, classical Arabic music is predominantly vocal in nature. This is explained by the unusual receptivity of the Arabs to singing, so strong that many, as they say, “flew away their souls.” Most popular genre at that time there was a vocal and instrumental ensemble in which the leading role belonged to the singer.

In general, we can highlight the general features of the Islamic type of culture and art:

· religious nature, strict ban on images of God;

· innovation is not typical, because, as a rule, techniques and themes of the art of conquered peoples are used;

· the lack of a unified style contributes to the development of local schools (Turkish, Persian, Spanish-Arab, etc.);

· this type of culture and art is not characterized by realism, since Islam prohibits the depiction of living beings.

The culture of the Arab East, having spread over a vast territory, had a great influence not only on the culture, art and way of life of numerous Islamic states, but also on the culture of those peoples with whom it came into contact throughout its centuries-old history. For many centuries, the medieval culture of the Arab East was the actual border separating Europe and Asia. At the same time, it is a kind of bridge between two worlds, religions and cultures, where East and West meet and never separate.

Bibliography

1) R.G. Apresyan, B.A. Botvinnik et al. Culturology: a textbook for universities; edited by B.A. Ehrengross. - M.: Onyx Publishing House, 2007. - 480 p. - ISBN - 978-5-488-01034-5

The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. The Arabian Peninsula was divided between Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and other states. Iraq became the successor civilizations of Mesopotamia; Syria, Lebanon and Jordan occupy the territories of ancient Syria. Egypt inherited the possessions of Ancient Egypt stretching along the Nile. On the North African coast Mediterranean Sea, which received the name Maghreb (Arabic, “west”) from medieval Arab geographers, contains the states of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The history and culture of Arab countries is also closely connected with Iran and Turkey.

Arab medieval culture also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic dominated for a long time as the state language.

The greatest flourishing of Arab culture occurred in the 8th–11th centuries:

1) poetry developed successfully;

2) the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were composed; Many works of ancient authors were translated.

During this period, the Arabs made a significant contribution to world mathematical science, the development of medicine, and philosophy. They created unique architectural monuments.

2. Religion. Islam

The basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East was Islam. Islam (Arabic, “submission”) is the youngest of the world’s religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. But Islam is not only a religion. This is a system of relationships between a person and society that determines the way of life of a Muslim.

Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, and its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. As a result of the Arab conquests, it spread to the Near and Middle East, in some countries Far East, Asia and Africa.

The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah is the leader of a common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph.

Main directions of Islam:

1) Sunnism;

3) Wahhabism.

Reformers of the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. (for example, al Afghani) understood the reformation as the purification of Islam from distortions and layers through a return to the early Muslim community. In the 20th century largely as a reaction to the influence of the West, ideologies based on Islamic values (pan-Islamism, fundamentalism) arise in Muslim countries.

3. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia

The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic, “reading aloud”). The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems. The Sunnah is made up of hadiths that tell about the statements of Muhammad on a particular issue. Through revelation, signs and names, man can only partially comprehend the meaning of the divine in the world, and a Muslim is obliged to believe in this. Each religious group in Islam was united into a separate community (ummah).

The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which were angels and demons, or genies. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye and believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. In the Arab East, great importance was attached to dreams. Various fortune tellings were also widespread.

4. Science. Literature. Arabic

Since the 7th century. How applied sciences to religious disciplines develop:

1) grammar;

2) mathematics;

3) astronomy.

Their development occurred in the process of close contacts between Muslims and other Eastern cultures:

1) Syrian;

2) Persian;

3) Indian.

The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists date back to the Middle Ages.

The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Abu-l-Wafa derived the sine theorem of trigonometry, calculated the table of sines, and introduced the concept of secant and cosecant. The poet and scientist Omar Khayyam wrote Algebra. He also successfully worked on the problem of irrational and real numbers. In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian calendar. Arab medieval medicine was glorified by Ibn Sina - Avicenna(980-1037), author of the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine. Abu Bakr, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles and used vaccinations. Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage.

Historical thought also developed. If in the 7th–8th centuries. the Arabic language itself has not yet been written historical works, and there were many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the 9th century. Major works on history are being compiled. The most famous historian of the 14th–15th centuries. was Ibn Khaldun, the first Arab historian to try to create a theory of history. He identified the natural conditions of the country as the main factor determining the historical process.

Arabic literature also attracted the attention of scientists. At the turn of the 8th–9th centuries. An Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars. Arabic writing is regarded as the greatest cultural value.

The centers of medieval Arab science were the cities of Baghdad and Basra. The scientific life of Baghdad was especially lively, where the House of Science was created - a kind of association of an academy, an observatory, and a library. Already in the 10th century. In many cities, secondary and higher Muslim schools - madrasahs - appeared. In the X–XIII centuries. In Europe, a signed decimal system for writing numbers, called “Arabic numerals,” became known from Arabic writings.

Brought lasting world fame Omar Khayyam(1048–1122), Persian poet, scientist, his poems:

1) philosophical;

2) hedonic;

3) free-thinking hacks.

In the X–XV centuries. The now world-famous collection of Arabian folk tales, “A Thousand and One Nights,” gradually emerged. These are tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture in general occurred in the 8th–9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world stood at the head of world civilization . From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice.

5. Fine arts and calligraphy

Islam, advocating strict monotheism, has since ancient times fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was prohibited in Islam, and images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting also did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the 12th century The art of miniatures, including books, began to develop.

A handwritten book was valued in Muslim society as a shrine and a treasure. With all the differences in artistic techniques and plots, book illustrations of that time have a lot in common. Conventionality in depicting the scene and characters in miniatures is combined with a masterful command of line and color, and a lot of details. The poses of the characters are expressive.