Types of sculptural reliefs. Relief as a type of sculpture and the importance of studying it by students of the “Teaching Fine Arts” specialization when performing a number of tasks in the work program What is relief in the fine arts

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Tambov State Technical University

Abstract on the topic

Types of sculptural reliefs

Tambov 2009

1. The concept of “sculpture”

2.Varieties of sculpture

3. Division of sculpture according to content and functions

4.Sculpture materials

5.Schematic process of creating a sculptural form

6.Primitive sculpture

7.Ancient Egyptian sculpture

8.Antique sculpture

9. Western European sculpture

10.Russian sculpture

Bibliography

1. The concept of “sculpture”

Sculpture - (Latin sculptura, from sculpo - carve, cut out), sculpture, plastic (Greek plastike, from plasso - sculpt), an art form based on the principle of a three-dimensional, physically three-dimensional image of an object.

As a rule, the object of the image in sculpture is a person, less often - animals (animalistic genre), and even less often - nature (landscape) and things (still life). The placement of a figure in space, the transmission of its movement, posture, gesture, light and shadow modeling that enhances the relief of the form, the architectural organization of volume, the visual effect of its mass, weight relations, the choice of proportions, the character of the silhouette specific in each case are the main expressive means of sculpture.

A volumetric sculptural form is built in real space according to the laws of harmony, rhythm, balance, interaction with the surrounding architectural or natural environment and on the basis of the anatomical (structural) features of a particular model observed in nature.

2.Varieties of sculpture

There are two main types of sculpture:

1) a round sculpture that can be freely placed in space. Works of circular sculpture that usually require a 360-degree view include:

Statue (full-length figure),

Group (two or more figures that make up a single whole),

Figurine (a figure much smaller than life-size),

Torso (image of a human torso),

Bust (chest image of a person), etc.

2) Relief - a type of sculpture; a sculptural image on a plane, which is the physical basis and background of the image. The relief reproduces complex multi-figure scenes, as well as architectural and landscape motifs.

There are: - a convex relief protruding above the background plane, which is divided into counter-relief and koylanaglyph; - an in-depth relief cut into the depth of the background plane, which is divided into bas-relief and high relief

Bas-relief is a type of relief sculpture in which all parts protrude above the plane by less than half of their volume.

Bas-relief is used to decorate architectural structures and works of decorative art.

Victoria - reliefs in the form of a flying goddess of victory used in wall decoration.

Embedded relief is a technique in which the recesses of images carved into the wall were filled with paint flush with the plane of the wall so that the entire relief took on the character of colored silhouettes.

Geniuses are the relief depictions of flying human figures used in wall decoration.

Geniuses - in Ancient Rome - patron spirits that accompany a person throughout his life and guide his actions.

Blind carving is a non-through carving made in solid wood, designed to perceive the relief in sunlight or special lighting.

High relief is a type of relief sculpture in which the image protrudes above the background plane by more than half of its volume. High relief is used in architecture.

Koylanaglyph is a relief with a deep contour and convex modeling, found in the architecture of Ancient Egypt and on ancient Eastern and ancient intaglios.

Counter-relief is an in-depth relief in the form of a strict negative of a convex relief, which serves (on intaglio seals) to produce prints in the form of a miniature bas-relief.

Piece relief - gypsum moldings on the surface of the walls.

End of form

Estampage is a print from a relief obtained by applying paper or fabric to the surface of a sculpture coated with a dye.

3. Division of sculpture according to content and functions

Monumental-decorative: sculpture is designed for a specific architectural, spatial or natural environment. It has a pronounced public character, is addressed to the masses of spectators, and is located primarily in public places - on the streets and squares of the city, in parks, on the facades and interiors of public buildings. Monumental and decorative sculpture is designed to concretize the architectural image and complement the expressiveness of architectural forms with new shades. The ability of monumental and decorative sculpture to solve large ideological and figurative problems is revealed with particular completeness in works that are called monumental and which usually include city monuments, monuments, and memorial buildings. The majesty of the forms and the durability of the material are combined in them with the elevation of the figurative structure and the breadth of generalization.

Easel sculpture, which is not directly related to architecture, is more intimate in nature. Exhibition halls, museums, residential interiors, where it can be viewed up close and in all details, are its usual environment. This determines the features of the plastic language of sculpture, its dimensions, and favorite genres (portrait, everyday genre, animalistic genre). Easel sculpture, to a greater extent than monumental and decorative sculpture, is characterized by interest in the inner world of man, subtle psychologism, and narrative.

Sculptures of small forms include a wide range of works intended primarily for residential interiors, and in many respects are closely related to decorative and applied arts. The height and length of the work can be increased to 80 centimeters and a meter. Can be replicated industrially, which is not typical for easel sculpture. Decorative and applied arts and sculpture of small forms form a symbiosis with each other, like the architecture of a building with the round sculpture decorating it, forming a single ensemble. Sculpture of small forms is developing in two directions - as the art of mass objects and as the art of unique, individual works. Genres and directions of small sculpture - portrait, genre compositions, still life, scenery. Small, spatially voluminous forms, landscape design, and kinetic sculpture.

Bronze sculpture. One of the methods of producing bronze sculptures is the method of hollow bronze casting. Its secret lies in the fact that the initial shape for the figurine is made in wax, then a clay layer is applied and the wax is melted out. And only then the metal is poured. Bronze casting is the collective name for this entire process.

Kinetic sculpture is a type of kinetic art in which the effects of real movement are played out.

4.Sculpture materials

Purpose and content of sculptural production. determine the nature of its plastic structure, and it, in turn, influences the choice of sculptural material. The technique of sculpture largely depends on the natural features and methods of processing the latter.

Soft substances (clay, wax, plasticine, etc.) are used for modeling; in this case, the most commonly used tools are wire rings and stacks.

Solid substances (various types of stone, wood, etc.) are processed by chopping (carving) or carving, removing unnecessary parts of the material and gradually releasing the volumetric form hidden in it; To process a stone block, a hammer (mall) and a set of metal tools (scraper, troyanka, etc.) are used; for wood processing, mainly shaped chisels and drills are used.

Substances that can pass from a liquid to a solid state (various metals, gypsum, concrete, plastic, etc.) are used to cast sculptures using specially made molds. To reproduce sculpture in metal, they also resort to electroplating. In its unmolten form, metal for sculpture is processed through forging and embossing.

