Animal, plant and geometric ornaments. Ornaments and their types

The art of ornament is very ancient. It arose in the Paleolithic era. Ornamental images provide aesthetic pleasure, which has a strong impact on a person, causing chains of associations that allow one to understand and appreciate the work. The main pattern of the ornament is the periodic repetition of the motif. Ornament is also characterized by the translation of real forms and objects into conventional ornamental images, a high degree of decorative generalization, and the absence of aerial perspective (flat image).

Ornament has always been widely used as a decorative design for products needed by people in everyday life and practical activities. It forms the basis of decorative and applied arts. Handicrafts, ceramics, and textiles are not without ornament.

Ornament is classified 1. according to visual motifs: plant, geometric, animalistic, anthropological, calligraphic, fantastic, astral, etc.

2.By style: antique, gothic, baroque, etc.

3.By nationality: Ukrainian, Belarusian, Greek, etc.

4. According to the visual form: planar, relief (small elevation), relief (small depression inward).
Characteristics of ornaments based on figurative motifs.

The primary form of ornament is technical an ornament that arose as a result of human labor activity (the texture of clay products processed on a potter's wheel, the pattern of simple cells in fabric, spiral-shaped turns obtained by weaving ropes).

Technical ornament

Symbolic the ornament arose and was formed on the basis of images of animals, people, tools in rock paintings, and on fabric. The evolution of conventional images has led to the fact that ornamental images are often symbols. Having appeared in Ancient Egypt and other countries of the East, symbolic ornament still plays an important role today, for example, in heraldry (image of a hammer and sickle, double-headed eagle, etc.). Geometric the ornament was formed on the basis of technical and symbolic ornaments. It always places emphasis on the strict alternation of rhythmic elements and their color combinations. The fundamental principle of almost any geometric shape is a really existing form, generalized and simplified to the limit (Greek meander-wave, circle - sun, etc.)

Vegetable ornament is the most common after geometric. It is characterized by its favorite motifs, different for different countries at different times. If in Japan and China the favorite plant is chrysanthemum, then in India - beans, beans, in Iran - cloves, in Russia - sunflower, chamomile. In the early Middle Ages, the vine and trefoil were especially popular, in the late Gothic period - thistle and pomegranate, in Baroque times - tulip and peony. In the 18th century, the rose “ruled”; Art Nouveau brought the lily and iris to the fore. Floral ornament has the greatest potential in terms of the variety of motifs used and execution techniques. In some cases, the motifs are interpreted in a realistic, three-dimensional manner, in others – in a more stylized, conventionally flat form.

Calligraphic the ornament is made up of individual letters or text elements, expressive in their plastic pattern and rhythm. The art of calligraphy has most fully developed in countries such as China, Japan, and Arab countries, in a certain sense replacing fine art.

At the core fantastic The ornament consists of fictitious images, often of symbolic and mythological content. Fantastic ornaments with images of scenes from the life of animals became especially widespread in the countries of the Ancient East (Egypt, Assyria, China, India, Byzantium). In the Middle Ages, fantastic ornamentation was popular due to the fact that religion prohibited the depiction of living beings.

Astral the ornament affirmed the cult of the sky. Its main elements were images of the sky, sun, clouds, and stars. It is most widespread in Japan and China.

Landscape The ornament was and is especially often used on textiles made in Japan and China.

IN animal (animalistic) In the ornament, both realistic and more conventional, stylized images of birds, animals, etc. are possible. In the latter case, the ornament to a certain extent approaches the fantastic ornament.

Subject, or material ornament arose in ancient Rome and was subsequently widely used during the Renaissance, during the times of Baroque, Rococo, and Classicism. The content of the subject ornament consists of objects of military life, everyday life, musical and theatrical art.

Anthropomorphic the ornament uses male and female stylized figures or individual parts of the human body as motifs.

The nature of the ornament also depends on national images, ideas, customs, etc. For example, the ornamentation of the Ukrainians is completely different from the ornamental forms of the Arabs.

Ukrainian ornament

Arabic ornament

Arabesque from fr. arabesque - Arabic) is the European name for the ornament of medieval art of Muslim countries. The arabesque, built on a geometric grid, is based on the principle of endless spatial development of repeating groups of ornamental motifs. Arabesque is distinguished by repeated rhythmic layering of homogeneous forms, which creates the impression of an intricate, whimsical pattern.

The combination of ornaments, their dependence on the material and shape of the object, as well as the rhythm form the decor, which is an integral feature of a certain style.Style in the art of any era is the historically established unity of the figurative system, means and methods of artistic expression. The basis of any style is a uniform system of artistic forms generated by an ideological and methodological community that arose in certain social and economic conditions. When forming a figurative system of a new style, ornament is one of the most important components of it and is among those means of artistic expression that make it possible to accurately determine whether any architectural monument or work of decorative and applied art belongs to a given style.

By style features the ornament can be antique, gothic, byzantine, baroque, etc.

Gothic ornament

Renaissance ornament.

During the Middle Ages, ornaments were distinguished by fantastic and fairy-tale designs based on plant and animal motifs. The medieval ornament is symbolic. Natural motifs are interpreted conventionally and stylized. Simple rectilinear geometric shapes transform into woven curvilinear ones. Through the developed decorative and ornamental means in the Middle Ages, the inner world, state and experiences of a person were indirectly transmitted, which was not the case in ancient art.

