Works of oral Russian folk art. Russian oral folk art

Morphemics. Definition of morpheme. Types of morphemes.

I. Word formation is a relatively new independent branch of the science of language.

Information on word formation has been appearing for a long time, but until the 19th century it did not have its own object and merged with either morphology or etymology.

As a special branch of linguistics, it began to take shape in the 40–50s of the twentieth century.

In the 60–80s, the science of CO, having separated from morphology and lexicology, became an independent linguistic discipline, having its own object of study, its own method of analysis and system of concepts.

The term “word formation” in linguistics is used in two meanings: on the one hand, it is the very process of formation of new words and forms of words, on the other hand, it is a branch of the science of language in which the word formation system of the Russian language is studied.

The word-formation system refers to the elements from which words are composed (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings), their role in word production, the very structure of words used in the language, as well as the laws by which some words are motivated by others, methods of word formation and word-formation types who actively participate in the formation of new words.

Like lexicology and phonetics, the object of word formation is the word. Let us remember that in lexicology a word is considered primarily from the aspect of its subject content, and in phonetics - from the aspect of its sound.

Word formation studies words between which there is a double connection - a commonality of subject content and phonetic design. Moreover, CO is interested in such parts of words that, being formally close, at the same time have a substantive generality.

Thus, the basic unit of CO is smaller than a word, it represents only part of a word, but is larger than a sound. Unlike sound, the basic CO unit has meaning and cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units. A word, in contrast to its constituent meaningful units, is usually morphologically characterized and capable of independent use.

Consequently, CO is closely related to lexicology, phonetics, and morphology.

By identifying repeating parts (in form and meaning) in various words, SO answers the question of how words are structured in the Russian language, what smaller significant parts they consist of.

However, CO allows not only to isolate smaller parts from the whole, it also establishes the rules by which one word is formed from another. And having established such rules, it allows not only to determine how words are structured, but also shows how new words can be formed.

Consequently, CO as a special section of the science of language includes two main parts - morphemics (the study of significant parts of a word - morphemes (gr. morphe - form), i.e., the study of the structure, structure of a word) and CO itself, which studies the word-formation role of morphemes , methods of word formation, patterns of modern word formation.

II. Studying the word-formation system of the modern Russian language presupposes knowledge of Russian morphemics - the study of morphemes (minimal, then indivisible, significant parts of a word: root, prefix, suffix, ending).

All words in the Russian language consist of morphemes: some words (metro, cafe, today) consist of one root morpheme; others from two, three, four morphemes (hand-a, letter-o, beautiful-ee - from two, na-pi-a-t, pro-be-k-a - from four), etc.

Each minimal significant part of a word has a specific meaning. For example, the word reread contains four morphemes: the root -chit- carries the main lexical meaning– denotes a specific action; the prefix re-denotes the repetition of the action “once again” (cf.: re-write, re-do, etc.); The suffix –yva- has the meaning of nonsense. type (cf.: redistribution, scattering, etc.); -т – indicator of the infinitive form.

A morpheme realizes its meaning only as part of a specific word; Outside a word, it can be difficult to determine not only the meaning of a morpheme, but even its belonging to roots or affixes (cf.: plaintiff, radiant, taxi driver; other, poplar, ice floe, etc.).

Like other units of language, a morpheme is a generalized unit, which in specific words is represented by its varieties - morphs. A morph is related to a morpheme in the same way that a sound is related to a phoneme, and a word form is related to a word. For example, the words wear and burden represent two morphs of the same root morpheme nose-; in the words throw, throw, throw - three morphs of the same suffixal morpheme -ok.

When classifying morphemes, such features as the position of the morpheme in a word, the function and meaning of the morpheme, the features of its compatibility with other types of morphemes, and the nature of the formal expression are taken into account.

III. According to their position in a word, two main types of morphemes are contrasted: root, or denominator, and affixal (from the Latin affixus - attached), or auxiliary. Root morphemes include the roots of words, and affixal morphemes include prefixes, suffixes and endings. Affixes are grouped in a word around the root, forming the peripheral elements of the word.

Therefore, the affix is general term for all morphemes attached to the root.

The next level of classification distinguishes between specific types of roots and affixes.

The semantic (meaning) and structural core of a word is the root.

The root is a central and obligatory element of the morphemic structure of a word; there is not a single word without a root.

The root contains the main meaning of the word, and affixes (suffixes and prefixes) only specify its meaning. Thus, in the same-root (related) words water, water, water, underwater, submariner, water, watery, the main meaning lies in the root -vod-, and the suffixes -ichk-, -n-, -nik-, -yan-, -ist - and the prefix only specify the meaning of the root: the suffix –ichk- adds a diminutive meaning to the word; -n- in the words aquatic, underwater indicates a relationship to a place (on or under water); the suffix -nik together with the prefix pod- in the word submariner denotes a profession, etc.

But it is not always easy to find the root in a word, since it can change. This is due to the fact that various alternations occur in the roots. (The basic alternations of vowels and consonants in the roots of words need to be known and taken into account when finding the root.) For example: The words lead, drive, driving, driver have the same root, but the root in them has different kind–water-, -vozh-, leader-; in cognate words plant, grew, shoots, grown roots grow-, grow-, grow-, grow-; in the words I burn, burnt, burned the roots, burnt, burnt, burned.

In modern Russian, free and bound roots are distinguished.

Free roots can be used in combination with word-forming affixes (adopt-t, perepeva-t, sinivat-y) and without them (daughter-, pe-t, sin-iy).

Bound roots are used only in combination with word-forming affixes (add, subtract; finger, fingerless; street, alley, etc.).

Depending on what function function morphemes perform in a word, they are distinguished:

1. Word-forming affixes that form new words: city - city+sk(oi), near+city.

These affixes have a specific word-formation meaning. Thus, the suffix -sk- in the adjective urban means “relating to or characteristic of what is named by the generating word.” The prefix of the noun suburb means “close to the city.”

2. Formative affixes that form different grammatical forms of the same word. Thus, the present tense forms of the verb are formed using personal endings: run - run-u, run-ish, run-it, run-im, run-ite, run-ut.

In terms of position in a word, location relative to the root, affixes are divided into:

a) prefixes (from the Latin praefixus - attached in front), or prefixes, are service morphemes that stand before the root (to run) or another prefix (to think) and serve to form new words or new forms of words. For example, in the words silent, movement, push, awkward - word-forming prefixes. All these words are formed by attaching a prefix to the whole word. In this case, the meaning of the word changes, but the grammatical form of the word remains the same. Sometimes adding a prefix to a word changes not only its meaning, but also the grammatical form of the word. Such prefixes simultaneously perform two roles: word-building and formative. Thus, the paired verbs chop - cut down, play - play along, draw - sketch, write - write off differ not only in meaning, but also in form (with the addition of the prefix, a new word was formed and the form of the verb changed: imperfect became perfect).

b) Suffixes (from Latin suffixus - attached) - service morphemes located after the root (publisher) or another suffix (publisher-nits-a) and expressing word-formation or grammatical meanings. For example: Let’s compare the words teach – taught – teacher. From the base of the infinitive uchi- with the help of the suffix -l it is formed new form The verb is the past tense form. This means that the suffix -l is formative. From the same base, with the help of the suffix -tel, a new word with a new meaning is formed. Therefore, the suffix -tel is word-forming.

c) Endings, or inflections (from the Latin flexio - bending, transition), are service morphemes located after the root (id-u) or suffix (push-u), expressing different grammatical meanings and serving to connect words in a phrase and sentence (new book, new book, new book, new book, etc.).

To find the ending, you need to change the word: decline or conjugate. The part of the word that will change will be its ending.

d) Postfixes (from Latin post - after + fixus - attached) are service morphemes that express word-formation or grammatical meaning and are located, as a rule, after the ending (learning, something, etc.).

Postfixal morphemes are highlighted in special kind affixes recently. In modern linguistics, according to established tradition, they are often called suffixes. In the Russian language, such postfixes are distinguished as 1) the verbal reflexive postfix -sya (-s), which performs a dual function: word-building and formative (wash - wash, see - see, the formative role of the postfix -sya comes to the fore - the formation of the reflexive form of the verb; in the words draw - show off, finish off - achieve, crush - choke with the help of a postfix - new words are formed, etc.); 2) verbal postfix - those forming the form plural imperative mood(go, read, etc.); 3) postfixes -to, -or, -something (someone, someone's, somewhere, etc.); 4) postfixes -taki, -ka, used in colloquial speech(again, give it to me, etc.).

e) Interfixes (from Latin inter – between + fixus – attached) – structural elements, which do not express any meaning in words, perform connecting and construction functions and are located between two roots (forest park, loving, five-year-old, two-story, etc.) or on the border of a root and a suffix (sing - singer, highway - highway; Yalta - Yalta and so on.).

Thus, in the Russian language, prefixes and interfixes are never independent means of inflection, while endings always perform an inflectional function. Suffixes and postfixes can be used both in inflection and in word formation.