To create ceramic sculptures, special types of clay are used, which are usually covered with painting or colored glaze and fired in special kilns. Color has been found in sculpture for a long time: the painted sculpture of antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Baroque is well known. Sculptors of the 19th - 20th centuries. Usually they are content with the natural color of the material, resorting, in necessary cases, only to its monochromatic tint or tinting. However, the experience of the 1950-60s. indicates a renewed interest in polychrome sculpture.

5.Schematic process of creating a sculptural form

Schematically, the process of creating a sculptural work can be divided into a number of stages:

modeling (from plasticine or clay) a sketch and sketches from life; making a frame for a cool sculpture or a shield for a relief (iron rods, wire, nails, wood);

work on a rotating machine or a vertically mounted shield over a model in a given size;

turning a clay model into a plaster model using a “black” or “piece” mold;

its conversion into a solid material (stone or wood) using a puncturing machine and appropriate processing technology or metal casting followed by embossing;

patination or tint of a sculpture.

There are also works of sculpture created from hard materials (marble, wood) without preliminary modeling of a clay original (taille directe technique, i.e. direct cutting, requiring exceptional skill).

6.Primitive sculpture

The emergence of sculpture, dating back to the primitive era, is directly related to human labor activity and magical beliefs. In Paleolithic sites discovered in many countries (Montespan in France, Willendorf in Austria, Malta and Buret in the Soviet Union, etc.), various sculptural images of animals and women were discovered - the ancestors of the clan to which the so-called. Paleolithic Venus. The range of Neolithic sculptural monuments is even wider.

A round sculpture, usually of small size, was carved from soft stones, bone and wood; reliefs were made on stone plates and cave walls. Sculpture often served as a means of decorating utensils, tools of labor and hunting, and was used as amulets.

Examples of late Neolithic and Chalcolithic sculpture on the territory of the USSR are Trypillian ceramic sculpture, large stone images of people (“stone women”), sculptural jewelry made of bronze, gold, silver, etc.

Although primitive sculpture is characterized by simplified forms, it is often distinguished by acute observations of life and vivid plastic expressiveness. Sculpture received further development during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, in connection with the growth of the division of labor and technological progress; The brightest monuments of this stage are Scythian gold reliefs, terracotta heads of the Nok culture, typologically diverse wooden carved sculpture of the Oceanians.

7.Ancient Egyptian sculpture

In the art of the slave society, sculpture stood out as a special type of activity, having specific tasks and its own masters. The sculpture of ancient Eastern states, which served to express the comprehensive idea of despotism, perpetuate a strict social hierarchy, glorify the power of gods and kings, contained an attraction to the significant and perfect, which had objective universal value. This is the sculpture of Ancient Egypt: huge motionless sphinxes, full of grandeur; statues of pharaohs and their wives, portraits of nobles, with canonical poses and frontal construction based on the principle of symmetry and balance; colossal reliefs on the walls of tombs and temples and small plastic sculptures associated with the mortuary cult. The sculpture of other ancient Eastern despots - Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria - developed in similar ways.

About 5 thousand years ago, the first small slave states appeared in the valley along the lower Nile. At the end of the 1st millennium BC, the rulers of one of them subjugated the entire country, creating a single kingdom centered in the city of Memphis, located on the left bank of the Nile, south of where the city of Cairo is now located. Around 2800 BC e. Pharaoh Khufu became the ruler of this state. Subsequently, historians changed his name to Cheops. This is what they call it in our time.

The early period of Egyptian history played a major role in the formation of Egyptian culture and state - the time from 4000 to 3000 BC and the period of the Early Kingdom 3000-2000 BC. e.

The main object of art becomes a person. Grandiose architectural structures - pyramids amaze with their generality and completeness of forms. The greatest of them - the Cheops pyramid - has a height of 146.6 m and is composed of 2,300 multi-ton stone blocks.

Around the Pharaoh's pyramid were the tombs of nobles and officials. The “City of the Dead” was a kind of road to the afterlife.

The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife and tried to provide those leaving for the other world with everything they needed during life. Egyptian religion taught that a happy life in the afterlife is given only to noble people.

The Egyptians believed that a person has several souls, and eternal life after earthly death is granted by the gods to those people whose souls are well looked after by priestly priests. The tomb was considered as the refuge of one of these souls, which the Egyptians called “Ka” (the double of the deceased person).

At the same time, the Egyptian religion was a collection of various cults, which over the course of many centuries underwent numerous changes. Many gods were worshiped in Egypt. Some of them were very ancient and looked more like animals than people. Their images have dog heads, horns or other signs of animals.

But there were also common Egyptian deities, whose temples were built throughout the country: Horus, Ra, Osiris, Isis and others.

According to tradition, Osiris, before becoming a god, reigned in Egypt, and the memory of his beneficence caused him to be identified with the principle of good, while his murderer identified with evil. This same legend also had another religious, moral explanation: Osiris is the setting sun, killed or absorbed by darkness - darkness.

Isis - the moon absorbs and stores as much as it can the rays of the sun,

and Horus - the rising sun - avenges his father, dispelling the darkness.

Osiris was often depicted as a mummy, his usual attributes being a hook or whip, a symbol of power, and the emblem of the Nile in the form of a cross with an eye on top. Sometimes Osiris is depicted with the head of a bull.

The image of the goddess Isis is a head with cow ears, on which rises a building - a symbol of the universe: it seems to stand on a richly decorated bowl, a symbol of moisture, without which nothing could exist on earth. The distinctive features of Isis are a disc, a double crown, signifying dominion over the Upper and Lower Nile, and horns on her head.

God Thoth is depicted with the head of an ibis bird, he personifies the divine mind that created the universe. He is also the god of writing and the organizer of the world, who dispersed darkness and dispelled the darkness of the soul. In addition, when this bird eats, its beak forms an equilateral triangle together with its paws, so the ibis personifies geometry and all the sciences based on it, which is why the ibis is dedicated to the god Thoth - the god of divine intelligence. The duties of this god included monitoring the level of water rise during the Nile flood. Sometimes the god Thoth is depicted holding a jagged ruler, a symbol of the flood of the Nile.

Egyptian pharaohs were often identified with the rising sun and then received the title of sons of Amun-Ra. Following tradition, during holidays and ceremonial processions, a statue of God, covered with jewels and ornaments, was carried in a sacred boat, accompanied by crowds of girls and women. The Egyptians claimed that the sun and moon floated around the earth only in a boat.