During the Renaissance, a secular humanistic culture was formed, affirming the value of the human person. During this period, art strives for clarity and harmony. The ornaments widely use motifs of acanthus and oak, grapevine, tulip, located against a background of plant curls and patterns. In addition, animals and birds were often depicted in combination with a naked human body.

The Baroque style ornament is built on intense contrasts, sharply contrasting the earthly and the heavenly, the real and the fantastic, as is the case with all Baroque art. Baroque ornamentation is distinguished by its variety and expressiveness of forms, splendor, splendor and solemnity. It is also characterized by decorativeness and dynamics, the predominance of curvilinear forms and asymmetry.

At the beginning of the 18th century. The Baroque style is transformed into the Rococo style. The ornament acquires lightness, airiness, mobility and picturesqueness. It is characterized by openwork, curved, curvilinear forms, lack of clear constructiveness (a favorite motif is the shell).

During the period of classicism at the end of the 18th century. there is a revision of the ideals of ancient aesthetics. The ornament again acquires staticity and balance, clarity and precision. It consists mainly of straight lines, squares, rectangles, circles and ovals, becoming restrained in color.

At the beginning of the 19th century. the dominance of classicism ends with the Empire style (from the French empire - empire), which draws its artistic ideals from the art of the Greek archaic and imperial Rome. Empire style ornamentation is characterized by severity, schematism, severity, solemnity and pomp, and military armor and laurel wreaths are used as motifs. Typical color combinations: scarlet with black, green with red, blue with bright yellow, white with gold.

So, the ornament of each period reveals a connection with the spiritual life of society, architecture, decorative art, and reflects the aesthetics of the era.

Ornaments based on the nature of the surface are divided into flat and embossed

Relief ornament

A special group includes those that combine relief and color. Relief patterns, for example carving on ganch (a Central Asian type of gypsum), are unique. The tradition of decorating homes with carved plaster has existed in Central Asia since the first centuries of our era. Excellent examples of such carving can be seen in the architectural monuments of Khorezm, Samarkand, and Bukhara.

Gunch carving

A clearly defined rhythm, as well as stylization, is the basis of all ornaments. Report(motif) - repetition of the same group of elements in a pattern.

One motivic is a pattern in which the same motif is rhythmically repeated. For example, one motif is the famous ancient Greek pattern called “meander”.

Meander

The rhythmic repetition of two different motifs is often found in the ornament.

Depending on the purpose and purpose There are three types of ornament, which are considered to be basic: ribbon, mesh and compositionally closed.

Ribbon ornament looks like a ribbon or strip. This pattern consists of repeating elements and is limited on two sides - top and bottom. The ribbon ornament is divided into frieze, border and border.

As you know, there are different types of ornaments. They can be plant, object, landscape, astral, floral, fantastic, calligraphic, etc. It all depends on what elements the pattern is made of. Geometric consists of simple shapes - circle, square, rectangles, triangles. This is the most common and easiest option to build. To make it, it is enough to use stencils or and understand the pattern of construction.

Geometric ornaments and patterns: types

The location and nature of the composition are always related to the shape of the object on which the drawing is applied. On this basis, there are the following types of ornaments from figures:

tape;
reticulate;
centric or rosette.

The first is built in the form of a straight or curved strip running along the center or edge of the product. This is how friezes and borders are designed. In the second case, the entire surface to be decorated is filled with a pattern. In the third option, individual elements are located inside a square, circle, rhombus, rectangle, which are located in the center of the object being decorated.

Areas of application of the ornament

Geometric ones have been used since ancient times. This was the easiest way to decorate a jug or pot. Ordinary sticks were used to make round indentations in the surface and lines.

With the development of technology, geometric patterns began to be used in architecture and clothing. Now they are often used to decorate textile products, scarves, bed linen, carpets, as well as in printing when printing books, wallpaper, for decorating furniture, finishing materials (ceramic and ceiling tiles, laminate, linoleum, etc.).

Important Concepts

Any pattern, geometric, floral, has a certain motif and rapport. You need to clearly understand what both words mean. The first is the main element of the ornament. It can be simple, consisting of one shape with a single outline, or complex, which involves the presence of several components.

The motif can be a stylized flower, a leaf, a star, different types of polygons, a star consisting of triangles. Rapport is a combination of a motive or a group of them and the distance to the neighboring one.

Techniques for constructing an ornament

Each pattern, geometric, floral or any other, represents a certain rhythm, that is, repetition, alternation of certain elements. You can take an isosceles triangle as a motif. Repeat it horizontally many times without gaps, then you will get peculiar teeth, at the same distance or alternating the length of the space between the elements in a certain combination. The appearance of the ribbon ornament will change. The same can be done vertically.

To create a mesh pattern, it is enough to repeat the line of triangles obtained in the first stage several times in a column. Each module can be located either one under the other or offset. Two different horizontal rows alternate according to a certain pattern, after one, two, etc.

Original decors are obtained by combining different types of mirroring. Rows, columns, or only parts of them in a certain combination are reflected horizontally or vertically.

