The concept of the norm of the tradition of value in cultural studies. Values ​​and norms, cultural traditions

Accounts payable are virtually all of the organization's debts.

Accounts payable arise in two cases.

The first case is if the Organization has not settled with its counterparties (for example, the loan to the founder has not been repaid, the bank loan has not been repaid, the goods or materials supplied have not been paid for).

The second case is that an advance payment was received, but for its part the Organization did not fulfill its obligations. For example, the Organization did not ship goods to the buyer on account of the previously transferred funds.

Deadlines for writing off accounts payable

Both in accounting and for tax purposes, accounts payable must be written off within the following terms (clause 78 of the Accounting Regulations No. 34n, clause 18 of Article 250 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, Letter of the Federal Tax Service dated December 8, 2014 No. GD-4-3/25307@ , dated 06/02/2011 N ED-4-3/8754, dated 02/14/2011 N KE-4-3/2303, Ministry of Finance dated 09/12/2014 N 03-03-RZ/45767, dated 03/25/2013 N 03-03- 06/1/9152, dated 10/24/2011 N 03-11-11/264):

Accounting for write-off of accounts payable

In accounting, the write-off of accounts payable is reflected by the following entry:

Let's consider the procedure for reflecting in accounting and tax accounting the operation of writing off accounts payable due to the expiration of the statute of limitations.

Determination of the limitation period

Accounts payable can be written off if the statute of limitations has expired. It is three years (Article 196 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The limitation period must also be counted according to certain rules (clause 2 of Article 200 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). For those obligations whose repayment date is known, the period is counted from the day following the end of the established payment date.

For example, according to the supply agreement, the Organization was supposed to pay for goods on May 11, 2015, but did not do so.

In this case, the limitation period will be counted from May 12, 2015. And if the debt is not claimed within three years, the limitation period will expire on May 11, 2018. And from that moment on, the “creditor” can be written off.

If a specific day for repayment of the debt is not determined, the statute of limitations should be considered from the moment when the creditor sent the Organization a demand for payment of the debt. And in the case when the Organization was given to repay the debt certain time, - at the end of the last day of this period.

In this case, the limitation period may be interrupted. This happens if a creditor files a lawsuit to collect a debt from you. Or if the Organization itself acknowledged its debt: partially repaid it, submitted an application for offset, asked for a deferred payment, signed a reconciliation act (Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated November 12, 2001 N 15 and the Plenum of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation dated November 15, 2001 N 18).

If such actions took place, the limitation period is interrupted and then counted again. In this case, the time that passed before the break is not taken into account (Article 203 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Documentation of write-off of accounts payable

If the statute of limitations on accounts payable has expired, they should be written off.

And for this, the following documents should be prepared (clause 78 of the Regulations on accounting and reporting, approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated July 29, 1998 N 34n) (hereinafter referred to as the Regulations):

1) an act of inventory of settlements with buyers, suppliers and other debtors and creditors. Such a document is necessary since accounts payable are identified precisely as a result of inventory. The form of this act can be either arbitrary or unified (form N INV-17, approved by Resolution of the State Statistics Committee of Russia dated August 18, 1998 N 88);

2) an accounting certificate, which indicates all the necessary information about accounts payable and provides a justification for the reason for its write-off.

Based on these documents, a manager’s order to write off accounts payable is issued.

Reflection of the write-off of accounts payable in accounting

Written off accounts payable generates income, which in accounting is reflected in the account, subaccount "Other income" (clauses 7 and 10.4 of PBU 9/99 "Income of the organization"). The wiring will be like this:

70,800 rub. - the receipt of goods is reflected;

in June 2015

Debit Credit, subaccount "Other income",

70,800 rub. - the amount of accounts payable for unpaid goods with an expired statute of limitations is written off.

In tax accounting under the simplified tax system, written off accounts payable in the amount of 70,800 rubles. included in non-operating income on the date of expiration of the limitation period - June 25, 2015. On the same day, made a corresponding entry in the book of income and expenses

In this situation, when accounts payable arose in connection with the purchase of goods and includes the amount of “input” VAT, the entire amount of “creditor” together with VAT is included in non-operating income.

At the same time, the Organization will not be able to write off the cost of the unpaid item itself as expenses during the “simplification”. Even if the product is sold.

Because the Organization did not pay for him. Since, under the simplified system, it is allowed to take into account the costs of purchasing goods only if two conditions are met at once: the goods are shipped to the final buyer and the company has paid the supplier for it (clause 2, clause 2, article 346.17 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation). A similar conclusion is contained in Letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated 08/07/2013 N 03-11-06/2/31883.

Thus, the Organization will not have any expenses when writing off unclaimed accounts payable, since expenses are taken into account in the tax base under the simplified taxation system only if payment is made (clause 2 of Article 346.17 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).

An exception is the liquidation of the counterparty. In this case, the obligations are completely terminated. Goods, works and services, the debt for which is written off due to the liquidation of the counterparty, are considered paid (Article 419 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). And they can be attributed to expenses during the “simplification”.

Goods (work, services) are also considered paid, the debt for which has been forgiven (Letter of the Ministry of Finance dated May 25, 2012 N 03-11-11/169).

Example

An organization using the “simplified system” with the object “income minus expenses” received an advance in the amount of 60,000 rubles. The organization did not complete the work before the expiration of the limitation period. The statute of limitations for accounts payable incurred by the organization to the customer expires in June of this year.

The transaction to write off accounts payable should be reflected in the following entries:

Since organizations applying the simplified tax system recognize the date of receipt of income as the day of receipt of funds in bank accounts and (or) in the organization’s cash desk, the received advance amount was recognized as income in the period of receipt.

Consequently, the amount of accounts payable arising in connection with the receipt of an advance is not re-included in income after the expiration of the limitation period (clause 1 of Article 346.15, clause 1 of Article 346.17 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, see also the Decision of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation dated 20.01 .2006 N 4294/05).

Cultural norms and values.

1. Introduction

2. Classification of norms

3.Norms and law

4. Violation of norms and rule-making

5.Types of social norms

6.Literature

Introduction.

The norm does not cover the entire segment of activity, but some principle, parameter of activity, which constitutes a certain measure of the variability of behavior and its complexity. Any society or individual social unit and group must streamline relations in its environment, weaken tendencies leading to discord and arbitrariness, and eliminate the influence of spontaneous moods. It must also coordinate the actions of individuals and groups, bringing them into line with the general interests of a given cell or society. Establishing order can be achieved through violence and coercion, through political, ideological and psychological manipulation of society, which goes beyond the boundaries of culture itself and entails a psychological response of rejection of the source of such coercion.

The function of the norm is to exclude the influence of random purely subjective motives and circumstances, psychological states, to ensure reliability, predictability, standardization and general understandability of behavior. The norm forms expected behavior that is understandable to others.