Almost every Egyptian god was given a form in this way, and to each of them some animal was dedicated in this way.

Only a few stone tablets (called pallets) with images of the first pharaohs have reached us. The Egyptians themselves treated the first, early centuries of their history with the deepest respect. Their imagination peopled these times with great sages and powerful kings.

As mentioned earlier, next to the pyramids in the “city of the dead” there were tombs of the nobility. The Hermitage exhibition includes stone Reliefs from tombs, which in the past were brightly painted.

The nature of the images and their compositional solution give an idea of the developed canon. Thus, in the relief from the tomb of Nimaatr, the figure of a nobleman sitting in a solemn pose at the table is several times larger than the figures of the servants serving him various foods. They are placed in rows, friezes, on several “floors” and move in the image plane. The three-dimensional body is reduced to a silhouette, clearly outlined by an outline.

The sculptor skillfully combines parts of the figure, seen from different points of view: the head and legs - in profile; eyes, shoulders and chest - in front. This depiction of people is typical of Egyptian art.

The second monument, a stone relief from the tomb of Miriraankh, was made in a different technique: the image is not convex, but embedded in the stone.

The tombs contained statues of the dead. The family group from the tomb of Ujaankhjes reproduces the appearance of a nobleman and his wife.

The composition is made within the strict framework of the accepted canon: the frontality of the larger figure of Udzhaankhdzhes, legs tightly together, hands lying on his knees, a solemnly frozen pose and gaze directed straight ahead. Laconically and generally interpreted figures are associated with a block of stone. This is limestone, covered with plaster on top and painted in accordance with the canon: the male figure is brown, the female figure is yellow.

A remarkable sculptural monument from the Egyptian collection of the Hermitage is the statue of Pharaoh Amenemhet III, who ruled in Egypt during the XXI-XVIII centuries. BC. This is the time of the unification of the country, the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture. In official sculpture, in statues of pharaohs, along with idealization and canonical features, one can feel the desire of the masters to convey the individuality of the model’s features, and an interest in identifying portrait features. These trends can be seen in the granite statue of Pharaoh Amenemhet Sh. The figure of the pharaoh is given in a traditional pose.

The characteristic headdress - nemes - with the image of a uraeus - the sacred snake guarding the king - as well as his three names inscribed in the cartouche (decoration in the form of a half-unrolled scroll) on the throne, remind us that before us is the ruler of all Egypt. The face of the pharaoh shows the features inherent in this particular person: narrow, deep-set eyes, large cheekbones. Tightly compressed thin lips and a protruding chin give the face an imperious and stern expression. Made of granite, the statue, however, clearly conveys the smallest details of clothing and headdress, which indicates the high skill of the sculptor.

The Hermitage contains a number of significant sculptural works of everyday life and worship, in particular the statue of the goddess Mut - Sokhmet. Daughter of the supreme god Ra, goddess of war and scorching heat. Sokhmet was depicted as a lion-headed woman. This image reflects the desire to emphasize the power of man, comparing it with the power of the beast. According to the myth, angry at the people who stopped obeying her decrepit father and doing evil, the goddess decided to incinerate them with the heat of drought. And only the intercession of the compassionate gods saved people from complete extermination.

On their advice, beer tinted red was poured out at night, which, mistaking for blood, the goddess drank. The myth was born of reality: the red waters of the Nile, during the flood period, relieve the Egyptians from drought.

The formidable goddess holds in her hands an “ankh” - a sign symbolizing life.

The monumental statue of Sokhmet, made during the reign of Amenhotep III (his name is indicated on the throne), was among similar sculptures in the largest temple of that time - Karnak.

I would like to dwell on one more sculptural group - the Statue of Amenemheb with his wife and mother. The royal scribe and mayor of Thebes was a great man at that time. The sculptor, thanks to the masterly processing of granite, conveyed the softness and elasticity of the forms of the human body, while maintaining many traditional features (frontality, staticity, solemnity of poses, connection with a block of stone, etc.). What is especially striking are the female figures: both the mother and the wife are depicted at the same age. This suggests that the ancient Egyptians believed that eternal youth and peace awaited people in the afterlife.

The image of the ancient Egyptian architect, author and first builder of the pyramids - Imhotep, who lived around the 28th century, is also characteristic. BC e.

Imhotep is famous for the step pyramid and mortuary temple of Pharaoh Josser at Saqqara. A small sculpture made of black basalt, it fascinates with its grace and significance. The same static, solemn pose of a seated man, a scroll of papyrus on his knees, represent to us a person who plays a very important role in the state.

Like the pyramid he built, so the architect’s sculpture brought to us the unique beauty, fabulousness and grandeur of Ancient Egypt.

8.Antique sculpture

The sculpture of Ancient Greece and partly Ancient Rome has a different, humanistic character, addressed to the mass of free citizens and in many ways maintaining connections with ancient mythology. In the images of gods and heroes, athletes and warriors, the sculptors of Ancient Greece embodied the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality and affirmed their ethical and aesthetic ideas. The naive, holistic, plastically generalized, but somewhat constrained sculpture of the archaic period is being replaced by flexible, dissected, based on an accurate knowledge of the anatomy of the sculptural classics, which produced such major masters as Myron, Phidias, Polykleitos, Scopas, Prexiteles, Lysippos.

The realistic nature of ancient Greek statues and reliefs (often associated with cult architecture), funerary steles, bronze and terracotta figurines is clearly manifested in the high skill of depicting the naked or draped human body. Polykleitos tried to formulate the laws of its proportionality on the basis of mathematical calculations in his theoretical work “The Canon”. In ancient Greek sculpture, fidelity to reality and vital expressiveness of forms are combined with the ideal generalization of the image. During the Hellenistic period, the civic pathos and architectural clarity of classical sculpture are replaced by dramatic pathos, stormy contrasts of light and shadow; the image acquires a noticeably greater degree of individualization. The realism of ancient Roman sculpture was especially fully revealed in the art of portraiture, which amazes with the sharpness of individual and social depiction of characters. Reliefs with historical-narrative subjects were developed, decorating triumphal columns and arches; a type of equestrian monument developed (the statue of Marcus Aurelius, later installed by Michelangelo on the Capitol Square in Rome).