Centric geometric designs and patterns are also easy to achieve. It is enough to select a rotation point at one of the ends of the element, inside it or outside it, and around it move the triangle by a certain number of degrees.

How to make an ornament for a beginner

Simple geometric patterns are very easy to make. The basis is a set of figures arranged, for example, in a square. This module is repeated many times according to any of the above patterns.

The easiest and most fun way to develop a pattern, geometric, floral or any other, is to use a graphic editor on your computer. A program that works with vector graphics is suitable, by which we mean simple geometric shapes that have an outline and fill. Such patterns can be obtained in the editor or Adobe Illustrator.

The work algorithm will be as follows:

Make up a basic element from geometric shapes.
Perform the operation of grouping parts.
Copy the module.
Insert the required number of times.
Apply the function of distributing all selected fragments at a certain distance. The line is ready.
You group it in the same way as the module itself at the beginning.
Try different combinations of reflections and repetitions. You can even make a circle rotation with different rotation angles.

There will be many combinations. Choose the best ones, print them or use them for any other purpose. By the way, you can use this image as a stencil: trace the resulting pattern through glass onto paper, and then use it for painting fabric, decorating handmade postcards, embroidery, stained glass, carvings and any other artistic technique.

Construction by cells

Patterns from are easy to make using a grid. You can use a regular notebook sheet or pre-draw cells of any size on the sheet with thin lines. Contours are already drawn along them or figures are sketched in color. The size of the parts and spaces can be easily determined by counting the cells.

So, you have seen how geometric ornaments and patterns are built. You can choose any of the above methods and try to perform some option yourself. If you do this task on a computer, you will get a huge number of options. This activity is very exciting, since it is difficult to even imagine in advance what kind of complex decor will end up from a simple element.

Throughout the history of art we encounter an endless variety of ornament. Each nationality, sometimes even a geographical region, has its own circle of ornamentation.
The determining factor in the process of working on an ornament can be not only the shape of the object being decorated, but also the material from which it is made, its color, texture. In addition, the selection of decor is made by the artist himself and is subject to a certain decorative system, in which the combination of the useful and the beautiful is its integral feature.
The ornament draws its motifs from geometry, fauna, flora; they can be suggested by the outlines of the human body or surrounding objects. It should be clarified that a motif in ornamental creativity is called a part of an ornament, its main element. A motif can consist of one element (a simple motif) or many, plastically formed into a single ornamental whole.
Most often, the masters themselves created ornamental motifs for their works. Thanks to the skillful use of motifs, a variety of techniques for varying shape, silhouette, and compositional combinations, artists have always managed to create new original examples of ornamental creativity. Therefore, it can be assumed that a number of simple ornamental motifs, independently of each other, could have arisen in different countries at the same time.
The ornament can be graphic, sculptural, geometric or floral in shape, sometimes taking fantastic forms; it may include pictorial motifs. The combination of ornaments, their dependence on the material and shape of the object, as well as the rhythm form the decor, which is an integral feature of a certain style.
Style in the art of any era is a historically established unity of the figurative system, means and methods of artistic expression. The basis of any style is a uniform system of artistic forms generated by an ideological and methodological community that arose in certain social and economic conditions. When forming a figurative system of a new style, ornament is one of the most important components of it and is among those means of artistic expression that make it possible to accurately determine whether any architectural monument or work of decorative and applied art belongs to a given style.
In the process of developing a style that carried new artistic ideals, new ornamental motifs appeared in applied art and new decorative solutions were created.
The main classification features of an ornament are its origin, purpose and content. Taking all this into account, ornamental forms can be combined into the following groups, or types.
Technical ornament. The emergence of forms of this ornament is due to human labor activity. For example, the texture of the surface of objects made of clay made on a potter's wheel, the pattern of the simplest cells of fabric when it was produced on a primitive weaving loom, spiral-shaped turns obtained when weaving ropes, etc.
Symbolic ornament. The formation of a symbolic ornament was facilitated by the common nature of conditionally symbolic images of works of ornamental art in general, and the ornamental images themselves, as a rule, represent symbols or a system of symbols.
This kind of image is capable of expressing very broad, diverse concepts in a laconic form. Having appeared in Ancient Egypt and other countries of the Ancient East, symbolic ornament continues to play an important role today.
Geometric ornament. Initially, this ornament arose through the fusion of technical and symbolic ornaments, forming more complex combinations of images devoid of specific narrative meaning. The abandonment of the plot basis in this type of ornament made it possible to focus on the strict alternation of individual natural motifs. After all, any geometric shape is an initially existing form, extremely generalized and simplified.
The gradual development of the original and at the same time basic geometric forms led to those artistic forms that modern art uses and which are distinguished by their special variety and grace in the works of Arab-Moorish and Gothic art.
Floral ornament. This is the most common ornament after the geometric one, it is characterized by its own favorite motifs, and the latter are different in different countries and at different times. Floral ornament, compared to its other types, provides the greatest opportunities for creating a variety of motifs, execution techniques, and for an original interpretation of the form.
Floral ornament uses numerous forms of plants: leaves, flowers, fruits, taken together or separately. This is an artistic processing of various forms of the plant world. In the hands of an ornamental artist, the original forms, scales, and colors change and are subordinated according to the laws of symmetry.
When stylizing, all the typical features of the plant are strengthened according to the character of the plant and the particular or random are removed or weakened. Often these changes are so significant that the original material is transformed beyond recognition.
The most common plant forms since ancient times include: acanthus, lotus, papyrus, palms, hops, laurel, grapevine, ivy, oak.
Calligraphic (epigraphic) ornament. This ornament is made up of individual letters or text elements, expressive in their plastic pattern and rhythm. The art of calligraphy most fully developed in China, Japan, Iran and a number of Arab countries, and was also used in Ancient Rus', playing, along with the ornamentation itself, a significant role in the decoration of various items of decorative and applied art.
Fantastic ornament. This type of ornament is based on images of imaginary, often symbolic content. Fantastic ornaments depicting scenes from the life of fabulous animals became especially widespread in the countries of the Ancient East (Egypt, Assyria, China and India). In the Middle Ages, it gained particular popularity due to religious prohibitions (in Western European countries, in Byzantium during the era of iconoclasm, in Muslim countries of the Near and Middle East).
Astral ornament(from the word “aster” - star). Establishes the cult of heaven. The main elements are the image of the sky, sun, clouds, stars. Most common in Japan and China.
Landscape ornament. The main objects of this ornament are a wide variety of motifs: mountains, trees, rocks, waterfalls, often combined with architectural motifs and elements of animal ornament. Particularly great development was achieved in the decorative and applied arts of Japan and China.
Animal ornament. Built on images of birds and animals with varying degrees of stylization: both close to realistic and conventional. In the latter case, the ornament is somewhat closer to the fantastic.
Subject or material ornament. It originated in ancient Rome and was widely used in all subsequent eras. The content of the subject ornament consists of images of military heraldry, household items, and attributes of musical and theatrical art.