Content side normal determined by the goals of the specific field of activity to which they relate. At the same time, different types of activities are not rationed to the same extent, and the content and methods of rationing are different in different cultures. In the sphere of production, there are technical standards determined by practical interests, the design of machines, and the properties of materials. The sphere of relationships between citizens and social institutions is regulated by legal norms. Most cultures have fairly strict norms regarding the use of alcohol and drugs, which, however, are erased in the conditions of urban mass culture. There are no societies in which there would be no norms regulating sexual relations. Moreover, there is no evidence to indicate that such societies ever existed. The choice of clothing is not arbitrary. The acceptable degree of nudity is the subject of strict regulation. Society is not indifferent to the shape of the hairstyle, the length of the hair, the beard, the manner of walking, speaking, shaking hands, laughing, looking at another person.

In a normally functioning society, each sphere - economics, social structures, politics and culture - creates specific means of regulating activity that complement each other. The regulatory sphere has its own set of means in order to limit violations and prevent them in the most important areas of social life. Of course, the most important factor in regulating normativity is public morality and law. But in the cultural sphere, values ​​are an important means of establishing normativity and going beyond its limits.

Classification of norms.

I. Norms that maintain a formalized order both in society as a whole and in the groups connecting it. In any society, a certain division of responsibilities is accepted, for example, men must perform complex technical work and serve in the army, and women must manage the household and give birth to children. As they believe in some Eastern societies, “the husband should do business, and the wife should run the household.”

2. Economic standards that provide acceptable criteria for economic activity, feasibility and professionalism, practicality and efficiency. They are defined as an average value characterizing the adopted measure of resource consumption and product output, quality of work, etc. Although in this area the norm depends, of course, primarily on the state of the productive forces; requirements for fulfilling the standard imposed on the employee. do not allow unnecessary waste of material and time. own strength and dictate the obligation to work professionally, that is, to produce things or services that meet accepted requirements.

3. Political norms that fix the obligation to support the general principles of the political system of one’s country, to fight “according to principles, observing the laws and the constitution.

4. Cultural norms that support sustainable principles of communication and interaction between individuals and various groups. Thus, it is customary to speak “your” language, read and write, love the music of your people, and support the style and symbolism of your culture. A sharp departure from accepted norms can be considered as abnormal behavior, unless, of course, it receives the status of originality or talent.

In a complex urbanized society, norms are highly differentiated and hierarchical. It is customary to distinguish between universal, national, class, group, and interindividual norms. The requirements arising from this type of norm often diverge. A group may demand from its members actions that are condemned by society. Two persons may follow rules in their relationship that they do not at all consider to be generally valid and would even object to attempts to elevate these rules into a universal law. Sometimes the group is tolerant of norm violations. strict observance of which is required by a large society.

Norms are differentiated according to social structures. They also support class division, the distance between classes, professional groups, estates, providing a mechanism for the distribution of knowledge and types of activity, and, accordingly, social status and privileges.

In such cases, when joint activities different groups requires maintaining social distance - as in relations between seniors and juniors, men and women, superiors and subordinates, privates and command staff, students and teachers. -- there are special norms of behavior. addresses, rituals, greetings, etiquette, through which the requirements for participants in communication, distinguished from mass and everyday activities, are formalized.

The norms differ from each other in the degree of mandatoryness. We can distinguish motivating norms (improve yourself!) and prohibitive norms (don’t lie!). Some norms (for example, in the economy, in scientific and technical activities) are established consciously, on the basis of calculation or agreement. Others (in the sphere of social relations and everyday life) are supported by a centuries-old tradition. In relation to the strongest feelings, for example erotic and ambitious, norms have a high degree of imperativeness. They prevent the emergence of hostile feelings among those. who should live and work together, as well as intimate relationships that may violate the socially necessary distance.

The specificity of the norms depends on the specifics of the object of regulation. The norms are defined in the criteria of literacy and language proficiency, in professional activities. The practice of education is more variable - from strict demands closed establishment to the debauched street environment, which has its own rules.

Spiritual and psychological activity is also normalized. The volume of memory, types of affectation and other mental processes, since they occur in a specific social environment, are always normalized to one degree or another. Their content, direction, intensity are determined not only by the physiological activity of the psyche and the situation, but also by established norms,

Stable norms are preserved for many generations, receive moral justification, are often illuminated by the authority of religion and are supported by law. Often norms persist long after they have lost their effectiveness, turning into empty rituals, an outdated style, etc.

Norms and law.

It is in the sphere of regulatory regulation that we are faced with the division between the moral and legal subsystems of culture. Both operate for the most part in the same areas: in work, everyday life, politics, family, personal, intra-group, inter-class and international relations. Moral norms are formed for the most part in the very practice of mass behavior, in the processes of mutual communication and reflect the practical and historical experience. The fulfillment of moral requirements can be controlled by all people without exception and by each individual. A person’s authority in the field of morality is not related to his official powers, power and wealth, but is spiritual authority, a manifestation of his social prestige and depends on his ability to adequately express the common interest internally shared by all members of the team. But morality may not be associated with an institutional principle or personified by anyone, but may exist as generally accepted, as a covenant.

Moral requirements do not mean the achievement of some particular and immediate goals; they are not practical, but indicate general norms and principles of behavior that justify themselves only through the state of a given group and society as a whole in some perspective. Morality cannot indicate: in order to achieve this. you need to do something like this. It appears as the sum of requirements that regulate the state of society.

Violation of norms and rule-making.

The effectiveness of norms, of course, is not absolute, since they are all violated in one way or another. However, they cannot be considered statistical averages. They function as morally or legally recognized forms of behavior or thinking that have stable recognition in society and make their way through all situational obstacles and tendencies of criminalization of society, through selfish violation by individuals or groups. And yet, the meaning of all norms is conditional and depends on their functionality, on the state of society itself. Changing activities requires changing previous norms or introducing new ones. By overcoming frozen norms, breaking prohibitions, opening new options for activity or behavior, an individual or society changes its activities. Sometimes prohibitions are broken harshly and norms are introduced by decree of the authorities or the central regulatory body of a particular institution. Tsar Peter I had little regard for established norms of behavior when he cut the beards of the boyars, introduced German dress and organized clownish assemblies that turned inside out the ideas that had developed at the top of Russian society. But even before him, Patriarch Nikon carried out a church reform and banned double-fingering. In the 20s XX century decrees Soviet power The alphabetic system of a number of peoples of the USSR was changed. Although in each of these cases the innovation was preserved, it caused resistance in society, which gave rise to persistent contradictions in spiritual and social life, obvious or hidden schisms.

Even seemingly very necessary innovations or prohibitions that are not consistent with the established norms in society, not adapted to the type of mass expectations or not compensated by some kind of replacements, fail, lead to counterproductive results or give rise to obvious rejection. As almost classic examples of an absurd ban, it is customary to cite the experience of introducing Prohibition in the USA in the 20s. and the anti-alcohol campaign in the USSR, launched in 1986. Both of these acts of rule-making did not lead to a decrease in the level of alcoholism, as intended, but to a huge increase in the illegal production and sale of alcoholic beverages.

Exactly sociological analysis, which takes into account not only the urgent need and functional expediency of the approved norm, but also the historically established system of socio-cultural regulation into which it is introduced, helps to identify the limitations and contradictions of the “mandatory” introduction of norms and the difficulties that the new measure will encounter in social life. The ability to assimilate new norms is determined by the type of culture, historical circumstances, social structure, cash communications. More often than not, old and new norms coexist—some as rituals, others as rules of thumb.