The art of the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia had already existed for thousands of years, when Greek art was just beginning to find its feet, so that, having reached extraordinary heights in its rapid, victorious march, it would conquer Europe, Africa and Asia. Greek art for the first time achieved freedom in its creations not only in a naturalistic direction, accurately conveying the anatomy of the body and the movements of the soul, but also in the independence of this image from all other spiritual forces and from neighboring art worlds. The beauty of Greek art lies in its truth and freedom; moreover, like any artistic beauty, it lies in the complete harmony of form with content. Idealism and realism, style and nature merge in Greek art into one inextricable whole. Greek art reproduced reality and grew directly out of the competitions that united the Hellenic tribes since the establishment of the Olympic Games.

Sculpting is the branch of art in which the Greeks learned to most perfectly merge form with content and depict the heavenly in the earthly shell, and moreover, better than any other people.

Greek sculpture before the Persian Wars

The beginnings of Greek sculpture were very insignificant. Corresponding to the earliest Boeotian style of vases are the remarkable clay female figurines found in Boeotian tombs; their bell-like shape is determined by their clothing, which lags behind the body. The excessively long neck, small head, lack of mouth, sharp profile and ornamental pattern are reminiscent of the primitive style of Europe. Several figurines of naked women kept in the Athens Museum, made of ivory, in the proportions of the body of which, with all their geometric angularity, a significant step forward is already noticeable, were found in Attic Dipylonian tombs.

The beginnings of the sculpting of large figures among the Greeks, just like the beginnings of their architecture, must be sought in the production of wood. Numerous wooden idols (xoans), considered to have fallen from the sky, reminded the later Hellenes of the initial time of their sculpture. Not a single one of these wooden figures has reached us, but many sculptures made of loose limestone (poros) or coarse-grained island marble have survived. More or less well-preserved works of this kind were obtained mainly from the remains of structures destroyed by the Persians in the Athenian Acropolis, as well as on Delos and its neighboring islands. The male statues depict young, beardless, naked people; female statues in clothes.

In contrast to all these stone sculptures, which echo the wooden style, the life-sized seated statues from Didymaeon, the famous temple of Apollo at Didyma, near Miletus, bear the imprint of the primitive Asian stone style. In terms of their size, position and inscriptions, these portrait statues are from the first quarter of the 7th century. They appear to be the most ancient works of Ionic monumental sculpture.

We have seen how Greek art in all its branches, under Eastern, mainly Western Asian, and also Egyptian influence, emerged from its original rough state and developed a national, independent style, in which a careful, albeit timid observation of nature was combined with the strictest regularity.

Among the sculptors of this era we meet Royka and Theodore of Samos. Royk owned a bronze female figure, probably called “Night” and standing in Ephesus, near the Temple of Artemis. From the works of Theodore, mainly gold items are known, for example, a ring made for Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, and a silver mixing vessel.

A contemporary of these artists was Smilid, who owned a wooden image of Hera in her Samos temple.

The most significant of the ancient Greek marble sculptors, according to legend, were natives of the Ionian island of Chios: Melas, Mikkiades, Arhermus, Bupal and Athenis.

But the first famous marble sculptors are considered to be Dipoin and Skilid. Founders of chryselephantine technology.

The name of the Attic artist is preserved in one of the inscriptions that has reached us - Aristocles. He put his signature on the beautiful tombstone of Aristion.

The pediment groups of the Aegina Temple of Athena are believed to be the works of Onatus. The gables depicted the battle of Troy.

Let us now turn to round plastic figures. The gradual progress in the development of forms is most noticeable in the female statues, namely in the freer arrangement of folds in clothes and in the more natural appearance of hair.

The male statues of the last times of archaism already show signs of the same progress. One can highlight the figures of Apollo from Piombino, Apollo, found in Pompeii.

So, we see that Greek art by the time of the Persian wars had reached almost the same stage of development everywhere. The time of external influences had already passed by art and the artists of various parts of Greece strived for a mutual exchange of personal gains among themselves and for friendly equality.

Greek sculpture from the beginning of the Persian wars to the era of the Diadochi

The Persian Wars did not stop the further development of the forms of Greek sculpture: it continued to improve during them.

At this time, the names of such sculptors as Pythagoras (“Wounded Philoctetes”, “Europe on the Bull”), Kalamis (“Omphal-Apollo”), Myron (“Copper Cow”, “Discobolus”) are known. Myron's works were very realistic, and Myron's art is the last step before complete freedom of mastery of forms. In addition to figures of athletes, Myron produced statues of heroes and gods. One of his most famous groups depicted Athena and Marsyas.

The most important works of monumental sculpture in the era we are considering must be the statues that adorned the Temple of Zeus at Olympia - pediment groups and metopes carved from Parian marble. The eastern pediment depicts the moment before the start of the disastrous competition between Pelops and Oinomai. The west pediment depicts the battle between centaurs and lapiths at the wedding of Perithous. The artist of the sculptures of the eastern pediment is considered to be a certain Paeonius, the western - Alkamen.

Art reached its full flowering only in the works of Phidias. The works of this artist are an expression of perfection in Greek art. The complete elaboration of noble forms is combined in them with the strictest regularity of arrangement, the purest feeling of nature merges inextricably with the greatest sublimity of spiritual feeling. The colossal statue of the standing virgin goddess Pallas Athena in the Athenian Parthion (12 meters in height) and the colossal statue of Zeus sitting on a throne in the Olympic Temple (13 m in height) are the two main luminaries in the artistic horizon of Phidias. The great representative of Argive art was Polycetus. He should be placed in charge of the artists who have ever attempted to reproduce the normal human body. Three statues of him have come down to us in marble reproductions: “Spearman”, “Amazon”, “Diadumen”.

IV V. (400-275 gg. before AD)

Temple sculpture in the first half of this century still attracted the best artistic forces. But images of gods now appear more often as free offerings to temples than as actual objects of worship. Groups and statues of gods and demigods, already designated to decorate civil buildings, public squares, and royal palaces, are found more and more often, as a result of which these statues are taking on an increasingly secular, genre character. Religious art turns into mythological. The names of such artists as Kephisodotus (“Eirene with the baby Plutos”), Silanion (“Plato”, “Sappho”), Skopas (pediment groups of the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea), Pythias (“Mausolus”) can be associated with this time.