All ornamental designs, according to their visual capabilities, are divided into three types: figurative ornament, including a specific drawing of a person, animals, plants, landscape or architectural motifs, a drawing of inanimate objects or a complex emblem;
non-figurative ornament, formed from geometric elements, abstract forms, devoid of specific subject content;
combined ornament, which is a combination of figurative motifs or individual elements, on the one hand, and abstract forms, on the other.
The most complex non-figurative ornamental pattern, or motif, essentially consists of the simplest geometric elements of regular or irregular shape. Let's start with a point that doesn't mean much in itself, but with skillful rhythmic repetition you can achieve an interesting decorative effect. Examples include works from Sasanian Iran or Chinese products from the Tang period. A line most accurately conveys the nature of the outlines of any shape. It is the main formative element. And if the number of non-pictorial abstract forms is very large, then there are only three lines that sharply differ from one another:
straight– vertical, horizontal, inclined;
curves– with a constant radius of curvature – circles and their arcs;
curves– with a variable radius of curvature – parabolas, hyperbolas and their segments.
These lines are the primary elements for all ornamental formations. All three types of line have a certain visual expressiveness and are not similar to one another.
Straight and curved lines themselves are not carriers of artistic expression. But under certain conditions, they can “discover” the emotional charge hidden in them.
Thus, straight lines and curves with a constant radius of curvature are capable of expressing smooth, calm movement. The nature of these lines is constancy, static, balance; At the same time, it is believed that horizontal lines in the ornament symbolize harmony, severity, and a certain stability, while inclined straight lines create the impression of constant movement.
Line or tape, was widely used in ornamentation to delimit individual motifs.
Zigzag or broken line, in Ancient Egypt served as a sign of water. It has found application in the ornaments of many peoples at different times.
Chevrons– broken ribbon with rhythmic alternation of patterns. It is found in the decorative art of China during the Shang period and in Romanesque art.
The braided motif is found in the ornamental art of different countries: Far Eastern and Greek, in Western European medieval book miniatures and on Irish carved crosses, in Muslim art.
This motif was often used during the Renaissance on book bindings and Saint-Porcher faience. Even the great Leonardo da Vinci did not ignore it and created famous examples of this ornamental motif.
Meander- a line broken at right angles. The very first examples of this ornamental motif date back to the Paleolithic era, which will be discussed in more detail below. Later, the meander was used in Greek ceramics, in the art of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico, on Japanese textiles and in the decorative arts of many other peoples of the world.
Square and rectangle are the main form in the ornament. They primarily serve to limit the surface filled with ornamental motifs. A striking example of the use of this motif in art is the Rhodian Greek vases; in architecture - coffered ceilings of the Renaissance. Checkerboard patterns have been widely used in fabric patterns since the times of Ancient Egypt right up to the present day.
Rhombus, just like a square, serves to limit the surface to be decorated. This motif was especially widely used in pottery of the prehistoric period.
Hexagon and octagon alone and in combination were very common in the decorative art of Muslim countries.
Straightforward motifs that have been widely used since prehistoric times include the cross and the swastika, which served primarily as religious symbols: the cross in the West, the swastika in the countries of Central and Southeast Asia. Cross-shaped motifs can also be found in ancient art.
Circle considered one of the most perfect and complete forms. It is used both as a purely ornamental element, for example on Cypriot ceramics, and to limit the surface, which includes other motifs, as on Japanese coats of arms. Circles played an important role in medieval ornaments (the so-called Gothic “roses”).
Spiral motif was widespread back in the Neolithic era (as evidenced by a frieze with a relief in the shape of a spiral, found on the island of Malta; a boundary stone with a spiral relief ornament, found in Ireland). This motif was subsequently widely used in the Cretan, Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations and became a favorite motif in the ancient art of Egypt, Assyria, and Greece. It is a symbolic image of the history of the development of the world.
Lines with variable radius of curvature carry dynamism, tension, unevenness and active movement (increasing and decreasing). Broken lines with sharp angles – the so-called lightning-shaped ones – are especially capable of expressing dynamism. The “running wave” motif was used in ancient times as a symbol of the impermanence of life. The origins of this motif are in a meander (broken) line, from which it gradually turns into a curve.