By the nature of the formal expression, the following are fundamentally opposed: a) affixal morphemes, materially expressed by one or another sequence of sounds or one sound (high-y, sister-a, read-a); b) zero affixes, not materially expressed, i.e. certain grammatical and word-formation meanings are expressed by the absence of any sounds or sound combinations in the word (high-, sisters-, read-, fifth-Ø-y, jumping, carrying, etc.). Endings and suffixes can be zero.

A null suffix or ending is highlighted in words where there is a meaning component that has no formal expression, but in other words with the same meaning component it can be expressed using a suffix or ending.

In accordance with the characteristics of compatibility, affixes are distinguished between regular and irregular, productive and unproductive.

The regularity of affixes is associated with their repetition, reproducibility in a number of words or word forms; such, for example, are the affixes -ost (speed, capacity), -k- (pianist, acrobat), -tel (writer, teacher), prii- (lie down, add), -v (writing, seeing), etc.

Irregular affixes occur only in individual words; such affixes are often called unifixes (mu- in the trash: cf. rubbish; -adj- in the priesthood: cf. pop; su- in the dusk: cf. darkness; unok- in the drawing, etc.).

Productive are those affixes that form new words and grammatical forms: dieter, laser, agitate, etc.

Unproductive affixes in modern Russian do not form new words. Thus, with the help of the suffix -ey-, new nouns are currently not created with the designation of a person such as literate, richer. Some endings are unproductive (dv + uh, tr + eh, yes + m, yes + sh, etc.), single prefixes, suffixes that are distinguished only in one word (ra + arc, rice + unok, love + ov, black+l(a), white+l(a), etc.).

The concepts of productivity/unproductivity and regularity/irregularity do not coincide. But, as a rule, all irregular word-forming affixes are unproductive. Regular affixes can be productive or unproductive. Thus, the regular suffix -izn(a), which stands out in a number of words (whiteness, novelty, etc.) in modern Russian, is unproductive, since it is not used in the formation of new words, but stands out only in existing words. Regular but unproductive affixes also include the suffix -at in the meaning of “face” in the words addressee, Asian, scholarship holder or –ush-, -ash- in verbal adjectives such as envious, raking, overloading, hard-working.

Regular and at the same time productive affixes include, for example, the adjective suffix -n- and the verbal prefix re-, used in the formation of a huge number of words, including neologisms: elevator, podvozochny; re-recruit, re-order, turn over, etc.

Questions:

1. What does the term “word formation” mean?

2. What does morphemics study?

3. What is a morpheme?

4. What types of morphemes are distinguished in modern Russian?

5. What is the root of a word? How do free roots differ from bound roots?

6. What functions do affixes perform?

7. What is a prefix?

8. What is a suffix?

9. What is postfix?

10. How do zero morphemes differ from materially expressed ones?

11. What is interfix? Where do they meet?

12. Which affixes are called productive and which are called unproductive?

13. Which affixes are regular and which are irregular?

Key words and phrases: word formation; morphemics; morpheme; types of morphemes: root and auxiliary, or affixal; free and bound roots; morphemes prefixal, suffixal, postfixal; interfix; zero morphemes; affixes are productive and unproductive, regular and irregular.

Literature:

1. Valgina N.S. Modern Russian language. M., 2003.

2. Russian grammar. M., 1991 t I, II.

3. Rosenthal D. E., Golub I. B. Modern Russian language. M., 2002.

4. Lekant P. A. Modern Russian language. M., 2003.

5. Modern Russian language in 3 parts. Edited by N.M. Shansky. M., 1981, 1988. Part 2.

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied.

In morphemics two main questions are resolved:
1) how morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how a word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme.

Morpheme– this is the minimum significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-building (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root- the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes and suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, without being combined with other roots.

There are many words consisting only of roots. These are function words ( but, above, if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and immutable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-i, go-ti.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and form-forming (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Console- a word-forming morpheme standing before a root or other prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, primorye, in some places, re-o-det).

Suffix- word-forming morpheme that comes after the root (table- IR , red- e- t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a word-building morpheme that comes after the ending or formative suffix (um-t- Xia , whom- or ).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form the forms of a word and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

Ending

Ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences, that is, it is a means of agreement (new th student), management (letter brother- y) or the connection of the subject with the predicate (I go- at , you go- eat ).

Only inflected words have endings. Function words, adverbs, unchangeable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms, in which there are no specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerunds.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- And -st- A , tr- eh -comb- , sofa -bed- , sofa- A -bed- And .

The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears. So, the ending - A table-shaped A shows that this word is in genitive case, -at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that it is nominative or accusative, that is, it carries information, meaningfully. It is in such cases that the zero ending is highlighted in the word.

Words with a zero ending should not be confused with words that do not and cannot have endings - unchangeable words. Only inflected words can have a zero ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form the forms of a word.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and gerund forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

Most verbs have two different types stems: one is the stem of the present/simple future, and the other is the stem of the infinitive as well as the past tense: readj - And chita - , I'm drawing - And rice - , run - And beige - , talk - And speak - .

There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( eid -ut, eid -ti), and they are contrasted with the basis of the past tense ( w -l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- yeah, ter- l-a, tr- ut; I'm getting wet- yeah, mok- l-a, mokn- ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried you, carried l-a, carried ut; carried- you, carried- l-a, carried- ut.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have another past tense stem) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the stem of the present / simple future tense, in addition to the personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly visible in those verbs in which alternation of consonants is presented:
pisa- t - pisa- l- (would - pisa- lice
write- y - write- ush-y - write- And- .

The basis

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.

The basis- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of a word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, while expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For unchangeable words, the entire word forms the basis, For example: if, coat, yesterday. Modified words do not include endings and/or formative suffixes in their stems, For example: window- O, lying down yeah, dare- her, read- l-a, done- nn-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya/-sya ( teach- l-a-s), the bases of indefinite pronouns containing the suffixes -to, -or, -ni ( To- someone), the stems of some compound nouns ( sofa- A- bed- i) and complex numerals ( heel And- ten- And). Such bases are called intermittent.

Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)

Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its beginning and ending.
2. Establish the lexical meaning of the word and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.

Sample morpheme parsing

carpentry

Sample reasoning:
carpenter - form of the verb to carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, male singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).

The basis- carpenter-.

The verb carpenter is formed from the noun carpenter and is motivated through it: carpenter - ‘to be a carpenter’; The difference between the base carpenter and carpenter is the suffix -a-; the bases represent the alternation k/h.
Noun carpenter in modern language non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter/carpenter is the root.

Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, a form-building suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, a word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.

Base words and word forms

Literature

Zemskaya E. A. Modern Russian language. Word formation. - M., 1973, 2005. – Ch. 1.2.

Lopatin V.N. Russian word-formation morphemics. – M., 1977. - Introduction, Ch. 1.

Lopatin V.N., Miloslavsky I.G., Shelyakin M.A. Modern Russian language. Theoretical course. Word formation and morphology. – M., 1989. – P. 3-19.

Nemchenko V. N. Modern Russian language. Word formation. - M., 1984. - P. 13 – 36; 45 – 50; 58 – 66.

Russian grammar. - M., 1980 (or 1982). - T. 1. - P. 123 – 132, 133-142.

Shansky N.M. Essays on Russian word formation. – M., 1968. - Chapter 1,2.

Encyclopedia "Russian language". – M., 1997 (articles “Morphemics”, “Morpheme”, “Morph”, “Derivation”, “Word Formation”).

Theoretical information

Definition of the term "morphemics".

Morphemics and word formation are closely related, but still different sections of linguistics. They have different objects of study, goals and methods of study.

So, under morphemics is understood as: 1) the morphemic structure of the language, the totality of morphemes isolated in words and their types; 2) a branch of linguistics that studies the types and structure of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole.

The main objects of study in morphemics are morphemes, their formal modifications - morphs - and their linear combinations - a word as a sequence of morphemes, a word stem, a word form.

Morphemics deals with the study of the general characteristics of morphemes, their classification according to various characteristics; asemantic parts of words and their functions; basics of the word and its types; connections of stems with service morphemes; features of the combination of morphemes in a word, etc. All these questions are subordinated to a common problem - the study of morphemic composition, the morphemic structure of a word as an object of word formation and morphology. The main skill that is acquired in the process of studying morphemics is morphemic analysis of a word, i.e. determination of its morphemic structure.

Morphemic structure - this is the relationship of its significant parts, morphemes, located in a certain sequence and interconnected according to certain laws of language.

Morphemics is a part of grammar, since morphemes (affixes) in the Russian linguistic tradition are considered as grammatical means. Morphemics, of course, is not a closed section of grammar; it is closely related to both word formation and morphology. And this connection must be emphasized. Morphology deals with morphemes that are used to form the grammatical forms of a word, and word formation deals with morphemes that serve as a means of forming new words. But nevertheless, morphemics is an independent object of study with its own specific units.

