Are the people in China? National composition of China

China - multinational state, on whose territory 56 nationalities live. According to the third national census of 1982, there were 936.70 million Chinese (Han) and 67.23 million members of national minorities in China.

The 55 nationalities living in the country include: Zhuang, Hui, Uyghurs, Miao, Manchus, Tibetans, Mongols, Tujia, Bui, Koreans, Dong, Yao, Bai, Hani, Kazakhs, Tai, Li, Lisu, She, Lahu, Wa, Shui, Dong-Xiang, Nasi, Tu, Kirghiz, Qiang, Daur, Jingpo, Mulao, Sibo, Salar, Bulan, Gelao, Maonan, Tajik, Pumi, Well, Achan, Evenki, Jing, Benlongs, Uzbeks, Ji-no, Yugurs, Baoan, Dulongs, Orochons, Tatars, Russians, Gaoshan, Hezhe, Menba, Loba (arranged in descending order of numbers).

Among the ethnic groups, the largest is the Zhuang with 13.38 million people, and the smallest is the Loba with 1 thousand people. 15 national minority groups have a population of over a million people, 13 - over 100 thousand, 7 - more than 50 thousand and 20 - less than 50 thousand people. In addition, there are several ethnic groups in Yunnan and Tibet that have not yet been identified.

The population in China is distributed very unevenly. The Han people are settled throughout the country, but the bulk of them live in the basins of the Yellow, Yangtze and Pearl rivers, as well as on the Songlia Plain (in the northeast). Throughout Chinese history, the Han Chinese have had close political, economic, and cultural ties with various ethnic groups. High level The development of the Han nationality determines its leading role in the state. National minorities, despite their small numbers, live in an area occupying about 50-60% of the country's area, mainly in Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang Uyghur, Guangxi Zhuang and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Regions, as well as the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guichou, Guangdong, Hunan, Hebei, Hubei, Fujian and Taiwan. Many national minorities are settled in the highlands, in areas of steppes and forests, and most are located in border areas.

The vast natural resources of areas inhabited by national minorities play a role important role in socialist construction.

Internal migrations are significant in the distribution of the population. Residents of densely populated provinces are moving to less developed and populated areas. As a result of the change of dynasties in the course of history, the search for empty lands in border areas, and the policy of resettlement within the provinces, representatives of different national minorities have constantly migrated and currently live in mixed or compact communities. Thus, more than 20 nationalities live in Yunnan province. This is the area with the largest number of ethnic minorities present in China. Koreans are settled mainly in Yanbian County (Jilin Province), Tujia and Miao - in the eastern part of Hunan Province. The Lis live on Hainan Island, Guangdong Province. About 10 million ethnic minorities live in mixed groups throughout China, and even these small ethnic communities have merged with the Han Chinese. For example, in Inner Mongolia, Ningxia Hui and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Regions, the majority of the population is Han, and only a small part are ethnic minorities. This pattern of small compact communities among large mixed groups of mainly Han Chinese is characteristic of the settlement of nationalities in China.

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Published based on the book by Intercontinental Publishing House of China
"Xinjiang: An Ethnographic Essay", by Xue Zongzheng, 2001

The Uyghurs are an ancient ethnic group that has lived in northern China since ancient times; their main place of residence is Xinjiang, but they also live in Hunan, Beijing, Guangzhou and other places. There are very few Uyghurs outside of China. The self-name "Uyghurs" means "unification", "unification". In ancient Chinese historical chronicles There are different variations of the name of the Uyghurs: “Huihu”, “Huihe”, “Uighurs”. The official name "Uyghurs" was adopted by the Xinjiang provincial government in 1935.

Uyghurs speak the Uyghur language, which is a Turkic language. language family, profess Islam. Their places of residence are mainly in the regions of Southern Xinjiang: Kashi, Khotan, Aksu, as well as the city of Urumqi and Ili County in Northern Xinjiang. According to the 1988 census, the number of Uyghurs in Xinjiang is 8.1394 million people, 47.45% of the total population of Xinjiang, in rural areas the proportion of Uyghurs is 84.47%, in rural townships 6.98%, in cities 8 .55%.