To approve and protect each norm, criteria for approval, encouragement, condemnation or prohibition are formed. The breadth of normativity and the total need for it lead to the fact that encouragement is usually less pronounced than condemnation and prohibition.

In primitive environments or societies where sufficiently differentiated and deliberate forms of behavior regulation have not yet been developed, there are various taboos as an immutable and irrational prohibition on performing any actions. Even seemingly absurd prohibitions (regarding food, certain actions, uttering certain words, etc.) become important in the system of social control, reducing the level of tension and blocking destructive behavior.

How more complex society, the more differentiated the normative system adopted in it should be, the more necessary and definite the standards and bodies that support and regulate such a system. Besides public opinion, a large place in such regulation is occupied by systems of education, upbringing and government controlled. The latter has at its disposal both administrative-bureaucratic and judicial-legal bodies, including correctional institutions. When the violation of norms becomes violent and uncontrollable, the army is usually brought into action and called in to restore order.

At the same time, the abundance and cruelty of prohibitions can not only annoy an individual and restrain his initiative. They can thereby harm society itself if they fetter useful initiative. Normative redundancy, that is, unnecessary prohibitions and restrictions, is characteristic of societies with a relatively poor culture, for which internal splits are fraught with the death of the entire society. But redundancy of this kind often persists in one environment or another and at the stage of relative development of culture. Any army (barracks) or bureaucratic environment requires high normativity, fixed by statutes, regulations, rules, etc. As a result of scrupulous regulation or excessively strict norming of behavior, cultural creativity is inhibited, society adapts poorly to changes and comes to a state of stagnation.

Therefore, there is a certain limit of normativity for any society, even the rigid and rigoristic one that religious fundamentalists sometimes strive to establish. Without allowing deviations and encouraging independence and enterprise, at least in specially designated areas and limited free zones, society finds itself constrained in its ability to adapt to a changing environment.

Violations of norms appear as moral deviations, anomalies, deviant behavior or areas of criminal activity. Every society carries out diverse forms of control and has institutions that must observe norms and fight against their violation, then a state of emergency when ordinary norms do not apply and are deliberately ignored is called war - interstate or civil,

in conditions in which the parties seek to inflict the greatest damage on the enemy. The “laws of war” abolish the norms that exist in peaceful life, although the civilizational mechanisms that arose in various centuries sought to introduce at least some norms limiting the degree of cruelty.

It is well known how ambiguous violation of norms appears both in the legal sphere, which introduces many gradations of deviant behavior, and in morality, which can undoubtedly justify an unjustly convicted person.

The distinction between a norm and its violation turns out to be very conditional. Illegal business or shadow capital is not only intertwined with legitimate business and the public sector in a number of significant functions, complementing each other. They can change places if a socially useful enterprise turns out to be environmentally dangerous, and private enterprise, which was previously considered illegal, receives a legal basis for its existence and the necessary prestige in society. Drug business, gambling, prostitution or mercenary work may be considered morally condemnable professions, but not only the existence of many people - service providers, but also the supply to the market of these very services that are so necessary for consumers depends on them. This means that a moral and legal anti-norm can be a norm in economic terms, finding in this an appropriate utilitarian justification.

This discrepancy cannot be eliminated by raising only one of the opposing principles to the ideal norm. Abstract moralizing does not rid society of vice, but drives it deeper. On the other hand, if the only true principle is “the buyer is always right” or “the market is the freedom to buy and sell,” then the boundaries between legal activity and crime are blurred and discord sets in, which forces society to resort to extreme authoritarian measures.

Types of social norms.

The whole variety of social norms can be conditionally combined into two groups: informal and formal norms.

Informal social norms- These are naturally occurring patterns of correct behavior in society that people are expected or recommended to adhere to without coercion. This may include such elements of spiritual culture as etiquette, customs and traditions, rituals (for example, baptisms, initiations into students, burials), ceremonies, rituals, good habits and manners (say, the respectable habit of carrying your trash to the trash can, no matter how far away it may be and, most importantly, even when no one sees you), etc.

Separately, this group often distinguishes the mores of society, or its moral standards. These are the most cherished and revered patterns of behavior by the people, non-compliance with which is perceived especially painfully by others. For example, in many societies it is considered extremely immoral for a mother to abandon her young child to the mercy of fate; or when adult children do the same in relation to their elderly parents.

Compliance with informal social norms is ensured by the strength of public opinion (disapproval, condemnation, contempt.

Formal social norms represent specially developed and established rules of behavior (for example, military regulations or rules for using the subway). A special place here belongs to legal or legal norms - laws, decrees, government regulations and other regulatory documents. They, in particular, protect human rights and dignity, his health and life, property, public order, and the security of the country. Formal norms usually provide for certain sanctions, that is, either reward (approval, reward, bonus, honor, fame, etc.) or punishment (disapproval, demotion, dismissal, fine, arrest, imprisonment, the death penalty etc.) for compliance or non-compliance with standards.

Culture of medieval Europe

Introduction

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe

3. Artistic culture of medieval Europe

4. Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality

5. Medieval music and theater

6. Christianity as a spiritual core European culture

7. Historical background of Christianity

8. The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture

Conclusion

Introduction

The art of every era and country is closely connected with historical conditions, characteristics and level of development of a particular people. It is determined by political, economic, religious and philosophical teachings and reflects the pressing problems of society. At the same time, art lives and develops according to its own laws, solves its own artistic problems. And having learned to appreciate and understand this special content of art, people become heirs of the spiritual wealth that the artistic culture of humanity preserves for us.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and divides the culture early period(V-XI centuries) and the culture of the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, new type political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people.

All classes medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless each of them developed his own special culture, in which he reflected his moods and ideals.

1. Main periods of development of the Middle Ages

The beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the great migration of peoples that began at the end of the 4th century. The territory of the Western Roman Empire was invaded by Vandals, Goths, Huns and other nationalities. After the collapse in 476 The Western Roman Empire formed a number of short-lived states on its territory, which consisted of foreign tribes mixed with the indigenous population, which consisted mainly of Celts and the so-called Romans. The Franks settled in Gaul and Western Germany, the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Osgoths in northern Italy, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The barbarian peoples who created their states on the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, the culture of the ancient world experienced a deep crisis during the period of the barbarian invasion, and this crisis was aggravated by the barbarians introducing their mythological thinking and worship of the elemental forces of nature. All this was reflected in the cultural process of the early Middle Ages.

Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. This was a period of serious social and military upheaval.

At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries) craft, trade, city ​​life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king wore decorative character, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the rise of the feudal economy occurs, contributing to the formation cultural process.

The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with rich culture Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts.

During the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. Characteristic feature This period marks the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

1. Pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries),

Which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires.

In the early Christian period, Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of a centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisteries. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and convention prevailed in the images, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlarged eyes, disembodied images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy.

The art of the barbarians played a positive role in the development of ornamental decorative direction, which later became the main part artistic creativity classical Middle Ages. And which no longer had a close connection with ancient traditions.

Characteristic feature The art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires is a combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which were most clearly manifested in ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman designs and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.

A monument of pre-Romanesque architecture is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. During the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively underway. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries were expanded.

2. Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries)

It arose during the reign of Charlemagne. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptures were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, seemed to be temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. Italian architecture occupies a special place in Romanesque architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance.

The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, but thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening Romanesque style took place during the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying “My home is my fortress.” In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.

3. Gothic art (XII-XV centuries)

It arose as a result of urban development and emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and outside. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral and Milan Cathedral in Italy.

Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear.

Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous.

The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism.

Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniatures are the psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early 14th century. is the "Manesse Manuscript", which is a collection of the most famous songs German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms.

4. Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, its structure, the forces and laws operating in it. Let's add to this the emotional appeal of Christianity with its warmth, universally significant preaching of love and all understandable norms of social coexistence, with the romantic elation and ecstasy of the plot about the redemptive sacrifice, and finally, with the statement about the equality of all people without exception in the highest authority, in order to at least approximately evaluate the contribution Christianity into the worldview, into the picture of the world of medieval Europeans.

This picture of the world, which entirely determined the mentality of believing villagers and city dwellers, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. In the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, heaven and earth, soul and body.

The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. As S. Averintsev aptly put it, the Bible was read and listened to in the Middle Ages in much the same way as we now read the latest newspapers.

The world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical logic, like a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the levels or tiers of sacred characters: first the Apostles, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and the cardinals, then the dwarfs of lower levels, and below them the ordinary lay people. Then animals are placed even further from God and closer to the earth, then plants and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a minus sign, in a seemingly underground world, with increasing evil and proximity to Satan. It is placed at the top of the second pyramid, acting as symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with the opposite sign. If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

5. Theater and music

Medieval music is predominantly spiritual in nature and is a necessary component of the Catholic Mass. At the same time, already in the early Middle Ages, secular music began to take shape.

The first important form of secular music were the songs of the troubadours in the Provençal language. Beginning in the 11th century, the songs of the troubadours remained influential in many other countries for more than 200 years, especially in northern France. The pinnacle of troubadour art was reached around 1200 by Bernard de Ventadorn and Giraud de Bornel Folke de Marseille. Bernard is famous for his three texts about unrequited love. Some of the poetic forms anticipate the 14th century ballad with its three stanzas of 7 or 8 lines. Others talk about the crusaders or discuss some love trivia. Pastorals in numerous stanzas convey banal stories about knights and shepherdesses.

Dance songs, such as rondo and virelai, are also in their repertoire. All this monophonic music could sometimes have accompaniment on a string or wind instrument. This was the case until the 14th century, when secular music became polyphonic.

In an ironic twist of history, theater in the form of liturgical drama was revived in Europe by the Roman Catholic Church. As the church sought ways to expand its influence, it often adapted pagan and folk festivals, many of which contained theatrical elements. In the 10th century many church holidays provided the possibility of dramatization: generally speaking, the Mass itself is nothing more than a drama.

Certain holidays were famous for their theatricality, such as the procession to church on Palm Sunday. Antiphonal or question-and-answer songs, chants, masses and canonical chorales are dialogues. In the 9th century, antiphonal chimes, known as tropes, were included in the complex musical elements masses. The Three-Part Paths (dialogue between the three Marys and the angels at the tomb of Christ) by an unknown author from about 925 are considered the source of liturgical drama. In 970, a record of instructions or manuals for this small drama appeared, including elements of costume and gestures.

6. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture

Belief in an omnipotent God originates in Judaism, the religion of the ancient Jews. This faith expresses the tragic history of the people described in the Old Testament. The Old Testament history is full of wanderings and hope, the bitterness of the Babylonian and Egyptian captivity.

The God of the ancient Jews, the God of the Old Testament, was a prototype of the Christian God. Despite the significant differences in the ideas of the Old and New Testaments, it was the Old Testament sages who first appeared those spiritual needs that Christianity was able to answer.

The God of the Old Testament is addressed to the entire people as a whole, and the God of the New Testament is addressed to each individual.

In the Old Testament one can see man's thirst for a genuine meeting with God and the desire to be spiritually freed from submission to the external side of life. This desire for spiritual overcoming the external side of existence is especially evident at the turn of our era. In Old Testament history, God fulfilled his promise and gave the people a place for independent life. Now all that remained was to wait for the savior, but the savior did not come, and all that remained was to think: maybe the expected salvation would not be of a national-state, but of a spiritual nature? This is exactly what Jesus preached.

7. The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture

Christianity formed new meanings of nature and human existence. These meanings were based on the justification of human creativity and freedom, which could not but affect the entire European history. Of course, at first Christian freedom was realized mainly in the spiritual and moral sphere. But then it found a practical field for its implementation and began to be expressed in the transformation of nature and society, in the construction of the foundations of a legal state that respects human rights and freedoms. The very idea of ​​inalienable human rights and freedoms could only appear in Christian culture. Christianity formed new meanings of nature and human existence, which stimulated the development of new art and became the basis of natural science and humanities. We would not have the European art we are familiar with without the attention to the human soul, its most intimate inner experiences, characteristic of Christianity. The “confessionalism” of European art is a quality formed by Christian spirituality. Without this keen attention of a person to his personality, there would not have been the people we know. humanities. The very idea that the existence of the world and man is an ascending historical process, came to us from Christianity.

The semantic foundations of modern natural science were also formed under the determining influence of Christian spirituality. Christianity eliminated the semantic gap between the “natural” and the “artificial”, for the world appeared as the creation of an omnipotent and free personal God. But what is created by creativity can and should be known in the context of creative transformation. Thus, the semantic foundations for the emergence of experimental science were laid. Of course, it is necessary to distinguish the emergence of general semantic premises from adequate consciousness and practical implementation of new meanings. Therefore, between the emergence of Christianity and the appearance of the first shoots of a new natural science there lies one and a half millennia.

Z conclusion

The Middle Ages were a time of intense spiritual life, complex and difficult searches for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of previous millennia.

In this era, people were able to take a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to try on faith and reason, building pictures of the world based on the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life. Contrary to the opinion of the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance, the Middle Ages left us major achievements spiritual culture, including institutions of scientific knowledge and education. The image proposed by the philosopher, scientist and culturologist M.K. could not be more successful. Petrov: he compared medieval culture to scaffolding. It is impossible to build a building without them. But when the building is completed, the scaffolding is removed, and one can only guess what it looked like and how it was constructed. Medieval culture, in relation to our modern one, played precisely the role of such forests: without it, Western culture would not have arisen, although medieval culture itself was basically not similar to it.

List of used literature

Drach G.V. Culturology. Rostov-on-Don, 2008

Kogan L.N. Sociology of culture. M., 1995

Culture as social phenomenon. Magazine “Nature and Man” No. 3, 2005

Training course in cultural studies. Rostov-n/a; Phoenix Publishing House, 1999

Training course on cultural studies.

Rostov-N/D.; Phoenix Publishing House, 2000

Aesthetics. Dictionary. Politizdat, M 2007

Cultural studies of the twentieth century. Dictionary. M., 1997

Bakhtin M.M. "The Work of Francois Rabelais and the Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance" - M., 1965.

Gurevich A.Ya. "Culture and society of Medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries" - M., 2008.