Basic concepts of morphemics.

The smallest meaningful unit of language is the morpheme. However, in linguistics we more often encounter the term “morph”. What is the difference between them? A morph is a specific representative, a representative of a morpheme, which we observe during the functioning of a word in speech. Thus, the morpheme/morph ratio is the same as phoneme/sound, word/LSV.

Morph – this, according to E.A. Zemsky, the smallest formal part of a word that has meaning. Further division of the morph will lead to the isolation of insignificant elements - phonemes. For example: redo - re- repeat action, -deal- names the action -yva-- imperfect appearance, repeatability, -th-- indicator of the infinitive.

How are morphs combined into one morpheme?

Morphs are combined into one morpheme according to the following characteristics: 1) identity of meaning; 2) the conditionality of the formal difference by position in the word: position before or after a certain class of units.

Thus, morphs of one morpheme cannot occupy the same position in a word, that is, they are connected by the relations known to us additional distribution: sand – sand any,sand ny; Saratovec – Saratovts A.

Such morphs identical in meaning, the formal difference of which is explained by their position in the word, are called allomorphs in relation to each other (compare the terms allophone, allolex): cold – aboutcold ny – ohcool at – racecoldness to live.

Morphs are combined into one morpheme with the following characteristics: 1) identity of meaning, 2) identity of position, 3) ability to be interchanged in any position: springOuch – springoh , handsometo her - handsomeher , nearyohonek - nearYeshenek .

Such morphemes are called variants of one morpheme . Their relationship is called free variation .

So, all words in the Russian language consist of morphemes. There may be many of them, but there may also be one.

Morphemes are characterized common features, in which they differ from other linguistic units - sounds, words, sentences. They differ from sounds and syllables, for example, in their significance and the presence of word-formation or grammatical meanings. They differ from words, and especially sentences, in that they have more abstract meanings, are indivisible into smaller meaningful parts, and are unable to act as sentences or their parts.

Types and status of morphemes. Functions of morphemes. Question about zero morphemes. Synonymy and homonymy of morphemes.

At the same time, the morphemes themselves can be classified according to their meaning and role in the structure of the word.

The cardinal difference between morphemes is their role in the structure of a word. On this basis, all Russian morphemes are divided into morphemes root And official (sometimes called affixed ).

The differential features of root morphemes compared to affixes are as follows:

1) Mandatory root part. YouWell t– compare with words of the same root and structure: Youhim at, fromhim ah, that's a good ideaWell uh, jumpWell t. V.N. Nemchenko identifies the root in this word - out-, comparing words take it out, take it out, take it out etc. Service morphemes are optional; There are words without affixes and inflections (endings): highway, boa, suddenly, under, and, there, well.

2) The root can be an independent morpheme, used freely, without combination with other morphemes: house, flag, friend etc.

Servant, affixal morphemes are always, as it were, “soldered”, “tied” (in the words of V.N. Nemchenko) to the roots; they cannot be used without combination with the root. The affix is translated as “attached” (from Lat. affixus- attached, closely connected).

Among the roots, the exception is the so-called. "connected roots" (they are called radixoids ), i.e. those that are not found in free form in modern Russian, but are only found in combination with service morphemes - suffixes or prefixes: close, open, remove, take away, separate, flat.

It happens that in speech suffixes or prefixes begin to be used as independent, free morphemes.

Examples E.A. Zemskoy: “philosophical isms", "something happened here "re".

Examples from poems by M. Tsvetaeva:

Without asking the vine - fatherly

Nereid it shines,

Nereid in la – zur...

Not felt, not bought,

Blazing and beach - sha, -

Six-winged, Ra - stuffy,

Between the imaginary - prostrate! - existing,

Not smothered by your carcasses,

Soul!"Soul"

Distance: versts, miles...

Us arranged - set, set - planted…

"B. Pasternak"

The opinion of scientists regarding such phenomena is unanimous: such morphemes are no longer service ones, but act as an independent word, represented by a root morpheme.

3) The root morpheme is not fixed in a word in any place; it can occupy different positions relative to other morphemes. For example, blue, turn blue, blue. Service morphemes in a word have a strictly defined place in relation to the root and other morphemes.

4) Root morphemes, in contrast to service morphemes, are repeated in all related words forming a word-forming nest, and in all grammatical forms of related words: floor, floor, floor, floor, rug, etc.

Only the roots of monomorphemic words that do not change grammatically and do not form new words cannot be repeated: atelier, sconce, lady, stew, prone, that's it etc.

The forms of individual words require special reservations: person - people, child - children, bad - worse, good - better, I - me - me etc.

Traditionally, such units are considered as grammatical forms of one word. V.N. Nemchenko believes that this point of view should be reconsidered and such forms should be considered different words with the same lexical meaning, used to denote different grammatical categories.

5) Root morpheme – expresser of lexical meaning; auxiliary – an exponent of word-formation meaning, grammatical meaning, i.e. additional meanings.

It is depending on what meaning the affix expresses that two independent sections of language are distinguished: word formation – the science of the formation of new words; morphology – the science of the formation of grammatical forms of words, of inflection.

Example: earth - fellow countryman– the relationship between these words is the object of study in word formation; earth - earth, earth, earth– the relationship between given forms of one word is the object of study in morphology.

So, definitions of the main types of morphemes:

Root - This is the core, central morpheme of a word, obligatory for each lexical unit, repeated in all related words and their grammatical forms and expressing the lexical meaning of the word.

Affixal (functional) morpheme – optional, variable, expressing different word-formation and grammatical meanings of a morpheme.

Types of service morphemes.

Functional, or affixal, morphemes are divided into prefix (prefixes, or prefixes), suffixal (suffixes), interfixal (interfixes), postfixal (postfixes) and inflectional (inflections, or endings).

The distinction between service morphemes is made by place in the word relative to other morphemes.

Prefixes always precede the root. They can be located at the absolute beginning of a word, before a root, before another prefix, between a prefix and a root, or between two prefixes: on-you- think; forest-behind- cooking.

Prefixes are usually attached to the whole word rather than to the stem: once-fun, to-write.

Exceptions are a few cases of formation of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: grey-haired, armless, bastard.

When a prefix is added, the derived word belongs to the same part of speech as the producing one. For example, author - co-author; acute – pre-acute; beat - break.

Prefixes, compared to other types of morphemes, have greater autonomy and do not have a noticeable effect on the sound composition of subsequent morphemes. Exception - background and under.

From a semantic point of view, prefixes add nuance and clarify the meaning of the original word.

Examples: play -behind play(start of action); sound -from sound(termination); swim -By swim(time limit); wonderful– race wonderful(greater degree of attribute); station –under station(limitation of the scope of a concept, subject).

Prefixes are combined mainly with verbs, less often with adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and adverbs.

Suffixes are located only after the root (or between two roots in compound words: close-to-kin.).

When forming new words, suffixes are attached not to the whole word, but to the stem: cheerful - cheerfule -t; tired - tiredl -th.

By adding a word-forming suffix to the base of the original word, the word often moves from one part of speech to another: stone - stonen -th; torment - tormenteni -e; torment – torment-i-teln -th;

However, the word can remain within the same part of speech: tank - tank -ist ; blue – blueevat -th.

Suffixal morphemes can change grammatical features within one part of speech: gender, type of declension of nouns ( brother - brotherstv O); kind of verbs ( jump - jumpWell t) etc.

From the point of view of semantics, suffixes are more specific than prefixes and other morphemes, although among suffixes there are those that express only clarifying, modifying meanings, for example, the suffix of subjective assessment ( tableIR , houselooking for e) and etc.

Postfixes – a type of service morphemes located only at the absolute end of a word: after the end ( Which-That , which-or , Who-someday , bring-ka , let's singthose , getting dresseds , you dressXia ); after the formative suffix ( shave-Xia , find-s , build-l-Xia ); after the root ( How-someday ).

A postfix is attached to a word as a whole or to a word form; does not change the part of speech, does not change the inflectional properties of the word. Postfixes do not fundamentally change the meaning, but only clarify it in one way or another. Yes, postfixes -this, -either, -something introduce the value of uncertainty; verbal postfix -ka gives the meaning of the imperative mood a shade of softening the request; postfix -sya changes the grammatical meaning of voice, transitivity.

Inflections (endings) according to some characteristics they are contrasted with all other service morphemes.

Typically, inflections are found at the absolute end of a word, but if there are postfixes, they are preceded by inflections: How-Ouch - then, please -at - sitting, building -th -xia.

As part of some complex words, inflections are used not only at the end of the word form, but also within it, between different stems: dv– e – st –And, dv –mind – st –am , hut –s - reading room -And.

Immutable words do not have inflection. If the modified word goes into the category of unchangeable words, then the inflections in their composition go into the suffix: For example, in adverbs winter, morning, a little, down, secret, at random, in a new way, in the morning.