Praxiteles is recorded in literary sources as a depiction of primarily gods, and at that young and beautiful ones, in spiritual and sensual excitement. (Apollo, Aremis, Latona, Dionysus, Aphrodite and Eros are Praxiteles’ favorites). He took on the depiction of mortals only occasionally: two famous statues of the famous hetaera Phryne and one statue of a winner at the Olympic Games. Of the personifications of individual gods sculptured by Praxiteles, the statue of naked Aphrodite was the most famous in ancient times. Another of his original works is the head of Aphrodite, full of expression and combining human beauty with divine beauty. One can name a number of his famous works: “Venus of the Aral”, “Juno Ludovisi”, “Hermes Antnoi”, “Arodite”, etc.

The closest followers of Praxiteles can only be considered his sons Cephisodotus the Younger and Timachres: “Menander”.

As a portrait sculptor, one can place Polyeuctus next to the sons of Praxiteles, whose famous creation, the statue of Demosthenes, was exhibited in 280 BC. The sculptor Lysippos worked only with bronze and depicted only male figures. “Apoxiomen”, “Hercules of Farnese”, “Hermes”, etc. Among the works of the followers of Lysippos one can count one original work, namely the large marble Nike of Samothrace, which, despite the fact that its head is lost, is one of the main decorations of the Louvre museum.

Sculpture in Ancient Greece and Greek Asia Minor (275-27 BC)

The Pergamon sculptors drew the subjects of their historical images from the victorious wars of Attalus with the Gauls. Epigonus, Pyromachus, Stratinikus, Antigonus. Of note are such sculptures as “The Wounded Gaul”, “The Dying Warrior”, “Gaul and His Wife”. Works of this kind introduce us to a truly new world of art. In terms of the vital truth of the images of foreigners and their folk-historical themes, they would have been unthinkable in the time of Phidias and even Praxiteles. To this time we attribute such a sculpture as the “Borghesian fighter” - Agasios of Ephesus. And also the famous marble statue - “Venus de Milo”. She became a general favorite in the 19th century thanks to the beauty of her figure, which, unfortunately, has come down to us without hands; the spiritual warmth that the noble features of her face breathe; extraordinary softness of marble cutting. The statue was found on the island of Milos in 1820. It was executed, apparently, by Alexander (or Agesander).

The Novo-Attic masters were essentially only copyers. So, for example, Antiochus of Athens reproduced Athena parthinos Phidias in his statue of Athena. The Novo-Attic school was very willing to decorate large marble vases with reliefs. Among the masters of this industry are: Salpion, Sosibius, Pontius.

Sculpture of Italy until the end of the Roman Republic

Before started Hellenistic era (near 900-275 before AD)

Etrurian sculpture was long influenced by Greco-Ionic archaism. Around 500 BC The main material for sculpture was clay. Large terracotta groups of enthroned statues in the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter in Rome have been attributed to one Volcanius (or Vulca). The figures were mainly preserved on the lids of sarcophagi.

What gives us an idea of Etrurian bronze works is not so much the examples that have come down to us, but rather the indications necessary in written sources. The only work of its kind remains to this day the bronze she-wolf in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Roman Capitol. The she-wolf feeding Romulus and Remus with her milk is a symbol of Rome. Some recognize the she-wolf as a purely Greek work, others see in it a work even of the Christian Middle Ages.

Of the Etrurian stone sculptures of this ancient era, the limestone tombstone steles, rounded at the top and decorated with reliefs, deserve mention first of all.

Regarding the works of the Etrurian artistic industry, we note that thanks to the Etruscan custom of placing various household items in tombs, a huge amount of artistically executed utensils (clay vessels, vases) have come down to us. The Etruscans tried to imitate the painted Greek clay vases, which were brought in large numbers.

The manufacture of bronze products began in Etruria from the 6th century. strong development in the national spirit. Tyrrhenian candelabra were known in the 5th century. even the Greeks.

From the beginning of the Hellenistic era to the end of the Roman Republic (about 275-25 BC)

A transition to Italian sculpture of the time in question can be found in bronze cists of Central Italy, decorated with plastic work, for example a cist from Vulci in the Gregorian Museum in Rome, with an embossed relief image of Amazons. Along with this kind of works, Etrurian funeral urns illuminated with paints can be placed. On the lids of these urns are placed portrait figures of the dead, smaller than life-size, modeled roughly and dryly, with a short body and a large head.

As a major work of Etrurian sculpture, one can point to the bronze statue of Aulus Metellus. The metellus is depicted life-size using an ancient sculpting technique.

Portrait busts make the most impression on us, although there is mostly disagreement regarding the personalities depicted on them. For example, regarding the so-called bust of Julius Caesar, the bust of Cicero, reputed to be a portrait of Pompey.

Sculpture from the Roman Empire

Hellenistic idealistic sculpture in Italy essentially said its last word in the works of the Neo-Attic school of Pasitel. The only slogan of this branch of art was imitation of the great masters of bygone times.

The best works of Hadrian's era were still full of the same life as the two centaurs of dark gray marble by Aristaeus and Papias. The main task of sculpture under Hadrian was the production of countless statues and busts of Antinous, which she endowed with all the artistic and religious institutions of the empire. Antinous was a handsome young man, Adrian's favorite, in order to save his life, Antinous, driven by medical superstition, sacrificed himself for her and drowned himself in the Nile.

The Romans had long been accustomed to consider the Greek deities as their own; therefore, alterations in the images of Greek deities in accordance with the ideas of local Italian mythology were usually limited in Roman sculpture to attributes. Lanuvinskaya Juno Sospita, colossal and strict.

The last efforts of Hellenistic-Roman idealistic art appeared in relief images on the marble sarcophagi of the empire. The walls of the sarcophagi are decorated with multi-figure reliefs; a semi-seated figure of the deceased was placed on the lids.

Roman portraiture and triumphal reliefs introduce us to a completely different world. The Roman spirit and Roman feeling dominated in this area. An accurate depiction of the personalities of the new rulers of the world was necessary. This truly Roman imperial art was realistic in the full sense of the word.

The task of Roman portrait sculpture at the beginning was to depict private individuals. Her best works were busts, full-length statues and seated figures of Roman citizens and their wives and daughters. The facial features of the “Vestal Virgin” exude amazing naturalness, combined with Greek severity and grandeur.

Roman portrait sculpture later turned into imperial sculpture. For example, the head of a young Augustus, then onto a sculpture of an already aged Augustus. In both sculptures, the entire inner life is expressed in them, mainly in the head - in the gaze, facial expression.