Darkevich V.P. "Folk culture of the Middle Ages. Secular festive life in the art of the 11th-16th centuries." - M., 1988

Introduction to cultural studies: Proc. Manual for universities / Supervisor author. Coll. And resp. Ed. U.V. Popov. - M.: Vlados, 2006.

Karlin A.S., Novikova E.S. "Culturology" - St. Petersburg, 2006

Culturology: Textbook. A manual for universities./Ed. Prof. A.N. Markova. 3rd ed. - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2003.

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Norms and values ​​of culture

The most important components of the worldview, along with intuitive ideas, archetypes, and ways of perceiving the world, are cultural norms and values.

Cultural norms are certain patterns, rules of behavior, and knowledge. They take shape and become established in the everyday life of society. At this level, traditional and subconscious aspects play a large role in the emergence of cultural norms. Customs and ways of perception develop over thousands of years and are passed on from generation to generation. In a revised form, cultural norms are embodied in ideology, ethical teachings, and religious concepts.

Thus, moral norms arise in the very practice of mass mutual communication between people. Moral standards are developed daily by the force of habit, public opinion, and the assessments of loved ones. Already a small child, based on the reaction of adult family members, determines the boundaries of what is “possible” and what is “not allowed.” A huge role in the formation of cultural norms characteristic of a given society is played by the approval and condemnation expressed by others, the power of personal and collective example, visual patterns of behavior (as described in verbal form, and in the form of real norms of behavior). The normativity of culture is maintained in the course of interpersonal, mass relationships between people and as a result of the functioning of various social institutions. The education system plays a huge role in the transmission of spiritual experience from generation to generation. An individual entering life acquires not only knowledge, but also principles, norms of behavior and perception, understanding and attitude towards the surrounding reality.

Cultural picture the world includes value judgments. Values ​​arise as a result of a person’s understanding of the significance for him of certain objects (material or spiritual). Each sphere cultural activities person acquires its characteristic value dimension. There are values ​​of material life, economics, social order, politics, morality, art, science, religion. Each type of culture has its own hierarchy of values ​​and value dimensions. Thus, in antiquity, of all value dimensions, the aesthetic approach to the world comes first, in the Middle Ages - the religious and moral one, in modern times - the scientific and value approach. The process of cultural development is always accompanied by a revaluation of values.

The whole variety of values ​​can be conditionally ordered and classified based on identifying those areas of life in which they are realized:

Vital values: life, health, safety, quality of life. Level of consumption, environmental safety;

Social values: social status, hard work, family, prosperity, gender equality, personal independence, ability to achieve, tolerance;

Political values: patriotism, civic engagement, civil liberties, civil peace;

Moral values: goodness, goodness, love, friendship, duty, honor, selflessness, honesty, fidelity, love for children, justice, decency, mutual assistance, respect for elders;

Religious values: God, faith, salvation, grace, Scripture and tradition;

Aesthetic values: beauty, harmony, style, etc.

The concepts of “type” and “typology”

Consideration of such a complex and multifaceted phenomenon as culture inevitably requires systematization, ordering, comparison of material, and its generalization, without which it is impossible to rationally comprehend the entire diversity of the cultural world and obtain a holistic understanding of the images of specific cultures. This problem is solved by identifying and characterizing types of culture and constructing its typology.

The concept of “type” is one of the concepts of great generality, which makes it difficult to define (from the Greek. typos - imprint, form, sample for a group of phenomena). The word "type" is used to designate something homogeneous and generalized; typology means a certain classification of phenomena according to the commonality of some characteristics. Thus, the type of culture can be understood as a community of traits, characteristics, manifestations of culture that distinguishes a given culture (culture) from others, or the fixation of certain, qualitatively homogeneous stages of cultural development.

Typology of culture is knowledge, understanding, description, classification of manifestations of culture according to some principle, some criterion (foundation, attribute) inherent in all cultures. To construct a typology of culture, the following considerations seem fundamental. Firstly, the type, typology of culture is derived from the understanding, interpretation, definition of the very concept of culture; secondly, the typology of culture depends on an understanding of the nature of cultural and historical development and diversity; thirdly, a typology of culture is possible, taking into account the time factor (synchronous), or without taking into account time (diachronic); finally, fourthly, to create a typology of culture, a clear understanding of the criteria for generalizing the phenomena of cultural diversity is necessary.

The main methodological condition for typologization is the unity of the criterion on the basis of which types of cultures are distinguished. Examples of typologization criteria: way of transmitting culture (traditional and non-traditional); specifics of social solidarity (consanguineous, ethnic, national, confessional types); structures social stratification(rural, urban, professional, criminal, marginal, etc.); level of technology of material, social and intellectual production (pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial); chronological sequence (primitive, military, religious, civilized, scientific and post-scientific, etc.); the predominance of any social subsystem - economic (West), value (China), societal (India), political (Middle East), etc. The number of criteria for typologizing cultures is not precisely defined today.

For a conceptual consideration of the problem of cultural typology, the author’s choice of its definition is inevitable. We will proceed from understanding culture as a way of life of a person in a society represented by technologies, methods of activity to transform nature, society and man, as well as the products of this activity - material, social and spiritual values.

Modern approaches to cultural typology

In the 20th century, the German philosopher K. Jaspers proposed an interesting concept that allows one to holistically imagine world culture and its uniqueness among different peoples and at different stages of historical development. Having supported and continued the criticism of Eurocentrism and agreed with many ideas of the theory of local civilizations, he at the same time sought, like Hegel, to preserve the idea of ​​​​the unity of world history and culture. But unlike Hegel, he perceived what constitutes the origins and purpose of history as a mystery, and, analyzing the historical development of culture accessible to human knowledge, he looked for the “axis” of world history not only in the West, but in all three cultural centers: in China, India and the West. Jaspers highlighted " Axial time » cultures (chronologically: between VIII and II centuries BC BC) as a kind of “center” of history. Before this, the development of man, society and culture proceeded mainly in a local manner. After him, the possibility of a universal, united development of humanity opened up. But this possibility has not yet been realized, although within the framework of Western European cultural development (in its last historical segment - in modern times), thanks to science and technology, empirical conditions for such a realization have been created. However, everything will depend on the person himself, on his capabilities and desire to cope with the problems that have come into the world along with science and technology.

Weber stands at the origins of modern historically typological ideas about culture. The common point of the conceptual ideas he proposed on the issue of historical typology of culture is the use of antithesis “ East-West”, abandoned, as it seemed, forever by cultural thought. However, for him this antithesis turned out to be filled with new content, emphasizing the fact of the fundamental specificity of the Western sociocultural tradition, its “fallout” from the general civilizational “norm.” Proponents of the concept of multifactorial development of culture believe that culture is made up of many components that are equally involved in cultural evolution and among them it is impossible to single out any leader. Thus, French cultural structuralists deny that economics can serve as a determining factor in the development of culture. In their opinion, each society is characterized by its own special determinism, determined by the culture of society and the underlying structure-forming element. From this point of view, the development of culture can be understood without isolating its individual components, but by considering the action of their overall system with a structure that does not depend on the specifics of its diverse components.