Case endings that find themselves in a position between different bases when forming complex words of some types, they lose the meaning of inflection and turn into connecting sounds and sound combinations: two-year-old, five-story, quadrangle, everyday.

Why in the word two hundred combination -mind- is considered inflection, and in a word two-year combination -uh- Isn't it considered inflection? The answer is obvious: when inflecting a cardinal complex numeral, each part is declined, therefore, a change in inflection occurs ( two-me -st-ami), and in compound adjective with the first quantitative root, declination is carried out only by a change in inflection - th (two-yearto him ).

Inflection is the most regular morpheme compared to other service morphemes. The peculiarity of inflections is that they always appear in a complex, in a set with the help of which a paradigm of certain categories of a word is created.

Inflection is considered as a changeable part of a word, although it would be more accurate to talk about a change not in inflections, but in the grammatical form of a word as a result of replacing one inflection with another.

Inflections differ significantly in their semantics. They, as a rule, serve to express the grammatical meanings of words and their syntactic properties.

E.A. Zemskaya notes that some scientists distinguish as a type of derivational morphemes confix - a morpheme consisting of two parts (prefix and postfix) and acting in the word formation act as a single whole. Examples: call -with callXia ; road -without dearYes e.

E.A. Zemskaya considers such a distinction inappropriate, since, firstly, the presence of intermittent morphemes is uncharacteristic of the structure of the Russian language, and secondly, the meaning of the postfixes and prefixes included in the confix coincides with the corresponding prefixes and postfix.

Functions of service morphemes.

Service morphemes have two functions:

1) Word-forming, or word-forming, because New words are created using affixes.

2) Grammatical, or formative, because With the help of affixes, different grammatical forms of words are formed.

Word-forming morphemes include most affixes: prefixes, suffixes, postfixes (- this, -either, -something).

Grammatical morphemes primarily include inflections (endings) of inflected and conjugated words.

In addition, form-building morphemes include affixes that participate in form-building.

However, the list of formative affixes in different scientific sources varies. This depends on how some cases, for example aspectual pairs of verbs, are interpreted - as inflection or word formation.

So, V.N. Nemchenko speaks about the formative nature of species prefixes ( do -With do) and suffixes ( jump - jumpWell t, swim up - swim upyva t).

We consider it appropriate to consider speciation as a separate case of word formation, therefore we do not consider this kind of affixes to be formative.

The optimal list of formative affixes is as follows:

● Plural suffix of nouns –ј- (brother - takeј I, leaf - leafј I, pero - periј I).

● Suffix of comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs (handsomeher , handsometo her , worsee , handsomeeish oh, highaish y).

V.N. Nemchenko also identifies the formative prefix of the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs in: By worse.

● Suffixes of the infinitive of the verb -т, -ти (find, erase).

Part -whose in infinitives it is considered as a result of alternations, which is now classified as a stem. In modern Russian, verbs with - whose- unproductive: takewhose - shore, careful; g//h//f. Such verbs go back to common Slavic verbs with a base on the back consonant: berg ti-“to close, to protect.”

● Suffixes of past tense verbs –л-, -ø- (carriedø , carriedl ah, acceptedl ah, hatel And).

● Suffixes of participial forms of the verb – ush-/-yush-, ash/yash, vsh/sh, n/nn, en/enn, t, em/om/im.

When participles transform into adjectives, these suffixes become word-forming suffixes.

● Suffixes of the participial forms of the verb -v-, -vshi-, -shi-, a/ya, -uchi/yuchi.

When gerunds transform into adverbs ( reluctantly, playfully) or preposition ( despite) the named suffixes become word-forming.

● Pledge-forming postfix –sya-/-s- (build – buildXia ).

But in reflexive verbs this affix is word-forming: smile.

● Suffixes of the subjunctive (conditional) mood of verbs –л-, -ø-: nel I wish I had brought itø would.

● The imperative suffixes of verbs are -ø-. -i- and the postfix of the imperative mood of verbs -ka: thinkø , thinkø - ka , arrivalAnd .

A significant difference between grammatical, form-building morphemes and word-building morphemes: they are regular; are repeated when forming the forms of many words; their number is small, with their help form paradigms are formed.

Derivational affixes are numerous; irregular; can participate in the formation of single words; their number is large.

But grammatical morphemes are also heterogeneous in their composition.

Vary inflectional , or syntactic , morphemes that express the relationship between words in a sentence (inflections of inflected and conjugated forms), and formative , or non-syntactic , which as part of a word express grammatical meaning, but do not affect the relationship of words in a sentence (formative affixes).

Zero morphemes.

F.F. Fortunatov said that the grammatical forms of a word can be formed not only by the presence of affixes at the stems of the word, but also “by the absence of any affix at the same stems in other words,” calling this phenomenon negative formal affiliation . According to Fortunatov, “every form of words formed by an affix presupposes the existence of another form in which the same stems appear without this affix, i.e. either with another affix, or without any affix” (Fortunatov F.F. Selected works. - M., 1956. - T. 1. - P. 141). The scientist gives the following examples: city, table, did, was etc.

G.O. also spoke about zero morphemes. Vinokur, comparing forms table-table, walked-walked etc.

Thus, there is a special type of morphemes that are not expressed materially - zero , or negative, morphemes.

E.A. Zemskaya formulates the requirements for isolating the zero affix. Since grammatical zero there is a significant absence of any grammatical unit, the basis for highlighting words with a zero affix should be the meaning of the corresponding words: their meaning should have a semantic component, which is usually in this language it is expressed using derivational (word-forming) affixes. That is, when identifying zero affixes, the structure of the word-formation system of the Russian language is taken into account.

So, affixes are identified if two conditions are met:

1) The derivational meaning that is assigned to the zero affix is usually expressed in our language with the help of materially expressed word-forming affixes.

2) The word in question must be derived, i.e. Along with it there is a cognate word, simpler in meaning, which could be productive for the analyzed one if its word-formation meaning was expressed by a zero affix.

E.A. Zemskaya emphasizes: in the absence of one of these conditions, it is impossible to identify a zero affix.

Examples E.A. Zemskoy: din - there is no null affix, because the second condition is not met, there is no generating word, word hubbub in modern Russian it is non-derivative (verb bark– colloquial (“bark, scold”).

rinsingø – rinse; gapø - tear apart.

There are also words formed using non-zero affixes washing, washing.

More examples: buildtel - build; engineer - non-derivative, therefore, there is no ø.

bully ø - pick up (crowbar)ak a – break).

Cockatoo, hummingbird - No ø, because in Russian the word-formative meaning is “bird”, “ Living being" is not expressed in suffixes (compare: nightingale, warbler, sandpiper and under.).

Spouseø a – spouse(Compare: doctortheir a – doctor, generalw a – general).

But in a word wife- No ø, because the word is non-derivative.

The facts of the language show that there are no zero prefixes in the Russian language.

So, in modern Russian there is a distinction inflectional (ending), formative (singular imperative and past tense verbs) and derivational zero morphemes.

With the help of zero word-formation affixes, nouns are most often formed that denote a person by action or attribute ( stutterer, suck-up, bully, generalist, intellectual), abstract signs ( darkness, blue, breadth, heights, distance), female person ( godfather, wife), objectified action ( entry, exit, survey, denunciation, flight).

When combined with a prefix, zero suffixes form adjectives and adverbs ( eyeless, at random, on the spot, crookedly, out of date).

The basis of the word and word form.

Along with morphemes, a special element of the structure of a word is stem of the word .

In modern linguistics, there are several approaches to determining the basis of a word:

1) In school grammar, the stem is a part of a word minus inflectional morphemes, that is, inflections. This inflectional stem . V.V. Lopatin and I.S. Ulukhanov named this basis basis of word form , since in different forms One and the same word can have different inflectional stems ( read A,read th). Inflectional stems are identified in all inflected and conjugated words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and verbs - including participial forms). The inflectional base can be intermittent: 1) when the word has a postfix – xia ( tore Ands ); 2) if there is an inflectional affix inside the word ( dv wowhundred ). The stem defined in this way expresses not only the lexical meaning of the word, but also some grammatical meanings, the bearers of which are the formative affixes that are included in this stem.

2) In modern linguistics, the stem is often defined as part of a word minus inflectional and formative morphemes. This is what O.S. thinks. Akhmanova, E.S. Kubryakova, K.A. Levkovskaya. This basis does not change when expressing grammatical meaning and is included in all word forms of the word. This formative basis/formative basis . It can also be intermittent: dra las (if the postfix performs a word-forming function and if the word is not used without -sya: daring tXia ). In adjectives, the basis of formation is distinguished in qualitative adjectives, that is, those that form degrees of comparison.