Ancestors of the Uyghurs and the evolution of development

The issue of the origins of the Uyghur nationality is quite complex. Ancient peoples took part in it: the Sakas (Eastern Iranian language group), Yuezhi, Qiang (tribes of the ancient Tibetan language group, who lived on the northern spurs of Kunlun), and finally, the Han people, who lived in the Turfan Depression. In the 40s of the 8th century, Uighur tribes engaged in nomadic cattle breeding on the Mongolian plateau migrated to the territory of what is now Xinjiang. In total, three migration flows can be traced. In Xinjiang, migrants settled in the areas of Yanqi, Gaochang (Turfan) and Jimsar. Gradually, the Uighurs settled in the vast expanses of Southern Xinjiang. This was the first stage in the formation of the Uyghur nationality based on mixing with other ethnic groups, as well as important period in popularizing the Uyghur language. IN wall painting The Baiziklik Thousand Buddha Cave Temples have Uyghur images. The Uyghurs of those times had clearly expressed features of the Mongoloid race. Today, the Uyghurs, along with black hair and eyes, have an oval face and skin color characteristic of a mixed yellow-white race. Moreover, there are differences in the appearance of Uyghurs living in different areas. Uyghurs living in the Kashgar-Kucha region have light skin and thick facial hair, which brings them closer to the white race; The Uyghurs of Khotan have dark skin, which brings these Uyghurs closer to the Tibetans; The Turfan Uighurs have the same skin color as the Han Chinese living in Gansu and Qinghai. All this indicates that in the process of ethnic formation, the Uyghurs experienced processes of mixing with other nationalities. The ancestors of the Uighurs by blood also include the Mongols, a large influx of whom into Xinjiang took place during the period of the Chagetai and Yarkand Khanates.

The ancestors of the Uyghurs were adherents of shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Buddhism. The abundance of Buddhist religious buildings that have survived to this day: cave temples, monasteries and pagodas suggests that in ancient times Buddhism occupied a dominant position among various beliefs. In the mid-10th century, Islamism, brought from Central Asia. Islamism first penetrated into Kucha. In the mid-16th century, during the existence of the Yarkand Khanate, Islamism supplanted Buddhism and became the dominant religion in the Turfan and Hami regions. Thus, a historical change of religions took place in Xinjiang.

During the period of the Yarkand Khanate, the Uyghurs lived mainly in Southern Xinjiang - the region between the Tianshan and Kunlun ranges. During the period of the Dzungar Khanate, the Uyghurs began to settle in the valley of the Ili River, where they plowed virgin lands. But the number of Uyghurs resettled was small. In general, until the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the Uyghurs mainly lived concentrated in Southern Xinjiang, and from here they moved to other places. For example, the current Uyghurs living in Urumqi are descendants of those Uyghurs who migrated here from Turfan in 1864. At that time, a resident of Dihua (since 1955 Urumqi) Taoming (Hui by nationality) opposed the Qing rule and proclaimed the establishment of an independent government. Residents of Turfan supported the rebels and sent an armed detachment to help them in Dihua. After some time, the Kokand military leader Agub captured Dihua and Guniin (now a district of Urumqi) and organized a recruitment of recruits in Southern Xinjiang to replenish his army. Thus, many Uyghurs from Southern Xinjiang migrated to Dihua and settled permanently. In addition, already during the years of the Republic of China (1911-1949), many Uyghur traders and workers moved to Northern Xinjiang. Until now, the number of Uyghurs living in Southern Xinjiang is much larger than their number in Northern Xinjiang.

Political history of the Uyghurs

At different periods of history, the Uyghurs created their own local power structures. But they all maintained close contact with the central government of the Chinese Empire.

At the beginning of the Tang dynasty, the Uyghur ruler inherited the title of governor of the Gobi and created the Uyghur Khaganate. Kagans (supreme rulers) received from the hands of the Chinese emperor a letter of appointment and state seal, in addition, one of the kagans was connected by a matrimonial union with the Tang dynasty. The rulers of the Uyghur Khaganate assisted the Tans in pacifying internal turmoil among the tribes of the Western territories and protecting the borders.