The portrait sculpture smoothly turns into a relief sculpture. A series of triumphal reliefs begins with those decorating the Altar of the World; further development of the relief can be traced in the sculptures of the Arch of Titus. On it, two main images related to the triumph of Titus adorn the walls under the arch of the span. On one side the emperor himself is depicted riding, accompanied by his retinue, in a victorious chariot, on the other - a triumphal procession. Trajan's Arches (more precisely, the remaining Trajan's Column).

9. Western European sculpture

The Christian religion as the main form of worldview largely determined the character of European sculpture of the Middle Ages. As a necessary link, sculpture enters into the architectural fabric of Romanesque cathedrals, subject to the harsh solemnity of their tectonic structure. In Gothic art, where reliefs and statues of apostles, prophets, saints, fantastic creatures, and sometimes real persons literally fill the portals of cathedrals, galleries of the upper tiers, niches of turrets and projections of cornices, sculpture plays a particularly noticeable role. It seems to “humanize” architecture, enhancing its spiritual richness. In Ancient Rus', the art of relief reached a high level (Kyiv slate reliefs, decoration of Vladimir-Suzdal churches). In the Middle Ages, sculpture developed widely in the countries of the Middle and Far East; The world artistic significance of sculptures from India, Indonesia, and Indochina is especially great, monumental in nature, combining the power of constructing volumes with the sensual sophistication of modeling.

In the 13th-16th centuries. Western European sculpture, gradually freeing itself from religious and mystical content, moves on to a more direct depiction of life. Earlier than in the sculptures of other countries, in the 2nd half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. new, realistic trends appeared in the sculptures of Italy (Niccolò Pisano and other sculptors. In the 15-16th centuries, Italian sculpture, based on the ancient tradition, increasingly gravitated towards the expression of the ideals of Renaissance humanism. The embodiment of bright human characters, imbued with the spirit of life affirmation, became its main task (the works of Donaghello, L. Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Luca della Robbia, Jacopo della Quercia, etc.) An important step forward was made in the creation of free-standing (i.e., relatively independent of architecture) statues, in solving the problems of a monument in the city ensemble, multifaceted relief. The technique of bronze casting and embossing is being improved, and the majolica technique is used in sculpture. One of the pinnacles of Renaissance art were the sculptural works of Michelangelo, full of titanic power and intense drama. A predominant interest in decorative tasks distinguishes Mannerist sculptors (B. Cellini and others. Of the Renaissance sculptors, Klaus Sluter (Burgundy), J. Goujon and J. Pilon (France), M. Pacher (Austria), P. Fischer and T. Riemenschneider (Germany) became famous in other countries.

In Baroque sculpture, Renaissance harmony and clarity give way to the elements of changeable forms, emphatically dynamic, often filled with solemn pomp. Decorative trends are growing rapidly: sculptures are literally intertwined with the architecture of churches, palaces, fountains, and parks. During the Baroque era, numerous ceremonial portraits and monuments were also created. The largest representatives of Baroque sculpture are L. Bernini in Italy, A. Schlüter in Germany, P. Puget in France, where classicism developed in close connection with the Baroque (features of both styles were intertwined in the works of F. Girardon, A. Coisevox, etc.). The principles of classicism, rethought during the Enlightenment, played an important role in the development of Western European sculpture in the 2nd half of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th centuries, in which, along with historical, mythological and allegorical themes, portrait tasks acquired great importance (J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon in France, A. Canova in Italy, B. Thorvaldsen in Denmark).

10.Russian sculpture

In Russian sculpture from the beginning of the 18th century. a transition is taking place from medieval religious forms to secular ones; Developing in line with pan-European styles - Baroque and Classicism, it combines the pathos of establishing a new statehood, and then educational civil ideals with an awareness of the newfound plastic beauty of the real world.

The monument to Peter I in St. Petersburg by E. M. Falcone became a majestic symbol of the new historical aspirations of Russia that emerged in the era of Peter the Great. Excellent examples of park monumental and decorative sculpture, wooden carvings, and ceremonial portraits appeared already in the 1st half of the 18th century. (B.K. Rastrelli and others). In the 2nd half of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. An academic school of Russian sculpture is emerging, represented by a galaxy of outstanding masters. Patriotic pathos, majesty and classical clarity of images characterize the work of F. I. Shubin, M. I. Kozlovsky, F. F. Shchedrin, I. P. Martos, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov. A close connection with architecture, an equal position in synthesis with it, a generalized figurative structure are typical for the sculpture of classicism. In the 1830-40s. In Russian sculpture, the desire for historical specificity of the image (B. I. Orlovsky), for genre specificity (P. K. Klodt, N. S. Pimenov) is increasingly emerging.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. Russian and Western European sculpture reflects the general process of democratization of art. Classicism, which is now degenerating into salon art, is opposed by the realistic movement with its openly expressed social orientation, recognition of everyday life worthy of the artist’s attention, appeal to the theme of labor, to problems of public morality (J. Dalou in France, C. Meunier in Belgium, etc. .). Realistic Russian sculpture of the 2nd half of the 19th century. develops under the strong influence of the paintings of the Wanderers. The depth of reflection on the historical destinies of the homeland, characteristic of the latter, is also distinguished by the sculptural creativity of M. M. Antokolsky. The sculpture contains subjects taken from modern life, a peasant theme (F. F. Kamensky, M. A. Chizhov, V. A. Beklemishev, E. A. Lansere).

In realistic art of the 2nd half of the 19th century. the departure of many masters from progressive social ideas became one of the reasons for the decline of monumental and decorative sculpture. Its other reasons were the historically inevitable loss of sculpture's ability to express universally significant ideals under the conditions of developed capitalism, the disruption of the stylistic connections between sculpture and architecture, and the spread of naturalistic movements. Attempts to overcome the crisis are typical for sculpture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In search of sustainable spiritual and aesthetic life values, it developed in various ways (Impressionism, Neoclassicism, Expressionism, etc.). The works of O. Rodin, A. Maillol, E. A. Bourdelle in France, E. Barlach in Germany, I. Mestrovic in Croatia, which deeply penetrates the life and laws of realistic plastic art, have a powerful influence on all national schools. The art of S. M. Volnukhin, I. Ya. Ginzburg, P. P. Trubetskoy, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov, A. T. Matveev, N. A. Andreev becomes an expression of the progressive tendencies of Russian sculpture of this period . Along with the renewal of content, the artistic language of sculpture also changes, and the importance of plastic-expressive form increases.