3) By the same term - the basis - denotes the part of a derivative word that remains after separating inflectional, formative and word-forming morphemes from it. This is the so-called word-formation (basic, formative, derivational, producing, motivating) basis . The word base is equal to the part of the derived word that is common to the original generating word. So, the basis of word formation is that part of the derived word that coincides with the generating word, taking into account morphological changes (compared with the nearest generating word). The basis of word formation is identified only in the initial form of the word. This stem can undergo morphological changes: narrow th –bonds awn, Kamchatka A -Kamchat sky, then the productive basis does not coincide with the word formation basis. As word-forming bases, inflectional and formative bases of generating words are used, as well as unchangeable words in general, if they allow the addition of inflectional morphemes or bases of other words: water -A -water- nth,water -yang-oh,water -yangish,water -o-wire;pisa -th – for-pisa -t, re-pisa -th, dis-pisa -th-xia,pisa -tel.

So, completely different definitions of the concept of a base as a significant unit of language are allowed. They all seem quite reasonable. We are simply talking about different types of bases that actually exist in the language and which we have to deal with when analyzing words linguistically.

Stems of different types can be identified within the same word, the same word form. For example, the word form strongest The following bases of different types can be distinguished: strongest(inflectional base), strong(the basis of shaping), strong(word formation, derivational basis).

Features of the verb stem.

The verb has two types of formative stems. From each of these stems a strictly defined set of verb forms is formed:

1) Infinitive stem , which coincides with the past tense stem: speak -th –speak – l. This stem is distinguished by discarding the formative suffix –t-/-ti-. From this base the forms of past participles and perfect participles are formed: direct - th –direct -lasting,direct -V.

2) Present/future basis , which is distinguished by dropping the personal ending in the third person plural present or simple future tense of the verb to avoid phonetic alternations at the end of the stem: e.g. feeding Yu -feed -yat. From this stem the forms of the imperative mood, present participles and imperfective participles are formed: holding -at – holding - ite,holding - awesome,holding -A.

The formation of new words from a verb can be carried out using both the infinitive stem and the present/future tense stem. For example, as a productive basis for the word teach tel the verb stem of the infinitive is used ( teach -th). And as a productive basis for a noun run un The present tense stem of the verb is used ( run- ut, but not run).

Morphemics is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Word formation is a branch of linguistics that studies the formal semantic derivative of words in a language, means and methods of word formation.

Subject of morphemics. Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes

In morphemics two main questions are resolved:

1) how morphemes of the Russian language are classified,

2) how a word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme. A morpheme is the minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning.

The minimum unit of sound flow is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish between the words: pond and twig. But sounds do not designate concepts, objects, or their signs, that is, they have no meaning.

In the course of lexicology, words are studied - grammatically formed meaningful units that serve to name objects of reality.

Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, but they do this more precisely, dissected (cf.: table and desk).

Another significant unit is supply. Its difference from morphemes and words lies, firstly, in the fact that it is a larger unit consisting of words, and secondly, in the fact that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication.

A morpheme differs from units of all other linguistic levels: a morpheme differs from sounds in that it has meaning; from words - in that it is not a grammatically formed unit of name (it is not characterized as a unit of vocabulary belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences - in that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are “ building material» for suggestions.

In the Russian language, the letter and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes. These alternations are not random, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times, therefore the alternations are systemic in nature.

In modern Russian the following alternations in the composition of morphemes are presented:

Vowel alternations:

o / Ø (zero sound, fluent vowel): sleep - sleep,

e/Ø: day - day,

e/o: delirious - wander,

o/a: look - look,

e / o / Ø / u: collect - collection - collect - collect

o / u / s: dry - dry - dry out.

There are other vowel alternations, but they are less common.

Consonant alternations:

paired hard / paired soft: ru[k]a - ru[k"]e,

g / f: leg - leg,

c/h: hand - handle

x/w: fly - fly,

d/w: drive - drive,

t/h: twist - twist,

s/w: to carry - I drive,

s/w: wear - wear,

b/bl: to love - I love,

p/pl: buy - buy,

v/vl: catch - catch,

f/fl: graph - graph,

m/ml: feed - feed.

In addition, it is possible to alternate a vowel and a combination of a vowel and a consonant:

a(i)/im: remove - remove,

a(i) / in: reap - reap,

and / oh: beat - fight,

e/oh: sing - sing.

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-building (ending and form-forming suffix).

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Whatwhat are morphemics and morphemes?

Morphemics (from the Greek morph - form) is a branch of the science of language that studies the composition (structure) of a word. In morphemics two main questions are resolved:

1) how morphemes of the Russian language are classified,

2) how a word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Among the morphemes there are prefixes, roots, suffixes, interfixes (connecting vowels), postfixes, and endings.

In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning.

The minimum unit of sound flow is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish words: pond And rod. But sounds do not designate concepts, objects, or their signs, that is, they have no meaning.

In the course of lexicology, words are studied - grammatically formed meaningful units that serve to name objects of reality. Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, but they do this more precisely, in a dissected manner (cf.: table And desk).

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-building (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root of the word

The main morpheme in a word is the root. The root is the common part of related words, which contains their main meaning. Words with the same root are called cognates. For example, words teach, student, teacher, study, educational, scientist, learn, study, learn contain the same root -uch- and therefore are of the same root. All these words denote objects, signs or actions related to the action of “teach”. Words bush, bush, bush, bush, bush- cognate, since they contain the same root - bush- and denote objects, signs or actions related to the bush. Words with the same root form a word-forming nest. Nests can be large or small. Yes, a nest with roots -uch- significantly larger than the nest with roots -bush-.

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes and suffixes ( table) and without endings ( kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, without being combined with other roots.

The definition of a root as “the common part of related words” is correct, but is not an exhaustive characteristic, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur only in one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it “expresses the basic lexical meaning of the word.” For most words this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik small table. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any specific morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning is ` children's party" - not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words consisting only of roots. These are function words ( But, over if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and immutable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good, go.

Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are a majority of such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called bound, for example: about - time, agitation - propaganda

Based on some examples of fiction, journalistic literature and colloquial speech, one may get the impression that words consisting only of prefixes or suffixes are possible, for example: " Democracy, humanism - go and go after isms isms"(V.V. Mayakovsky). But this is not so: in similar cases the suffix turns into a root and, with or without an ending, forms a noun. To find the root in a word, you need to select words of the same root (related) words. Yes, in a word recess we select the root -men-, choosing words with the same root change, exchange, replacement etc. In the word express find the root -tale-, comparing the original word with the words retell, express, say, story, tale etc.

You need to be able to distinguish between roots that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings. Such roots are called homonymous. Let’s compare, for example, two word-forming nests of words:

· 1) carry, carry, carry, tray, carry, cast-offs, porter- root -nose-;

· 2) nose, nasal, spout, nose, bridge of the nose- root -nose-.

Words with homonymous roots are not the same root.

Phraseologism leave with your nose means “to leave with nothing, to deceive, to fool”, and stay with your nose- “to be fooled, to fail.” But what does the nose have to do with it? The fact is that this phraseological unit arose when there was one more word in the Russian language nose(same root word wear) with the meaning “an offering to the bride as a ransom for her.” If the matchmakers came with such an offering to the bride’s house and were refused in this house, then their offering was not accepted, they were left with their “nose.” Word nose with such a meaning fell out of use and was preserved only as part of a phraseological unit. But there is another word in the language nose, denoting a part of the face that matches the sound of the lost one, so we now associate the phraseological unit with the remaining word.

Alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

When new words and forms of words are formed, alternations of sounds are possible in many roots, resulting in the formation of different variants of the same root. For example, in words ask, please, ask the same root -ask-, in which there are alternations s/sh And o/a.

Vowel alternations

1) o/a: rip - rip, adjust - set up, catch - catch; this alternation is very often observed when forming imperfective verbs using suffixes -iva-/-iva-.

2) Fluent vowels O And e:

O/zero sound: mouth - mouth, needle - needle, hundred - one hundred;

e/zero sound: stump - stump, father - father, pine - pine, spring - spring.

3) e/o: delirious - wander, lead - drive, I'm taking - carry, carry - carry, rattle - thunder.

4) Full agreement/disagreement:

oro/ra: fence off - fence, health - health resort;

ere/re: coast - coastal, middle - average;

olo/la: title - table of contents, well - treasure trove;

olo/le: fill - captivity, milk - mammal.

Incomplete consonance is a lexical-phonetic phenomenon of the modern Russian language: the presence of the combination ra, la, re, le between consonants in root (or prefixed) morphemes. Through Old Slavic written monuments, words with incomplete vowel combinations penetrated into the Old Russian language and became fixed in it, coexisting with the East Slavic full vowels oro, olo, ere, elo/olo: a country - side, gold - gold, breg - shore, milky ( Milky Way) - milk. Partial and full vowel formations have undergone various changes in the history of language development: in some cases the partial variant has been preserved, in others - the full vowel; sometimes both words are preserved, but diverge in lexical meaning. Old Slavonic variants have been preserved: time, burden (but pregnant), sweet, brave, scolding (but defense) etc. Only full-voice variants have been preserved: harrow, peas, well done, road, cow etc. Words like powder - ashes, country - side etc., in modern language they differ in meaning.