To the above-mentioned geometric motifs should be added elements of architectural decor, used only to decorate buildings and sometimes furniture: “twisted cord” - a line spirally twisted around its own axis; fillet, roller, scotia, double toothed ornament, etc.
Any non-figurative ornamental motif consists of a combination of certain lines or closed figures. In some cases these are only straight or curved lines, in others - a combination of various lines or figured elements in one motif. The rhythmic organization of elements in a motif creates conditions that stimulate the manifestation of the color-plastic properties of these elements.
Among the ornaments of the pictorial group, the most common is floral. When creating this type of ornament, all peoples were inspired by the local flora, borrowing relatively few motifs from it.
Here are the most common ones from ancient times.
Lotus in the ancient East had cult significance. The lotus was dedicated to the god Osiris and the goddess Isis and served as a symbol of fertility. Its flowering coincided with the flooding of the Nile. In the highest sense, the lotus was a symbol of immortality and was a necessary attribute of the pharaoh. In Egyptian style, the lotus is a common form of decoration: a variety of arts and crafts were given the shape of a lotus; in architecture, the capital was made in the shape of a bud and a lotus flower, and the base of the column was the root leaves of the same plant, while the trunk (body) of the column resembled a bunch of lotus stems. The lotus motif became widespread in the ornamental forms of the Ancient East (China, Japan, India, etc.).
Palm trees with its fan-shaped and feathery leaves, served as a symbol of peace and victory among the ancient Jews and Egyptians. The ornamental form of the plant is called palmette. Palmettes are rarely located side by side, directly one after the other. Most often, individual palmettes are framed with arched lines.
Following palmette and lotus, they were popular among artists. acanthus leaf and curl. They were attracted by the beauty of the jagged leaves of this wild plant from southern Europe.
Among the ancient Greeks, the acanthus motif became a fundamental decorative element in the formation of the Corinthian order; its stylized leaf shapes decorated the capitals. In Ancient Rome, acanthus was given special preference as the main motif of the architectural orders beloved by the Romans - Corinthian and composite.
The ornament, created on the basis of acanthus leaves, reached its greatest grace and variety during the Renaissance. Plant shoots and curls of acanthus with rosettes become almost an integral part of the decoration of any object of decorative art of this time, be it furniture covered with wooden carvings, or a marble relief decorating the walls of a room; we see it on majolica dishes, wall paintings, tapestries and fabrics.
Laurel in Ancient Greece it was dedicated to the god Apollo and served as a symbol of cleansing from sins, since a sacred laurel branch was fanned for the person to be cleansed. Laurel wreaths were awarded to winners in musical and gymnastic competitions in Delphi, the main center of the cult of Apollo. The laurel served as a symbol of glory.
Hop– a cultivated plant, the picturesque appearance of which contributed to the widespread use of plant forms in ornamentation. The image of hops combined with ears was used as decoration on household items.
Vine– clusters and branches enjoyed special veneration in antiquity and the Middle Ages. In ancient Greek mythology, this is an attribute of the god Bacchus; among Christians, in combination with ears of corn (bread and wine, meaning the sacrament of communion) - a symbol of the suffering of Christ.
Ivy– evergreen climbing shrub, sometimes tree; like the vine was dedicated to Bacchus. Its leaves have a variety of shapes, most often heart-shaped or with pointed lobes. They were often used in ancient art to decorate vases and wine vessels.
Oak- the king of the forests, a symbol of strength and power. Oak leaves were widespread in Roman ornamentation. Their images are often found on friezes and capitals, church silverware and other types of Gothic applied art, as well as in the works of masters of the Italian Renaissance. Currently, images of oak leaves along with laurel can be found on medals and coins.
Flowers widely used in ornamental motifs of all times and styles. They serve as decoration for fabrics, wallpaper, dishes and other types of decorative art.
The most common among the figurative group of ornaments, after plant ones, can be considered animal. But fauna is used in ornamental art much less than flora. This is explained both by the properties of the material itself, which is more difficult to process artistically, and by the prohibitions of some religions on figurative images.
More often than others there were images of a lion, tiger, bull, elephant, horse, vulture, eagle, dolphin and others, which for the most part had a symbolic meaning.