In the conditions of the crisis of bourgeois culture in the 20th century. the development of sculpture takes on a contradictory character and is often associated with various modernist movements and formalistic experiments of cubism (A. P. Archipenko, A. Laurent), Constructivism (N. Gabo, A. Pevzner), Surrealism (H. Arp, A. Giacometti), abstract art (A. Calder), etc. Modernist trends in sculpture, breaking with national realistic traditions, lead to a complete rejection of the depiction of reality, often to the creation of declaratively anti-humanistic images.

Modernist trends are consistently opposed by Soviet sculpture, developing along the path of socialist realism. Its formation is inseparable from Lenin’s plan of monumental propaganda, on the basis of which the first revolutionary monuments and memorial plaques, and subsequently many significant works of monumental sculpture, were created. In monuments built in the 20-30s. (V.I. Lenin, sculptor S.A. Evseev, and S.M. Kirov, sculptor N.V. Tomsky, - in Leningrad; K.A. Timiryazev, sculptor S.D. Merkurov, and N.E. Bauman, sculptor B. D. Korolev, - in Moscow; T. G. Shevchenko in Kharkov, sculptor M. G. Manizer), in monumental and decorative sculpture that adorned large public buildings, metro stations, all-Union and international exhibitions ("Worker and the collective farmer" by V.I. Mukhina), the socialist worldview was clearly manifested, the principles of nationality and party spirit of Soviet art were realized. Central in S. 20-30s. become the theme of revolution ("October" by A. T. Matveev), the image of a participant in revolutionary events, a builder of socialism. In easel sculpture, a large place is occupied by a portrait ("Leniniana" by N. A. Andreev; works by A. S. Golubkina, S. D. Lebedeva, V. N. Domogatsky, etc.), as well as an image of a human fighter ("Cobblestone - weapons of the proletariat" by I. D. Shadra), a warrior ("The Sentinel" by L. V. Sherwood), a worker ("Metallurgist" by G. I. Motovilov). Animalistic sculpture is developing (I. S. Efimov, V. A. Vatagin), sculpture of small forms is noticeably updated (V. V. Kuznetsov, N. Ya. Danko, etc.). During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, the theme of the Motherland and Soviet patriotism came to the fore, embodied in portraits of heroes (V.I. Mukhin, S.D. Lebedeva, N.V. Tomsky), in intensely dramatic genre figures and groups (V.V. Lishev, E.F. Belashova, etc.).

The tragic events and heroic achievements of the war years were especially clearly reflected in the sculpture of memorial buildings of the 40-70s. (E. V. Vuchetich, J. Mikenas, L. V. Bukovsky, G. Yokubonis, etc.). In the 40-70s. sculpture plays an active role as a decorative or spatial organizing component in the architecture of public buildings and complexes, and is used in the creation of urban planning compositions, in which, along with numerous new monuments (M.K. Anikushin, V.Z. Boroday, L.E. Kerbel, A. P. Kibalnikov, N. Nikogosyan, V. E. Tsigal, etc.) an important place belongs to garden and park sculpture, statues on highways and access roads to the city, sculptural design of residential areas, etc. For sculpture of small forms, penetrating into everyday life, the desire to aesthetically individualize a modern interior is noteworthy. A keen sense of modernity and the search for ways to update the plastic language are characteristic of easel sculpture of the 2nd half of the 50-70s. Common to many national schools of Soviet S. is the desire to embody the character of a modern person - the builder of communism, an appeal to the themes of friendship of peoples, and the struggle for peace. The same tendencies are also inherent in the sculpture of other socialist countries, which has produced a number of major masters (K. Dunikowski in Poland, F. Kremer in the GDR, A. Avgustincic in Yugoslavia, J. Kisfaludi-Strobl in Hungary, etc.). In Western European S., the reaction against fascism and war caused the activation of the most progressive forces and contributed to the creation of works imbued with high humanistic pathos (sculptors M. Mazakurati, G. Manzu in Italy, V. V. Aaltonen in Finland, etc.). The sculptures of leading artists promote the progressive ideas of modernity, recreate historical and contemporary events with particular breadth, epicness and expression, while representatives of various modernist movements break the living connection with reality, moving away from actual life problems into the world of subjective fiction and formalistic experiments.

sculpture art antique russian

Bibliography

1) Kepinov G.I., Technology of sculpture, M., 1936.

2) Arkin D. E., Images of sculpture, M., 1961.

Bas-relief

Bas-relief in “low relief”. On such a relief, the convex image protrudes above the background by half its own volume or less. If we imagine that the image is a collection of full-fledged sculptural figures, and the background is sand in which they are partially immersed, then on the bas-relief they turn out to be “immersed” half or even deeper, while their smaller size remains “on the surface”.

The very first bas-reliefs appeared in the Stone Age - these were images carved on rocks. Bas-reliefs are found in almost all cultures of the Ancient World: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Persia, India. In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, bas-reliefs were most often placed on the pediments of temples, becoming, as it were, a “calling card” of a religious building. The art of bas-relief existed both in the Middle Ages and in modern times.

Bas-reliefs were and continue to be used to decorate coins, medals, buildings, monument pedestals, and memorial plaques.

High relief

In contrast to bas-relief, high relief is called “high relief.” The image here protrudes above the plane by more than half of its volume. Individual figures can even be completely separated from the background. High relief, more than bas-relief, is suitable for depicting landscapes, as well as scenes that include many figures.

Examples of high relief can be found in ancient art. One of the most famous examples is the Pergamon altar, dating back to the 2nd century. BC. The high relief depicts the plot of an ancient Greek myth - the battle of the Olympian gods with the Titans.

In ancient Rome, triumphal arches were often decorated with high reliefs. This tradition was resurrected in modern times - the Arc de Triomphe in Paris also contains high reliefs.

Other types of relief

The counter-relief is something like a “negative” of the bas-relief, its imprint recessed into the background. Counter-relief is used in matrices and seals. A different understanding of counter-relief can be observed in avant-garde art of the 20th century, in particular, in the works of V. Tatlin. Here counter-relief is interpreted as a “hypertrophied” relief that has completely gotten rid of the background - exposing real objects.

Koyanaglyph is an image carved on a plane. It does not protrude from the background and does not go deeper into it - only the contours of the figures deepen. Such an image compares favorably with bas-relief and high relief in that it is not in danger of chipping, therefore, it is better preserved. Koyanaglyphs are found in the art of Ancient Egypt and other civilizations of the Ancient East.