In the full-voice version of the root, alternation is possible o/a associated with the formation of an imperfect form of a verb using a suffix -willow-: fence off - fence off, swamp - swamp.

It is important to remember that full consonance is possible only within one morpheme (usually a root, sometimes a prefix: through-/through-, re-/pre-) and it must be distinguished from the “false consonance” that occurs at the junction of morphemes (put, prophet, dining room, measurement, ice).

Consonant alternations

1) c/h: bug - bug, baking - bakes;

k/h/c: fisherman - fishing - fishing;

2) g/f: meadow - meadow, I can - you can;

g/f/z: friend - to be friends - friends;

3) x/w: fly - fly, dry - drier;

4) d/w: rare - less often, sit - sit;

d/w/zh: give birth - give birth - birth;

5) t/h: twirl - twirl, steep - steeper;

t/h/sh: light - candle - lighting;

6) s/w: bottom - below, cut - I cut;

7) s/w: to paint - I paint, high - higher;

8) c/h: finger - finger, hare - hare;

9) b/bl: chop - ruble, love - fall in love;

10) p/pl: save - I’m saving, purchase - purchase;

11) v/vl: new - update, catch - catching;

12) f/fl: graph - graph;

13) m/ml: feed - feeding, break - refraction;

14) st/sh: thick - thicker, plant - grow;

15) sk/sch: search - search, drag - drag.

Experience shows that of all the listed cases of alternations, the greatest difficulties for schoolchildren are cases 9-13 (alternating labial with the combination “labial + l”). This is where the most common errors occur during morphemic parsing: many do not see the alternation and isolate the root without l, and interpret l as a suffix. Therefore, when explaining, it is worth emphasizing (and explaining with examples) that each isolated morpheme has a specific meaning, and if you highlight the suffix -l-, it does not add any meaning to the word, for example: buy - buy, feed - feeds (cf. drive - drives , burning - burning); update - update, update.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and form-forming (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common terminology is in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are divided into word-forming affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Prefix - a derivational morpheme placed before a root or other prefix ( re-do, pre-nice, seaside, here and there, change).

Derivational suffix is a derivational morpheme that comes after the root ( table-ik, red).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there is also a postfix - a word-forming morpheme that comes after the ending or formative suffix ( wash someone's face).

Console

Console- a morpheme that comes before the root and usually serves to form new words. The prefix can be located directly in front of the root (transition) or in front of another console (retake). Some prefixes, like roots, can protrude into different options, i.e. alternations of vowels and consonants are possible in them:

1) in all consonant prefixes a fluent vowel is possible O at the end of the prefix:

tear - tear it up, I'll pick it up - pick up, accelerate - accelerate;

2) in consoles re-/pre-, through-/through- Full-vocal and partial-vocal options are presented: partition - barrier, stripe - excessive.

In consoles on -z- alternation presented salary (carefree - restless), and in the prefix once- also alternation a/o (play - draw).

Prefixes are more autonomous in the structure of a word than suffixes:

1) prefixes can have a secondary, weaker stress in polysyllabic words: ultraviolettovy,

2) they do not cause grammatical alternations in the root, unlike suffixes that can cause such alternations: hand - pen,

3) by adding just one prefix, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: adding a suffix may not change the part-speech affiliation of the word ( house - house-ik), and form a word of another part of speech ( white - white, white, white),

4) prefixes are often not associated with a specific part of speech ( under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a specific part of speech: - Nick- serves to form nouns, - Liv- - adjectives, - willow- - verbs),

5) the meaning of the prefix is usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be very specific (- baby- denotes the child of the one who is named at the root), and very abstract (- n- denotes a sign of an object).

Suffix

A suffix (from Latin suffixus - 'attached') is a morpheme that comes after a root before the ending and serves to form new words or forms of words. A suffix can appear directly after the root (carpenter) or after another suffix (carpentry).

Suffixes that serve to form new words are called word-forming (word-forming) suffixes. The majority of such suffixes. For example, the suffix -ovat- forms adjectives with the meaning of incompleteness of quality from other adjectives: grey --->greyish, dark---> darkish, liquid--->watery, pale--->paleish; suffix -in- forms possessive adjectives from nouns denoting animals: horse--->equine, elk--->elk, goose--->goose, falcon --->falcony; suffix -tel forms nouns with the meaning of an actor from verbs: learn--->teacher, read--->reader, live --->inhabitant.

Suffixes that serve to form the forms of words are called formative (inflectional). Some verb forms are formed with the help of formative suffixes, for example, the suffix -th forms an indefinite form ( read), -l-- past tense form (read), -I-- imperfective participle (reading), -yush- - active present participle (reading). With the help of formative suffixes, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are formed, for example: newer, brighter, newest, highest.

In suffixes on -To- alternation possible c/h, as well as fluent vowels, for example: examination - checks - check.

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

When connecting morphemes in a word, insignificant connecting elements, called interfixes in linguistics, can be used. The main type of interfixes are connecting elements used in the formation of complex words: - O-(airplane), -e-(half-e-water), -uh-(double decker),-yoh-(three-story),-And- (five-and-story). Such connecting vowels at the junction of roots are not morphemes in the generally accepted sense (although a number of linguists consider them morphemes with a special, connecting meaning). The stems of the word are not interrupted by connecting elements.

Sometimes the term "interfix" is used to describe a wider range of phenomena - all connecting elements used in word formation and inflection. In this case, the following types of interfixes in word formation are distinguished:

1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - O-(airplane), -e-(half-e-water), -uh-(double decker),-yoh-(three-story),-And- (five-and-story) and others,

2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l-(resident),-V-(singer), -j-(coffee),-T-(argo-t-icesy),-sh-(cine);

in shaping:

-j-(leaf-j-i),-ov-(son-ov-ya),-er-(mat-er-i),-en-(plem-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -A-(write),-e-(mountains),-O-(half), -And- (be in love).

How, with this understanding, is the question of the status of interfixes in morphemic parsing resolved? Linguistic scientists have no consensus on this issue; interfixes different groups It is customary to qualify differently.

Connecting vowels at the junction of roots (group 1) do not join either one or the other root and remain between morphemes; when dividing words morphemically, they can be highlighted with brackets, underlining, or circling the connecting element: sam(o)let-Zh ¬ myself + fly.

As for the interfixes of the second group used in word formation, there are three points of view:

1) leave them between morphemes (pe(v)ec),

2) attach them to the root (singer),

3) attach them to the suffix (singer).

Each of these points of view has arguments for and against. The third point of view corresponds to the morphemic parsing algorithm we have adopted: a suffix is that segment of a derived stem that distinguishes it from the producing stem, for example, singer ¬ to sing.

Interfixes used in the inflection of nouns are considered to be extensions of the root (mother - mater-i), and vowels at the end of the verb stem are designated as suffixes (chit-a-t).

Zero word-forming suffix

Let's assume that it is necessary to determine the morphemic composition of a word run. At first glance, it consists of a root and a zero ending. However, in this case the word run, like any non-derivative word, must directly and directly name a certain object of extra-linguistic reality, and be unmotivated. But that's not true. Any native Russian speaker to explain what it is run, uses the following interpretation: “This is when they run.” And in fact, nouns with an uncharacteristic meaning of action or attribute are derivatives in Russian; they are formed from verbs or adjectives: run ® run-relative , walk ® walking , blue ® sin-ev-a , strict ® strictness. Likewise: run ® run, walk ® move, blue ® blue, quiet ® silence. Nouns were formed from verbs and adjectives, which is only possible by adding suffixes. Indeed, these words also use a suffix. This suffix is zero.

To highlight a zero word-forming suffix, two conditions are necessary:

1) the word must be derivative, motivated by another word of the language (therefore the word hubbub does not have a null suffix)

2) there must be a word-formation meaning that can be expressed by a non-zero suffix, but in this case it is not materially expressed: run ® run-Zh-, run ® run-rel-ya .

Words are formed using the zero word-forming suffix different parts speeches:

nouns

1) with meaning abstract action, formed from the verbs: explode ® explosion-Zh-, enter ® entrance-Zh-. Alternative suffixes: -enij- (walk-enij-e), -rel- (run-relative) and others;

2) with the meaning of an abstract feature, formed from adjectives: blue ® sin-Zh-, deaf ® wilderness-Zh- . Alternative suffixes: -ev- (sin-ev-a), -in- (tish-in-a), -ost- (strictness);

3) with the meaning of an object or person related to the action (producing it, being its result, etc.), formed from the verb (scale-Zh- ¬ boil) or two generating stems - the stem of the noun and the stem of the verb: steamer-J- ¬ steam + walk , brakodel-F- ¬ marriage + do. Alternative suffixes - -nik-, -ets-: heat transfer-Nick¬ warm + exchange, farmer ¬ Earth + do;

adjectives:

1) from verbs: vkhozh-Zh-y ¬ to enter. Alternative suffix - - n-: res-n-oh ¬ cut;

2) from nouns: everyday life ¬ everyday life. Alternative suffix - -n-: forest-n-oh ¬ forest.