Ornament from the Latin ornament is a pattern based on rhythmic alternation and organizational arrangement of elements. Depending on the nature of the motifs, the following types of ornaments are distinguished: geometric, floral, zoomorphic, anthropomorphic.

A GEOMETRIC ornament can consist of dots, lines (straight, broken, zigzag, intersecting mesh), circles, rhombuses, polyhedrons, stars, crosses, spirals, etc. Complex ornaments such as meanders, found in the art of Ancient Greece, can also be classified as geometric ornament.

PLANT ornament depicts stylized leaves, flowers, fruits, branches, etc. (lotus, palm, papyrus). The most common ornament, widespread among all ancient peoples, is the “Tree of Life”, which can be depicted as a flowering bush, or in a more decorative and generalized way, it is also a floral ornament.

ZOOMORPHIC ornament depicts stylized figures or parts of figures, real and fantastic animals. Sometimes such an ornament is called animal style. Decorative images of birds and fish also belong to this type of ornament.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC ornament uses male and female stylized figures or parts of the human body and face as motifs.

Sometimes an ornament combines several types at once, for example: geometric + floral, etc.

Not every pattern can be considered an ornament. A pattern that freely fills a plane is not such a pattern. Based on the nature of the compositions, the following types of ornament can be distinguished: ribbon (frieze, border, border), ornament in a circle (rosetta), ornament in a square or rectangle, and mesh.

The properties of an ornament also depend on the purpose, shape, structure and material of the thing it decorates (clothing, furniture, weapons, book, poster, etc.). An ornament can become an object if it is woven in the form of lace (a napkin, a collar, a tablecloth, etc.). The general stylistic features of ornamental art are determined by the characteristics and traditions of the visual culture of each nation, have a certain stability over a long historical period and have a pronounced character. Therefore, we can say that the ornament is the style of the era, a sign that the work belongs to a given time and to a given country (Gothic, Baroque, Art Nouveau, etc.)

In folk art, ornamental motifs capture the folklore and poetic attitude to the world (signs of the Sun, Earth, Water, Fire, etc.). Over time, ancient motifs lost their magical meaning, and only the decorative, expressive role of the pattern remained.

Ticket 7

Light in the picture. Reflection of light from a painting.

Chiaroscuro. Modeling volume in a painting.

The volumetric shape of objects is conveyed in the drawing not only by constructing them taking into account the perspective reductions of the surface, but also with the help Sveta . Light and shadow (chiaroscuro) are a very important means of depicting objects, their volumes and positions in space. Chiaroscuro, as well as perspective, has been used by artists for a very long time. Using this means, they learned to convey in painting the shape, volume, and texture of objects so convincingly that they seemed to come to life in the works. Light also helps convey the environment.

Artists to this day use the rules for the transmission of chiaroscuro discovered in the Middle Ages, but are working to improve and develop them.

The picture may contain different lighting: natural lighting (natural) sun and moon; artificial lighting (man-made) from a candle, lamp. Spotlights, etc.

The great Rembrandt mastered the art of using light in painting like no other. His paintings are always illuminated by an inner light. The light illuminates the faces of those being portrayed from the darkness.

The nature of illumination depends on the height of the sun above the horizon. If it is high above your head, then objects cast short shadows. Form and texture are poorly revealed. When the sun decreases, the shadows from objects increase, the texture appears better.

Lighting has different types:

· FRONT lighting is when a light source illuminates an object directly in front of it. This lighting does not highlight details.

· SIDE lighting (left or right) highlights shape and volume well. Invoice of objects.

· BACKLIGHT lighting – if the light source is behind the object. Objects look silhouetted and lose their volume.

There may be one or more light sources in a painting. In this case, the artist resorts to light perspective to depict objects.

The illumination of objects depends on the angle of incidence at which the rays of light fall on the object. If they illuminate the surface at right angles, then the brightest place on the object is formed, conventionally it is called - light . Where the rays only glide is formed penumbra . In those places where light does not penetrate - shadow . The light source is reflected on shiny surfaces and the brightest spot is formed - glare .

Light, shadow and penumbra play a significant role in the shape of an object in order to best convey the features of the shape and texture of the object.

Ticket 8

Still life genre in painting. System of allegories in painting.

Nature morte – “dead nature” (Italian). If we remember what gave rise to the still life, we can safely say that the impetus for its appearance was the common custom of medieval knights choosing short mottos for their tournaments, applied to weapons, clothing and household items. In addition to mottos, information was also encrypted in drawings; they expressed the knight’s personal principles. Simple drawings appear that accompany the motto. This is how the emblem appears. Solving emblems is becoming a traditional pastime of the secular society of the “gallant age”. Collections of emblems also served as dictionaries from which the authors of allegorical paintings and still lifes drew allegories.

Still life initially appears as part of the picture, its background, detail, interior decoration. He gained final independence in the 17th century in the painting of the Dutch, Flemish and Netherlanders. Still lifes occupied a special place in the painting of the Netherlands. There, in the 17th century, entire centers of still life paintings were created. For example:

breakfast paintings were popular in the bourgeois city of Haarlem;

· aristocratic Utrecht, famous for its floriculture, so “Flower Bouquets” were common there;

· the port city was characterized by “fish compositions;

· “scientific still lifes” are common on the Leiden university campus.