There are many varieties of sculpture in form, purpose, and material.

The shape of the sculpture can be round or in relief.

Round the sculpture can be viewed from different angles and is surrounded by free space. Its main types are: bust, statue, sculptural group.

E. Falconet “Winter” (1771). Marble. Hermitage (St. Petersburg)

Relief

In relief, the figure(s) are partly immersed in a flat background and protrude from it.

High relief on the pediment of the Admiralty. Sculptor Ivan Ivanovich Terebenev
There are three types of relief:
bas-relief (the convex figure protrudes less than half);
high relief (the convex figure protrudes halfway);
counter-relief (the figure is not convex, but concave)

Bas-relief

Bas-relief is a common type of decoration of architectural structures and decorative products of all times, known since the Paleolithic era: the first bas-reliefs are rock paintings. Bas-reliefs are also often placed on the pedestals of monuments, on steles, memorial plaques, coins, and medals.

Sculptor S.E. Cherepanov. Memorial plaque on the house in which the science fiction writer G. Altov (Altshuller) lived the last years of his life from 1990 to 1998. Established October 15, 2003 Petrozavodsk

High relief

High relief is a type of sculptural relief when the image protrudes above the background plane by more than half the volume of the depicted parts. A common type of decoration of architectural structures; allows you to display multi-figure scenes and landscapes.

Counter-relief

Counter-relief is an in-depth relief obtained from a mechanical impression of an ordinary relief in a soft material (clay, wax) or when removing a plaster mold from the relief. Could be used as a seal to produce a raised impression.

Ancient Egyptian counter-relief

Types of sculpture according to purpose

Monumental sculpture

Monumental sculpture is associated with architecture. These are monuments that are created to perpetuate the memory of famous people or significant events. The monumental sculpture is distinguished by its large size and ideological content. Monumental art received its name from the Latin monumentum, from moneo - I remind you), it should always be sublime and even majestic. Works of monumental art must be created in harmony with the architecture and landscape.

Henry Moore. Sculpture in the harbor of Riesbach (Zurich-Seefeld)
Monumental art acquires particular significance during periods of global socio-political transformations, during times of social upsurge, intellectual and cultural flourishing, when creativity is called upon to express the most relevant ideas.

Sculptor I. Kozlovsky, architect P. Butenko “The Squad of Alexander Nevsky” (1993). Pskov
The monument is a very significant monument in size. There are entire memorial complexes - territories with monumental architectural structures located on them: mausoleums, pantheons, sculptural groups, obelisks of glory and monuments dedicated to outstanding events from the history of the country and the people inhabiting it.
The Khatyn memorial complex is a village in Belarus, destroyed on March 22, 1943 by a punitive detachment as revenge for the murder of several German soldiers. 149 residents of Khatyn were burned alive or shot. In 1969, a memorial complex was opened on the site where the village was located.

Of the adult residents of the village, only the 56-year-old village blacksmith Joseph Iosifovich Kaminsky (1887-1973) survived. Burnt and wounded, he regained consciousness only late at night, when the punitive squads left the village. Among the corpses of fellow villagers, he found his son Adam. The boy was fatally wounded in the stomach and received severe burns. He died in his father's arms. Joseph Kaminsky and his son Adam served as the prototypes for the famous monument in the memorial complex.

S. Selikhanov. The main monument in Khatyn
No less famous are the memorial complexes Brest Fortress (Brest), Mamayev Kurgan (Volgograd), Victory Park (Moscow), etc.

Monumental and decorative sculpture

It includes all types of decoration of architectural structures and complexes (Atlantes, caryatids, friezes, pediment, fountain, garden sculpture, etc.).

Atlanta

Atlas is a sculpture of a man supporting the ceilings of a building, balcony, cornice, etc. The name of this architectural element dates back to Ancient Greece: Atlas or Atlas in ancient Greek mythology was the name of the mighty titan holding the vault of heaven on his shoulders. Atlas is a symbol of endurance and patience.

Atlanta (Hermitage)

Caryatids

A caryatid is a statue of a dressed woman that replaces a column or pilaster in a building. These figures were used in the architecture of Ancient Greece.

Caryatids. Athens, Greece)

Caryatids as a pilaster

Frieze

Frieze (French frise) is a decorative composition in the form of a horizontal stripe or ribbon framing part of an architectural structure.

Sculptural frieze on one of the Empire-era churches near Moscow

Gable

Pediment (French fronton, from Latin frons, frontis - forehead, front part of the wall) is the completion (usually triangular) of the facade of a building, limited by two roof slopes on the sides and a cornice at the base.

Pediment of the Greek National Assembly building in Athens

Fountains (usually hydraulic structures that perform a decorative function) are often decorated with sculptures.

Fountain "Samson" in Peterhof
The Manneken Pis is one of the most famous attractions in Brussels. This is a miniature bronze fountain statue in the form of a naked boy peeing in a pool.

Sculptor – Jerome Duquesnoy (1619)
This statue has been stolen several times and also dressed up in costumes.

"Manneken Pis" in the form of the American Air Force

Garden sculpture

Landscape sculpture is intended for decorating gardens and parks. It can be decorative, propaganda, educational or memorial in nature.

Sculpture "Cupid and Psyche". Workshop of Lorenzo Bernini, 17th century. Summer Garden (St. Petersburg)

There are also short-lived types of sculptures: ice, made of sand, more durable ones made of clay, wood, as well as modeling, carving, artistic casting, forging, chasing, etc.

Relief (sculpture)

Relief- a type of fine art, one of the main types of sculpture, in which everything depicted is created using volumes protruding above the background plane. Performed using abbreviations in perspective, usually viewed frontally. Relief is thus the opposite of circular sculpture. A figurative or ornamental image is made on a plane of stone, clay, metal, wood using modeling, carving and embossing.

Depending on the purpose, architectural reliefs differ (on pediments, friezes, slabs).

Types of relief:

Notes

Literature

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Artist / Comp. N. I. Platonova, V. D. Sinyukov. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983. - P. 327. - 416 p. - 500,000 copies.
"Architectural Dictionary"

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Similar documents

Bas-relief

High relief

Other types of relief

Relief

Bas-relief

High relief

Counter-relief

Types of sculpture according to purpose

Monumental sculpture

Monumental and decorative sculpture

Atlanta

Caryatids

Frieze

Gable

Garden sculpture

see also

Notes

Literature

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