There are other cases of zero word-forming suffixation, but they are less common.

In complex 1, the method of forming such words is called suffixless; in complex 2, words of this kind are not considered at all.

Postfix

A postfix is a morpheme that comes after an ending and usually serves to form new words.

There are few postfixes in the Russian language. The most common - -xia, used to form verbs (learning, getting carried away, conjugating). Postfix -xia has an option -s, in personal forms of the verb appearing after vowels (studying, getting carried away, hiding). In addition, there are postfixes -this, -either, -something, serving to form indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs, for example: some, someone's, anyone; somehow, somewhere, someday. These postfixes are written with a hyphen.

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form the forms of a word and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.

Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express the grammatical meanings of the word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, mood, tense, degrees of comparison, etc.).

Ending

An ending is an inflected morpheme that serves to connect words in phrases and sentences and forms the form of a word, expressing the meanings of gender, number, person and case. For example, in a noun table ending -A expresses the meaning of the masculine singular of the genitive case, in the verb is reading ending -et expresses the meaning of the 3rd person singular. The ending may be null: table(cf. table[A]), kind(cf. kind[s]) , read(cf. read[And]).

Only inflected words have endings. Function words, adverbs, unchangeable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that lack the specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerunds.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr-i-st-a, tr-yoh-sot-, sofa -bed-, sofa-a-bed-i.

The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. A zero ending is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears. So, the ending - A in the shape of table shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at V table-at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that this is the nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, it is significant. It is in such cases that the zero ending is highlighted in the word.

Zero endings are widely represented in the language and are found in nouns, adjectives and verbs in the following positions:

1) masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy - I. p., table - I. / V. p.;

2) nouns female 3 declensions in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;

3) nouns of all genders in the Russian plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.

But non-zero endings can also be represented in this position: noch-ey - articles- . The correct parsing of such words is achieved by declension of the word. If during declension the sound [th"] disappears, then it belongs to the ending: night-ey, noch-ami. If [th"] can be traced in all cases, then it belongs to the stem: articles - stan [th"-a] - become[th]mi. As we see, in these forms the sound [th"] is not expressed at the letter level, it is “hidden” in the iotized vowel letter. In this case, it is necessary to identify and designate this sound. In order not to clutter the writing with transcription brackets, in linguistics it is customary to denote the sound [th "], "hidden" in the iotized vowel with j, without brackets, fits into Right place: become j-s.

A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -iya, -ie, -ie. The impression that these sound complexes are endings is incorrect. Two-letter endings in the initial form are presented only in those nouns that are substantivized adjectives or participles. Let's compare:

genius, genius, genius - plots, plots, plots

army, army, table, table, etc.

4) adjectives in short form masculine singular: handsome, smart;

5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; Despite the external similarity of declension, qualitative and possessive have different morphemic structure in the indicated cases:

This morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand if we consider that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij- from nouns: mom ® mom-in-, fox ® fox-ii-. In indirect cases this possessive suffix is th- is realized in [j], which is “hidden” in the iotated vowel;

6) verb in the masculine singular form in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the conditional mood: dela-l- (would) - cf.: dela-l-a, dela-l-i;

7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-and-, write-and-those;

8) short participles have a zero ending, like short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-. morphemic interfix word-forming

Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form the forms of a word.

In educational complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is introduced, in complexes 1 and 3 - not, however, they say that “a suffix is a significant part of a word, usually serving to form new words”; This “usually” contains the idea that suffixes can serve not only for word formation, but also for form formation.

Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: these are suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and gerund forms (if we consider the participle and gerund as forms of the verb, as complexes 1 and 3 do). Non-verb formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.

Historically, most verbs have two modifications of the stem - the infinitive and the present tense (for verbs of the perfect form - the future). In addition to them, we can sometimes talk about the basis of the past tense.

Since a verb word combines word forms that have the same (from the point of view of its constituent morphemes) stem, it is more correct to say that a verb can have several types of stem, each of which is used in a specific set of word forms. For other parts of speech, the stem may also have a different form in different words forms (for example, son - sons), however, for them it is the exception rather than the rule, while for verbs it is the rule and not the exception. In this regard, a not very successful usage of words has become established, when different types of the same stem are called different stems.

To highlight the basis of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, gnaw, weave, take care (or take care-Zh).

To isolate the present/simple future tense stem, one must separate the personal ending from the present/simple future tense form; It is preferable to use the 3rd person plural form (since this stem itself can have different forms in different forms): pish-ut, raboj-ut, lech-at.

To highlight the basis of the past tense, it is necessary to discard the formative suffix of the past tense from the form of the past tense - l- or -F- and ending; It is preferable to use any form except the male form. kind of units number, since it is in it that the zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: nes-l-a, pisa-l-a.

Most verbs have two different types of stems: one is the present/simple future stem, and the other is the infinitive stem, as well as the past tense: chitaj- and chita-, risuj- and rice-, run- and bega-, talk- and talk - . There are verbs that have the same stems of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are contrasted with the stem of the past tense (sh-l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, get wet, get wet.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: nes-ti, nes-l-a, nes-ut; take it, take it, take it.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the present / simple future tense, in addition to the personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly visible in those verbs in which alternation of consonants is presented:

pisa - pisa-l- (would) - pisa-vsh-y

pish-u - pish-ush-y - pish-i-.

The verb contains the following formative suffixes:

1) the infinitive is formed by the form-building suffixes -т/-ти: read-т, не-ти. In infinitives on -whose There are two possible ways to highlight inflection: oven or oven-Zh, where Zh is a zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the actual infinitive indicator overlap) .

In training complexes 1 and 3, the infinitive indicator is described as an ending. This is due to the fact that in these complexes, unlike complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is not introduced, and the base is considered to be a part of the word without an ending, therefore, in order to exclude the infinitive indicator from the base, it is given the status of an ending. This is incorrect, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case required for the ending and indicates only the infinitive - the unchangeable verb form.

2) the past tense of the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- (deeds-l-) and -Zh-: nes-Zh- - cf.: nes-l-a.

3) the same suffixes are presented in the conditional mood: dela-l-by, nes-Zh-by.

4) the imperative mood is formed by suffixes -And-(write-i-) and -F- (do-F-, sit-F-) .

To clarify that forms like do And sit down are formed by a zero formative suffix, and not by the suffix * th,*-duh, it is necessary to remember that the form of the imperative mood is formed from the basis of the present tense: pish-u - pish-i. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the stem: read - read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not part of the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read-Zh- (the zero ending has a singular meaning - cf.: read-J-those).

5) participle like special shape the verb is formed by the suffixes -ash-(-yash-), -ush-(-yush-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om- / -em-, -nn-, -onn- / - enn-, -t-: run-ush-y, take-y (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes are indicated through a slash) .

6) the gerund, as a special form of the verb, is formed by the suffixes -а(-я), -в, -shi, -вшы, -уuch(-yuchi): delaj-ya, bud-uchi.

7) simple comparative adjectives and adverbs are formed using the suffixes -e (higher-e), -ee / -ey (fast-ee), -she (earlier-she), -zhe (deeper);

8) simple superlative The comparison adjective is formed using the formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (quick-eysh-y, high-aysh-y).

As we see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when the meaning of mood or tense in some verbs is not materially expressed:

a) a suffix that forms the past tense of the indicative mood and the conditional mood for a number of verbs found in masculine singular (carried-J-). In the same verbs, when forming feminine or neuter singular or plural forms, the suffix is used -l- (nes-l-a);

b) the imperative suffix for a number of verbs, which were mentioned above (do-Zh-, take out-Zh-).

The basis

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word. The stem is a mandatory element of the morphemic structure of a word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, while expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For unchangeable words, the entire word forms the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. For modified words, endings and/or formative suffixes are not included in the base, for example: okn-o, lie-t, dare-ee, read-l-a, made-nn-y.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya/-s (uch-l-a-s), the basics of indefinite pronouns containing the suffixes -to, -or, -ni (someone), the basics of some complex compound nouns (sofa-a-bed-i) and complex numerals (five-and-ten-i). Such bases are called intermittent.

Principles of morphemic word analysis

Morphemic analysis of a word (analysis of a word by composition) begins with identifying the stem and formative morphemes - the ending and/or formative suffix (if any).

At the same time, it is necessary to remember j, which can be "hidden" in an iotated vowel after a vowel or separator. If it covers the stem of the word, it must be entered ( impression). If this is not done, you may make a mistake in the composition of the suffix or not notice the suffix in the word at all. So, for example, in Russian there is no suffix -*nor-, and there is a suffix - nij-: sing® ne-nij-e. The word is heaven contains the suffix - j-, which is not expressed at the literal level: under the sky.