The American culturologist A. Kroeber, identifying the paths along which various societies went to the highest stage of development of their culture, came to the conclusion that the basis of each culture is a certain model, which, changing, absorbs only what corresponds to its character and features. Over time, the model’s capabilities are exhausted, and it can no longer influence new areas and industries. human activity. Then the progress of culture is replaced by a stage of repetition of the old, regression, decline, and the outdated model of culture dies. The “death of culture” does not mean its complete disappearance - after all, the old model is replaced by a new one, matured in the bosom of the old culture.

Kroeber's research contains many interesting observations, but does not answer the main questions. For example, Kroeber finds it difficult to solve the problem of the emergence of the basic model of culture of a particular historical era. Questions about the reasons for the longevity of the cultural model and the changes in stages in its development also remain unanswered. In general, we can say that in this concept the laws of cultural development fade into the background and are not revealed.

Some researchers have made attempts to establish the patterns underlying the emergence and development of certain types of culture, as well as to reveal main element, which determines this type, regardless of whether it is unique or to varying degrees inherent in different cultures. Thus, the typology of culture can be based on a methodological principle, according to which the type of culture is determined by its inherent forms and methods of cognition; It is they who dictate the organization of experience, norms, ideals, and ideas that dominate in a given society. This will allow us to distinguish between two types of cultures - eastern and western.

The above indicates the diversity of approaches to the problem of cultural typology, as well as the fact that the main problem is the choice of typologization criterion.

The most important components of the picture of the world, along with intuitive ideas, archetypes, and ways of perceiving the world, are cultural norms and values. Cultural norms there are certain patterns, rules of behavior, actions, and cognitions. They take shape and become established in the everyday life of society. At this level, traditional and subconscious aspects play a large role in the emergence of cultural norms. Customs and ways of perception have evolved over thousands of years and are passed on from generation to generation. In a revised form, cultural norms are embodied in ideology, ethical teachings, and religious concepts.

Thus, moral norms arise in the very practice of mass mutual communication between people. Moral standards are developed daily by the force of habit, public opinion, and the assessments of loved ones. Already a small child, based on the reaction of adult family members, determines the boundaries of what is “possible” and what is “not allowed.” A huge role in the formation of cultural norms characteristic of a given society is played by the approval and condemnation expressed by others, the power of personal and collective example, and visual patterns of behavior (both described in verbal form and in the form of real norms of behavior). The normativity of culture is maintained in the course of interpersonal, mass relationships between people and as a result of the functioning of various social institutions. The education system plays a huge role in the transmission of spiritual experience from generation to generation. An individual entering life acquires not only knowledge, but also principles, norms of behavior and perception, understanding and attitude towards the surrounding reality.

Cultural norms are changeable, culture itself is open in nature. It reflects the changes that society is undergoing. For example, in the 20th century. There have been fundamental shifts in the attitude of man to family. This has a huge

meaning, since it is in it that the personality is formed and the norms of culture are mastered.

In a patriarchal family, children began their working lives early. First of all, they were the guarantor of a secure old age for their parents, the breadwinners of their livelihood. Now children are, first of all, the greatest value of the family; the family budget is being redistributed in their favor. In other words, a change in spiritual orientation in the family leads to a shift in the content and direction of national consumer spending. Working heads of families, who have the opportunity to satisfy any needs with money, transfer these funds to the family, because it is the emotional and cultural center of personal development. For young people, this change in cultural family norms means the opportunity to “extend childhood,” join the heights of world culture, and perceive new spiritual values.

The cultural picture of the world, both in its genesis and content, includes value judgments. Values arise as a result of a person’s comprehension of the significance for him of certain objects (material or spiritual). Each sphere of human cultural activity acquires its own value dimension. There are values ​​of material life, economics, social order, politics, morality, art, science, religion. Each type of culture has its own hierarchy of values ​​and value dimensions. Thus, in antiquity, of all value dimensions, the aesthetic approach to the world comes first, in the Middle Ages - the religious and moral one, in modern times - the scientific and value approach. The process of cultural development is always accompanied by a revaluation of values.

The whole variety of values ​​can be conditionally ordered and classified based on identifying those areas of life in which they are realized:

• vital values: life, health, safety, quality of life. Level of consumption, environmental safety;
• economic values: the presence of equal conditions for commodity producers and favorable conditions for the development of production of goods and services, entrepreneurship;
• social values: social status, hard work, family, wealth, gender equality, personal

independence, ability to achieve, tolerance: political values: patriotism, civic engagement, civil liberties, civil peace;

• moral values: goodness, goodness, love, friendship, duty, honor, selflessness, honesty, fidelity, love for children, justice, decency, mutual assistance, respect for elders;
• religious values: God, faith, salvation, grace, Scripture and tradition.
• aesthetic values: beauty, harmony, style, etc.

Ticket 19. Myth as a cultural phenomenon.
Myth is a form of culture, a way of human existence. Myth is not only the historically first form of culture, but in a sense it is eternal, for the mythological dimension is present in every culture. Studies of myth as a form of culture and measurement human soul occupies an important place in cultural studies. Fundamental contributions to the understanding of myth were made by Hegel, Freud, Jung, Fraser, and Lévi-Strauss. The most ancient, original form of mental experience is myth, therefore all archetypes, one way or another, are associated with mythological images and experiences. Myth lies at the very basis of the human soul, including the soul of modern man, - this is Jung’s conclusion. Myth is a way of human existence and the world of sensation, entirely based on the semantic connection between man and the world; a person here perceives psychological meanings as the original properties of things and views and experiences natural phenomena as animate beings. Myth is not intended to give an objective picture of the world, it is intended to invent meaning for the world, and it successfully fulfills this purpose. Myth is historically the first and therefore very limited realization of the creative human spirit, when this spirit is undeveloped and not ready to cope with its own freedom. Myth is a conservative and stable system. The myth is destroyed as a person gains the opportunity to exercise the freedom hidden within him. Myth is not intended to regulate the life of a free person, and therefore the realization of freedom undermines the foundations of the world and becomes the source of a new form of culture. The functions that myth performed are transformed and are now performed by religion, art and philosophy. Mythology reflects all the main stages of man’s separation from nature and the formation of culture. Mythological texts reproduce various stages of human cultivation of the environment. On the one hand, these are stories that tell about the emergence of natural landscapes and the cyclical variability of nature. On the other hand, this is a story about the exploits of cultural heroes, about the creation of the world of material and spiritual cultures. Myth is a work of oral folk art, which preserved the experience of poetic understanding of reality; it is a way of living, thinking, feeling. Mythological images and plots are not difficult to find in those forms of art that are far from verbal embodiment - in sculpture, in painting, in architecture.

V. Rudnev’s “Dictionary of Culture” notes that in the 20th century myth became one of the most important cultural categories. Indeed, it was the 20th century that showed the exceptional importance of mythology not only for the consciousness of primitive peoples, but also for the culture of mankind at all times. Roland Barthes considered modernity a privileged environment for mythologizing, arguing that in the 20th century myth turned into an instrument of political demagoguery.

It became obvious that mass consciousness is mythological in nature, and any culture is based on its own myth.

According to researcher E.M. Meletinsky, “myth is one of the central phenomena in the history of culture and the oldest way of conceptualizing the surrounding reality and human essence. Myth is the primary model of any ideology and the syncretic cradle various types culture - literature, art, religion and, to a certain extent, philosophy and even science."