The meaning of a still life has always been encrypted with the help of objects taken from ordinary human life. From them a new, deeply symbolic world of still life was created. Still life has become a kind of “game with the viewer,” who is invited to unravel the symbolic meaning of the composition. Still life appeared precisely in the 17th century, because time itself was conducive to it. The times of the “gallant age” were relaxed, playful, mysterious and enigmatic. There was mystery in everything, even in everyday life. Normal communication between gentlemen and ladies involved solving all sorts of secrets, allegories and symbols. People tried to encrypt everything around them into symbols. Therefore, still life is a child of the “gallant age”.

Symbols appear most often in the still life:

· roses, wildflowers. Insects - speaking about the brevity of human existence;

· butterflies and dragonflies - salvation of the soul4

· hourglass, smoking pipe, soap bubbles, houses of cards - the transience of life;

· old books – bygone times;

· musical instruments – “their sound is so beautiful and fleeting”;

· flowers. Ears of corn, fruits, lemons are symbols of the seasons;

The compositions of floral still lifes were more complex; they were divided into the following types:

· radial composition - where the main flower is the one that was at the crossing of the stems;

· carpet composition – where the hierarchy of colors is built from top to bottom;

· triangular composition – the center is the axial flower, and the rest are grouped on both sides of it;

From here, based on the given compositions, the semantic zones of the floral still life are formed:

· bottom – signs of burden (broken or withered leaves, flowers, petals, empty shells, caterpillars, flies);

· middle – symbols of modesty and purity (lilies of the valley, violets, forget-me-nots, cyclamens);

· top – crown of virtue (large single flower);

In the mid-17th century, still lifes with reptiles, amphibians and other animals became widespread. Traditionally the following were symbolic:

· snakes, mice, frogs, hedgehogs - devilish animals;

· caterpillar, pupa, butterfly - a person lives on earth, dies, further life;

· squirrel – labor;

· parrot – eloquence;

· monkey – human vices;

· cat and mouse – dark forces, the devil and the human soul;

· dog – protection of the mind from dark forces.

Thus, drawing a conclusion from all of the above, you can see that still life = a composition that constantly reminds the average person of the transience of life, the frailty of existence and the meaning of being.

Ticket 9

Fresco. Its features.

Fresco is a type of monumental painting, the basis of which is mainly a wall. Fresco loves large planes, wide lines and extremely laconic language. The fresco needs tempera paint - it is water paint, but its binder is lime. The artist writes directly on the wall on the plaster that has not yet dried. Hence the name: Italian “fresco” - “fresh”. The main difficulty is the need to work quickly. The artist must finish what he started before the plaster dries, that is, on the same day. And if a mistake occurs, the painter is forced to knock down the entire layer of plaster in the corresponding area, apply it and paint it again. It is clear that such a technique requires a clear vision of the entire composition and a confident hand.

In the fresco, both the soil and the binding substance are the same – lime. This unity prevents paint from falling off. But lime is subject to a strong chemical reaction, spoiling some paints. In addition, the painter must provide for a significant lightening of the paints when the lime dries.

The fresco was already known in antiquity. True, ancient masters polished the surface of the finished fresco to a shine with hot wax, which gave it a resemblance to encaustic painting. In the Middle Ages, ancient technology was forgotten, but new technology was developed. Until the 14th century, the fresco technique “al secco” (Italian for “on dry”, that is, on dry plaster) was very popular. Gradually, it was this technique that led to the flowering of fresco in the 15th century, when Giotto’s school created a mixed technique called “buon fresco” (Italian: “good fresco”). Contemporaries described this work by Giotto this way. First, the first layer of plaster was applied, consisting of two parts sand and one part lime mixed with water. On this first, rather thick layer, after drying, a square grid was drawn, along which a drawing was applied with charcoal. From above, all this was covered with a second layer of plaster - thin and smooth, through which the charcoal pattern was visible. The final version of the fresco was based on it. And soon, in 1400, the method of transferring a drawing from a large life-size cardboard was finally introduced by piercing the outline and sprinkling it with crushed coal. Now the fresco could be carefully prepared in advance.

Since the 15th century, fresco has been replaced by easel painting, which is less expensive and easier to perform. The fresco remains only a subject for decorating the interiors of churches and cathedrals. Especially in Russia.

Ticket 10

Ceramics. Stages of making a ceramic product.

Ceramics is a product made of clay, fixed by firing. Ceramics is a very ancient art form. Images of people and animals made of clay appeared in the Paleolithic era. Later they learned to burn them, as well as to make vessels, reliefs and architectural details.

The main types of ceramics are determined by the technology of their manufacture and the composition of the mass: porcelain, faience, majolica, terracotta etc.

In a narrower sense, almost all products made from simple coarse clays are called ceramics, in contrast to porcelain and earthenware, made from fine clays. This ceramic is usually divided into two types : majolica, which has a colored glaze on the front surface made of glassy, transparent glaze or opaque enamels, and terracotta, the so-called “burnt earth” of a beautiful red-brown color that does not have a glaze. Terracotta also includes ceramics painted with coloring compounds based on colored clays.