After this, the stem of the word must be divided into the root(s) and word-forming morphemes, if they are present in the word. In some textbooks(in particular, in complex 2), the following procedure is proposed for this: the root is isolated in a word as a common part of related words, then what remains in the word is isolated as a prefix (prefixes) and suffix (suffixes) in accordance with our ideas about , is there such a suffix or such a prefix in the Russian language? But such an analysis may lead to errors; its procedure lacks validity. To avoid mistakes, morphemic parsing of the stem must be linked with word-formation parsing.

The algorithm for morphemic stem parsing, associated with its word-formation parsing, was substantiated by the Russian linguist Grigory Osipovich Vinokur (1896-1947).

What is base productivity? Derivation is understood as the formation of a given base from another base at a synchronous level, in modern language. How do we know that one base is formed, that is, derived from another? The meaning of a derived stem can always (and should) be explained through the meaning of the stem, which is productive (basic) for it, and not through a direct indication of the object of extra-linguistic reality designated by it. For example: table ¬ table. Motivation: table - this is a “small table.” The interpretation of a derivative word necessarily includes a generating word (base). This criterion is called the criterion of motivation.

The criterion of motivation emphasizes that the semantic connection between the derivative and the producer should be felt in modern language (at the synchronous level). Historically, one word can be formed from another. So, for example, the word forget historically derived from the word be, word capital- from the word table. But for a modern native speaker, the semantic connections between them are destroyed. Meaning of the word capital cannot be explained through the meaning of the word table, therefore, they are not related by derivative relations. Word capital(similar to forget) is non-derivative, which means that its basis is indivisible at the synchronic level, the root of this word is capitals. Mixing synchronous morphemic and etymological analysis of words when studying the modern Russian language is unacceptable.

Algorithm for morphemic division of the stem

When forming words, sometimes a prefix and a suffix are attached to the generating stem at the same time, for example, windowsill ¬ window(there are no words in Russian * subwindow And * windowpane). But often word-forming morphemes are added sequentially:

white white turn white.

The result is a word-forming chain, in each link of which a new word-forming morpheme is “put on” the original generating base. Consequently, in order not to make a mistake in determining the morphemic structure of a word, during its morphemic analysis it is necessary to restore this word-formation chain and sequentially “remove” word-forming morphemes from the derivative base under study. For the word being studied, its generating word is selected - the word (base) from which it is derived, the word closest in form and necessarily motivating in meaning to the word given for analysis (motivation criterion). Then they compare the base of the producing word and the base of its derivative. The difference between them is the suffix (prefix) with which the word under study is formed. Next, to the generating word, if it is not a non-derivative word, it is necessary to select its generating word. And so the word-formation chain should be built “in reverse” until it reaches a non-derivative word. When constructing each link in the chain, it is necessary, in order to prove the correctness of its construction, to explain the meaning of each derivative through the meaning of its generator. For example:

recover - get well - healthy

Motivation: recovery- the same as get well(result) or recover(process), denotes an action or its result, get well- become healthy.

Thus, the process of determining the morphemic composition through the word-formation chain does not begin with the isolation of the root, but ends with it. It is as if the affixes are “removed” from the word; what is left is the root.

The only exception to this pattern is words with related roots. Associated, as already mentioned, is a root that is not used independently, that is, only with formative morphemes, but is always found in conjunction with word-forming prefixes and suffixes, and can attach to itself various well-identified prefixes and / or suffixes. The analysis of such words is carried out through the construction of morpheme squares, in which given root must be used with a different suffix (prefix), and the suffix (prefix) must be used with a different root:

about-u-t - once-at-t

o-de-t - once-de-t

This is exactly the algorithm for morphemic stem parsing: constructing a word-formation chain for words with free root and the construction of a morphemic square for words with an associated root - should be used in the morphemic analysis of a word.

Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)

When analyzing a word morphemically (parsing a word by its composition), first the ending and formative suffix (if any) are highlighted in the word, and the stem is emphasized.

After this, the stem of the word is broken down into morphemes.

As we have already said, two opposing approaches to the morphemic division of the stem are possible: formal-structural and formal-semantic.

The essence of formal-structural morphemic analysis is that the root is first identified as a common part of related words. Then, what goes to the root must be recognized by the student as a prefix (prefixes) in accordance with the student’s ideas about whether he has encountered similar elements in other words. Same with suffixes. In other words, the main thing during analysis is the effect of student recognition of morphemes, external resemblance some parts of different words. And this can lead to massive errors, the reason for which is ignoring the fact that the morpheme is a significant linguistic unit. Lack of work to determine the meaning of morphemes leads to errors of two types, having different natures:

Errors in determining the root of a word are associated with a failure to distinguish between the synchronic morphemic and historical (etymological) composition of the word. Moreover, complex 2, the non-distinction between the modern and historical morphemic composition of words, is taken as a guideline that sometimes helps in determining the correctness of spelling, which is quite consistent with the general spelling and punctuation orientation of the course and the textbook as a whole. Thus, in the theory textbook, as illustrative material, the following example of morphemic parsing of a word is given: art(art). Obviously, this approach cannot contribute to the correct identification of the root in modern structure words and leads to the selection of insignificant segments at the core.

Errors in identifying prefixes and suffixes are associated with the algorithm of morphemic division - with the idea of most students about a word as a string of morphemes that should be “identified” as already occurring in other words. The extreme expression of analysis of this kind is cases like key(cf.: pilot), box (upholsterer). But even with a correctly defined root, one very often has to deal with an incorrect determination of the number and composition of prefixes and suffixes, if there are more than two of these morphemes in a word. This is due, firstly, to the morphemic division algorithm and, secondly, to the fact that words with more than one prefix and/or suffix are practically not given in textbooks.

The formal-structural approach to the morphemic division of a word is not exclusively a part of school practice. A similar approach has been implemented in a number of scientific publications, for example in the “Dictionary of Morphemes of the Russian Language” by A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova, where it is stated that “morphemic analysis depends little on word formation, since usually when dividing a word a comparative method is used, which practically does not take into account what is formed from what.”

The formal-structural approach is contrasted with the formal-semantic approach (formal-semantic). Main installation This approach and the algorithm for morphemic parsing come from the works of G.O. Vinokur and consist in the continuity of morphemic division and word-formation parsing. Many scientists and methodologists have written for many decades that this approach is appropriate and even the only possible.

The approach of educational complexes to the issue of the principles and algorithm of morphemic division is different: educational complexes 1 and 3 offer a formal semantic approach to the morphemic division of a word (complex 3 in to a greater extent than complex 1), complex 2 is formal-structural.

The algorithm for morphemic parsing of the stem consists of constructing a word-formation chain “in reverse”: prefixes and suffixes are, as it were, “removed” from the word, and the root is highlighted last. When parsing, it is constantly necessary to correlate the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of its producer; the productive basis in modern Russian is the motivating basis. If there is no motivation relationship between the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of the generating (in our view) word, the generating word is chosen incorrectly.

Thus, the order of parsing the word according to its composition is as follows:

1) highlight the ending, formative suffix (if they are in the word),

2) highlight the stem of the word - part of the word without endings and formative suffixes,

3) highlight the prefix and/or suffix at the base of the word through the construction of a word-formation chain,

4) highlight the root in the word.

1) carpentry

Sample reasoning:

carpentry- verb form carpentry; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix - l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpentry).

The basis - carpenter-.

Verb carpentry formed from a noun a carpenter, is motivated through it: to carpenter - “to be a carpenter”; the difference between the basis carpenter And a carpenter- suffix - A-, the basics introduce alternation To / h.

Noun a carpenter in modern language it is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through a word raft. Hence, a carpenter / carpenter- root.

Thus, the word form carpentry has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix is l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, word-forming suffix - A- meaning to be what is named in the motivating basis, root carpenter. Base word carpentry.

Sample written form:

carpenter - form of ch. carpenter ¬ carpenter, alternation To / h.

2) dressing

Sample reasoning:

Dressing- noun, ending - e(it is this segment of the word that changes when it is declensed: dressing, dressing, dressing).

At the junction of the ending and the stem in all forms, the sound [th"] is pronounced, which is “hidden” in the letter e, coming after a vowel. Therefore, this sound belongs to the base and closes it. The base of the word is get dressed[th"].

Word dressing derived from the verb dress: dressing - `the process of dressing is the same as putting on'. The difference between the basis dressing and verb stem dressing- segment - neither[th"]-, which is a word-forming suffix.

The verb to dress is derived from the verb dress and has the meaning of an imperfect form. Means of word formation - suffix - va-.

The verb to dress is underived, but there are verbs in the language unravel, change clothes with the same root, but different prefixes, therefore, we are dealing with a related root - de- and prefix O-.

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Works of oral Russian folk art. Russian oral folk art

Morphemics. Definition of morpheme. Types of morphemes.

Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)

Base words and word forms

Literature

Theoretical information

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Classification of morphemes in the Russian language

Alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

Vowel alternations

Consonant alternations

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Console

Suffix

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

Zero word-forming suffix

Postfix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Principles of morphemic word analysis

Algorithm for morphemic division of the stem

Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)

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