Myth is aimed at maintaining the harmony of personal, social, natural; it exercises control over the social and cosmic order. The myth is dominated by the pathos of overcoming chaos into space, protecting space from the remaining forces of chaos.

Myth holds culture together; it is stable as long as the myth exists.

According to E. M. Meletinsky, some features of mythological thinking (especially the concrete, sensual and personal expression of abstractions, symbolism, the idealization of the “early time” as a “golden age” and the persistent assumption of the meaning and purposeful direction of everything that happens) are preserved in the mass consciousness, in political ideological systems, in artistic poetic fantasy.

According to researcher S. Yu. Neklyudov, mythology is not some separately existing part of spiritual life - it permeates all cultural, artistic and ideological practice, including positively rational areas (relating to politics, economics, medicine, etc.), i.e. and they, in turn, rely on certain value guidelines and metaphors of generalized empirical observations.

The meanings of basic mythological ideas and images are comparable with the ancient sensations of man, with his orientation in the natural environment and in the community of his own kind, with his “basic” emotions (joy, surprise, anger, fear, hunger, sexual desire, etc.), with psychological universals and archetypes of social consciousness. Moreover, if these ideas themselves are universal, then the traditions of national mythology are expressed through the text, and the structure of its images, embodying mythological meanings, is determined precisely by the characteristics of the national culture.

20. Elite culture.

The concept of “m.k” reflects significant changes in the mechanism of bourgeois culture: the development of the media - radio, cinema, television, large circulations of newspapers, cheap “pocket books”, magazines, gramophone records. Through the mass communication system "m.k." covers the vast majority of members of society; through a single mechanism of fashion, it orients and subordinates all aspects of human existence: from lifestyle and clothing to the type of hobby. Serial products "m.k." has a number specific signs: primitiveness of characteristics of relationships between people, reduction social conflicts to plot-driven, entertaining clashes between “good” and “bad” people, whose goal is to achieve their own good at any cost, entertainment, comic book fun, commercial cinema with a naturalistic relish of violence and sex; focus on the subconscious, instincts-sense of ownership, racial prejudice, cult of success, cult strong personality. The fruit of this type of development is the so-called “one-dimensional person”, whose integrity has been lost and his inner world is deformed.
In addition, especially with a pronounced sociological approach to the study of culture, so-called subcultures, “sub”-cultural formations that arise within a particular culture, can be structurally distinguished. They retain the leading characteristics of the main cultural form, but at the same time they have local differences that give them some peculiarity. Some informal youth associations can be called similar subcultures. IN currently elitist culture also becomes like this. The culture of the “new Russians,” which some time ago was a vibrant subcultural community, is beginning to gradually merge with the official culture

A subculture of privileged groups of the society, characterized by fundamental closedness, spiritual aristocracy and value-semantic self-sufficiency. Appealing to a select minority of its subjects, who, as a rule, are both its creators and addressees (in any case, the circle of both almost coincides), E.K. consciously and consistently opposes the culture of the majority, or mass culture in the broad sense (in all its historical and typological varieties - folklore, folk culture, official the culture of a particular estate or class, the state as a whole, the technocratic cultural industry. society of the 20th century. and so on.). Moreover, E.k. needs a constant context of mass culture, since it is based on the mechanism of repulsion from the values ​​and norms accepted in mass culture, on the destruction of existing stereotypes and templates of mass culture (including their parody, ridicule, irony, grotesque, polemic, criticism, refutation), on demonstrative self-isolation in general national culture. In this regard, E.k. - a characteristically marginal phenomenon within any history. or national type of culture and is always secondary, derivative in relation to the culture of the majority.

Many cultural scientists consider elite culture as the antipode of mass culture. The producer and consumer of elite culture is the highest privileged layer of society - the elite (from the French elite - the best, selected, chosen). However, in philosophy and cultural studies the understanding elite as a special layer of society endowed with specific spiritual abilities. There is an elite in every social class. The elite is the part of society most capable of spiritual activity, gifted with high moral and aesthetic inclinations. It is she who ensures social progress, so art should be focused on meeting her demands and needs. The main elements of the elitist concept of culture are already contained in the philosophical works of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche.

In his seminal work “The World as Will and Representation” by A. Schopenhauer sociologically divides humanity into two parts: "people of genius"(i.e. capable of aesthetic contemplation and artistic and creative activity) and “people of benefit” (i.e., focused only on purely practical, utilitarian activities).

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Culturology as a science, its subject and connection with other humanities disciplines

In this era, the basic categories with which we think to this day were developed, the foundations of world religions were laid and today they determine life.. this process forced many to reconsider, question and question.. the mythological era with its calm stability came to an end the basic ideas of the Greek Indian Chinese..

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CULTURAL NORM- a standard of cultural activity that regulates the behavior of people, indicating their belonging to a specific group. social and cultural groups and expressing their idea of ​​what is proper and desirable. The purpose of the norm is to minimize random circumstances, subjective motives, psychol. states. Normative regulation of relationships presupposes voluntary and conscious. acceptance by each person of the norms of activity common in a given culture.

There are different ways to classify norms. Pearsons, in in particular, he identifies: 1) norms that establish orders in the society as a whole and in its constituent groups; 2) economical norms; 3) watered, norms; 4) N.K. itself, related to the field of communication and socialization. In other cases, a distinction is made between universal, national, class, group, and interindividual norms. At the same time, the requirements for the same norms, widespread in different social communities and in different histories. periods diverge from each other.

Norms differ from each other in the level of mandatory implementation, in the degree of freedom of their choice in non-definition. situations. There are norms, the obligation of which is unambiguous and definite, up to the application of strict sanctions (compliance with legal norms, norms of technical activity in industrial production, etc.). In other cases, variability in norms of behavior is allowed; for example, traditions often contain a set of standard models from which a person can choose. Situations are possible when a fairly free human response is envisaged: the street environment, the home environment.

The effect of any norm is not absolute; the norm goes through a period of origin, establishment, then loses stability and begins to collapse. Destruction of some N.K. always accompanied by the creation of new ones. Rule-making is the same integral sign of cultural dynamics as anomie, i.e. destruction of norms.

CUSTOM- the initial, simplest type of cultural regulation based on holistic, habitual patterns of behavior performed on an established occasion in the definition. time and in def. place. O., unlike habits, are of a social nature; habits are manifestations of idiosyncratic. behavior of individuals associated with a unique biogr. experience. The concept of O. implies not only statistical. indicators of the existence of this or that behavior, but also a prescriptive component: all members of the society adhere to this behavior under any circumstances, and violation of O. may entail sanctions from societies, disapproval to ostracism or other forms of punishment. The term "O." can be identified with the terms “tradition”, “rite”, “ritual”, “mores”, “habits”. However, tradition still refers to a wider range of phenomena and to more differentiated forms of regulation of activity, although it receives a semantic meaning. overload. Rite and ritual are formalized behavior or action that is primarily symbolic. meaning devoid of direct meaning. expediency, but helping to strengthen ties either between permanent members of the group or in interactions between groups.