Clay products are plastic, and firing gives them hardness, water resistance and fire resistance. This allows you to make a variety of dishes, sculptures, panels, vases, toys, decorations, etc.

Ceramics are also found in architecture, where ceramic products play an important role: bricks, tiles, tiles. From pieces of ceramic tiles you can make mosaic paintings for the exterior cladding of a building, decorating fountains, swimming pools, garden sculpture, interior decoration, etc.

Ceramics are especially popular in folk art (Gzhel, Skopin, etc.)

Nowadays, architectural and household ceramics continues to develop, and many artists create unique original works; experiments with the material continue in search of new means of expression.

Ornament is a series of repeating images on a plane, where the chosen rhythm serves as the basis.

Ornament is the most orderly, almost mathematically precise type of compositional construction. It is primarily subject to the laws of harmony and proportions. In the ornament one can observe all types of symmetry, which have already been discussed above. The arsenal of traditional techniques for constructing an ornamental composition includes mirror reflections, rotations, translations, and grids.

Ornament represents an alternation of identically repeating parts. The minimum area of a repeating pattern is called rapport(from the French word rapport - return). Repeating repeat horizontally and vertically forms a repeat grid.

The pattern can be flat or voluminous. A flat pattern is created by completely or partially superimposing one shape on another by interpenetrating these shapes.

A flat pattern can be repeated many times. This repetition of a pattern is called a motif, or rapport.

Motive- this is part of the ornament, its main element. The motif can be simple, consisting of one element, or complex, consisting of many elements plastically connected into a single whole. The repeat of an ornament includes a motif (or group of motifs) and the distance to the adjacent motif (group).

According to the nature of the alternation of rapports, all ornamental compositions are divided as follows.

1. Ribbon ornament- rapport is repeated many times, developing in one direction. In this case, the motifs in a ribbon ornament can be located in a straight line; such an ornament is called a “straight stripe”, or a striped ornament. In some cases, the rapport is repeated along a curved contour, called a “border”. In architecture, decorative arts and costume, most often the ribbon ornament has a horizontal direction. When constructing it, the composition is based on various types of symmetry: mirror symmetry, transfer symmetry (when elements are transferred in a straight line over a distance of constant length). We can say that this is the most common type of ornamental construction. The ribbon design is shown in rice. 1.

Repeating elements of equal size (Fig. 2 , A) create monotony and uniformity of rhythm, alternating elements (Fig. 2 , b) give rise to a more “live” composition with an increasing or wave-like rhythm.

Alternating or repeating elements can be different in size, that is, they are built on the contrast of shapes (large, medium, small) with their different movements. Contrast helps to identify the figurative characteristics of the forms used.

Contrast can also manifest itself in the distribution of black and white spots of tone, when some spots are strengthened and others are weakened.

The sequence of drawing a striped pattern is shown in rice. 3.

2. Centric ornament- based on central axial symmetry, when rapport rotates around a central axis. The motifs in such an ornament are placed from the central point along the rays, filling the entire surface limited by the circle, and when rotated they are completely aligned. The most typical example of a centric ornament is a rosette, which represents the motif of a blossoming flower. This is a very ancient type of ornamental construction, known back in Ancient Egypt and gaining the greatest popularity in Gothic art. On rice. 4 the “Gothic rose” is depicted, which is a striking example of a centric ornament, which is often found in architecture and decorative arts and is not very characteristic of costume. The sequence of drawing a compositionally closed ornament is shown in rice. 5.

Rice. 1. Types of ribbon ornaments

Rice. 2. Repeating (a) and alternating (b) elements in the ornament

Rice. 3. Sequence of drawing a striped pattern: A- stylized elements to create an ornament; b- an example of the layout of an ornament in a stripe

Rice. 4. Types of centric ornaments

Rice. 5. Compositional closed ornament

Rice. 6. Types of mesh ornaments Fig. 7. Construction of a mesh pattern

3. Mesh pattern- repeating rapport fills the entire surface to be decorated, developing in two directions - horizontally and vertically. The cell of such a repeat grid can have a variety of shapes - in the form of a square, rectangle, regular triangle (equilateral), rhombus, parallelogram, regular pentagon and hexagon, etc. This type of ornament is often used in architecture when decorating floors, walls, ceilings, as well as in a suit when designing textiles - almost all fabric patterns are mesh patterns. On rice. 6 examples of mesh patterns are shown. Mesh patterns are often called rapport compositions. The sequence of drawing a mesh ornament is shown in rice. 7.

The basis of ornamental constructions are simple or complex, but always well-drawn, precisely found motifs. Most often, these motifs are depicted not in a naturalistic way, but in a stylized way, that is, they undergo modification, processing, and artistic generalization of elements in order to reveal their decorative qualities.

The organizing principle of any ornamental composition is rhythm. The rhythmic repetition of motifs in the ornament, their slopes, spatial turns, gaps between them and other elements is the most important characteristic of the ornament.

Gradual smooth or sharper jump-like transitions from small to large forms, from close to distant, from simple to complex, from light to dark, etc. are called rhythmic movement. Being always continuous, in an ornamental composition it extends to various characteristics: the sizes of elements, the distance between them, their tilts and turns, color and lightness ratios.