The term “mores” usually expresses the established forms of regulation of mass behavior. However, in cultural studies. context, “mores” can denote a more mobile, changeable layer of habitual behavior, subject to differentiation depending on the social environment, psychol. states of certain layers, history. situations, etc. Large-scale changes in morals entail a gradual shift in broader areas of culture, which does not mean that it loses its quality. certainty.

Although as a basis The regulator of O.’s behavior appears only in primitive ethnographers. society, in a stable everyday environment, in inert social groups, it is present at all more advanced levels of societies. development. Socially recognized patterns develop into customs, through which accumulated experience is passed on from generation to generation. Tradition can also be classified as O. work practices, forms of behavior, way of life, education. In everyday life, the usual rules of hygiene and established hostel options apply. O. the hours and conditions of eating and sleeping are regulated. The choice of food is dictated not only by the needs of the body, but also by traditions. O. are generally recognized and approved by the power of mass habit. For the most part, they do not receive an explanation and may not be recognized by the members of the team themselves.

O. plays an important role in education, contributing to the familiarization of a child or an adult with a culture in a foreign cultural environment. Inclusion in cultural activities in this case comes down to familiarity with the definition. samples; the essence of the behavior is not explained, but simply introduced to O., which performs the function of mandatory performance pattern of behavior. The sample can be positive (this is what you should do) or negative (this is not what you should do). O. can act as it decides, an intervention in the life of an individual, sharply turning his nature. or normal life. This kind of formalized O., performed in the definition. place and at the appointed time according to special reasons, they call rituals. In choosing a ritual, a person is even less free than in simple O., because it is associated with the performance of public actions that have a high symbolic status in a given society. In each society there are rites of initiation of an individual into a given society or into an age group (naming, baptism, recording a name, initiation, issuing a passport, etc.), birthdays and anniversaries, weddings and funerals, etc. . Collective, societies, and state. rituals remind of the integrity of the society, recorded in memorable dates. The ritual affirms the continuity of the new with the old, its acceptance as an established position in the society, which happens, for example, in the case of the approval of a new head of state: a royal wedding, an oath of the new president, etc.

VALUES - essential components human culture along with norms and ideals. Their existence is rooted in the existential activity of the subject of cultural creativity, his dialogue with other people, oriented not only to the realm of existence, but also to the significant, normative-ought. Tradition classic. idealism from Plato to Hegel carried out a definition. identification ontological. and axiological problematics: being was initially endowed with a value dimension by the thinkers of this galaxy. Destruction of the strict unity of ontology and axiology creatures thus aggravated the problem of C. If we assume that being and the formations derived from it - the existent - are themselves value-neutral, then the question of how the vision of things with t.zr arises requires solution. their axiological significance, which permeates culture and which cannot be denied. This is where the line of searching for the origins of value consciousness in man himself and his culture-creating activity originates. In the teachings of a naturalistic-psychological orientation from pragmatism to sociobiology, natural impulses are considered as incentives and motives for human value preferences. Following in the footsteps of Kant, representatives of neo-Kantianism are Baden. schools started talking about the value-normative component of pure consciousness, revealed by transcendental reflection. If in existentialism Heidegger ontological analysis turns into rejection of axiological. problems, then Sartre comes to the conclusion that color, as a special kind of normative reality, is derived from the act of self-creation of a person, his free expression of will. Synthesizing Marxism and existentialism, Sartre wrote about the social, character of C. This theme clearly sounds in neo-Marxism Habermas. Wittgenstein studied linguistics. aspect of value consciousness. An attempt to radically rid philosophy of value issues was the post-structuralist doctrine Derrida, where is axiological questions appear as a product of the phonological-centric system of Europe. thoughts. And yet, the very existence in language of the fundamental act of distinction, recorded by Derrida, testifies to the impossibility of getting rid of value consciousness: by discovering identity and non-identity, we inevitably move towards the affirmation of the value-significant. Behind the diversity of linguistic identity and non-identity lies the ability of a cultural subject to simeolich. imagination, thanks to which axiological objectivity is constituted. The source of value-based objectivity is the correlation of sometimes completely heterogeneous phenomena with the definition. standard. So, for example, natural and cultural realities that are dissimilar to each other can become the subject of aesthetics. contemplation and evaluation. At the same time, standard representations are by no means always reflectively comprehended, and therefore their peculiarity. serves as deputy symbol, creating with the help of metaphor. transfer, bringing together heterogeneous phenomena, value-semantic objectivity. Born in the sphere of existential activity of the subject, colors acquire the status of universally significant ones in the process of communication. Speaking about a certain set of objects as C., it is necessary to attribute them to a single semantic. field. Metaphor allows for the transfer of meanings, uniting seemingly dissimilar phenomena under the symbolic sign. unity. By uniting heterogeneous things, the symbol simultaneously differentiates the area of ​​values ​​in quality. and quantity respect, gives rise to this reality as marked by a variety of variations. Growing out of the given life world, Each sphere of human cultural activity has an immanent value dimension: the values ​​of material life, economics, social order, politics, morality, art, science, religion are quite autonomous. However, each type of culture is associated with hierarchization and subordination of value spheres. The universalization of aesthetics is well known. approach to the world in the era of antiquity or religious and moral - cf. century. New time, the period of liberal capitalism, gives the status of generally significant value characteristics imprinted in monetary symbols. Communication, exchange, etc. types of activities between people, as Marx showed, makes us see a certain universal value principle in every objective value. Money is a symbol of an all-common value principle, having a quantity. expression. Totalitarian societies of fascist and communist. type universalize polit, power, which finds concentrated expression in the symbol of the leader. Cs of a different order are placed in the space of power. The process of cultural development is associated with a revaluation of value, which begins with the promotion of a new standard, from the standpoint of which objects that have previously established value characteristics are considered. This is where the metaphors come into play. symbolic possibilities imagination, its culture-creating power. A set of objects, hierarchized in accordance with the definition. order, loses its rigid outlines and is transplanted onto a new value-semantic basis. Depending on the chosen basis for classification, values ​​are divided into objective and subjective, life and culture, means-values ​​and goal-values, related, and absolute, etc. Of particular importance in modern times. the world acquires the question of the dialectic of the relative and the absolute in value consciousness. Universal value and semantic guidelines necessary for humanity can be formed as a result of reflective comprehension dialogue diff. crops Value consciousness determines norms - stereotypes of thought and action accepted within the boundaries of a particular sociocultural community. Norms regulate the activities of people in all spheres of culture - from elementary acts to material and practical. character to morality, art, science and religion. They vary in degree of commonality from subcultural to those shared within national boundaries. cultures and general humanistic, universal. On the basis of the norms, various social technologies, ways to rationalize the life world. Normativity and creativity are two complementary aspects of culture. In his history. In existence, norms are inseparable from the values ​​existing in a given culture, because they translate ideas about them into an instrumental plane. If values, as a rule, extend into the dimensions of the past, present and future, the norms seem to rise above time, but cannot escape the judgment of history. Along with the change in the value scale and the promotion of new sociocultural ideals, norms also change. An ideal is a perfect image of an object projected by subjects of communication, endowed with a value dimension of universality and absoluteness. Possessing a reference status, the ideal represents a projection of the future, from the standpoint of which a verdict is made on the present and the past. Promotion of variety ideals, global images of the future - a significant factor in the development of culture.