In the 10th century, three state formations existed on the territory of the Western Territories: the Gaochang Khanate, the Karakhan Khanate and the Keria State. They all paid tribute to the emperors of the Song (960-1279) and Liao (907-1125) dynasties. In the 16th - 17th centuries, close political and economic ties existed between the Yarkand Khanate in Xinjiang and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

In 1696, Khamiya Bek Abdul, before others, spoke out against the Dzungar administration that then dominated the southern and northern spurs of the Tien Shan and announced recognition of the power of the Qing dynasty. Abdul's descendants invariably received titles and seals from the Chinese emperor, indicating recognition of their powers by the central government of China.

Thus, the ground was gradually prepared for the inclusion of the Western territories in the map of Chinese possessions. After the Qing troops defeated the troops of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755, the process of recognition of the supremacy of the central Chinese government by the leaders of the kingdoms in the Western territories accelerated. Following the example of the Han Dynasty, which established the position of viceroy "duhu" in the Western Territories, and the Tang Dynasty, which established military administrative districts in Anxi and Beiting, the Qing government established in 1762 the position of Ili Governor-General - the highest military administrative rank in the Western Territories . As for the local government in the areas inhabited by the Uyghurs, the traditional feudal-bureaucratic system of beks (feudal lords who held bureaucratic posts, inherited from father to son) was preserved, which lasted until the end of the Qing dynasty.

In the mid-19th century, the Chinese nation was experiencing a severe crisis, and class contradictions sharply worsened. Against this background, the defects of the feudal-bureaucratic system of bekship and the system of paramilitary viceroyship established in Xinjiang by the Chinese government were increasingly revealed. Peasant uprisings became more frequent, and religious leaders, taking advantage of the ensuing turmoil, began to preach for a “holy war for Islam.” From outside, Xinjiang was invaded by troops of the Central Asian Kokand Khanate (a feudal state created by the Uzbeks in the 18th century in the Fergana Valley) under the leadership of Khan Aguba (1825 - 1877). The Uzbeks captured Kashi and the southern Xinjiang region. Tsarist Russia occupied Inin (Kulja). It's time for Xinjiang troubled times. Only in 1877, under the pressure of the rebellious population and the blows of the Qing troops, did the interventionist government of Aguba fall, in the Northern and Southern regions Xinjiang was once again restored to the rule of the Qing government, which in 1884 declared Xinjiang a Chinese province.

The Uyghurs played an important role in resisting external aggressors during the period of modern history.

In the 20-30s of the 19th century, the Uyghurs repelled the armed machinations of the troops of Zhangir and Muhammad Yusup, who acted with the support of the Kokand Khan; in the 60s, the Uyghurs expelled the Russian consul of the Ili and Tarbagatai districts and Russian merchants because they grossly violated local laws and provoked incidents in which there were casualties among the local population; in the 70s, the Uyghurs repulsed the intervention of Agub Khan's troops and supported the Qing troops in restoring Chinese power in Xinjiang. They also contributed to the return of Gulja to the fold of the Motherland in 1881 from Russian occupation. During the years of the Republic of China, the Uyghurs resolutely fought against pan-Turkism and pan-Islamism, defending the unity of the motherland and national cohesion. During the years of the People's Republic of China, in particular after the formation of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Uyghurs acted as an important stabilizing force in political life China and Xinjiang.

Social life and economics

The Uighurs lead a sedentary lifestyle, their main occupation is agriculture. Most Uyghurs live in rural areas. In the mid-17th century, the Dzungars, one of the four Oirat tribes in Western Mongolia, arose. Having established their dominance in Xinjiang, the Dzungars resettled part of the Uighurs living in Southern Xinjiang to the north, to the Urumqi region, forcing them to plow virgin lands. In the past, the Uighurs grew crops extensively, without applying fertilizers, without selecting seed, without caring about restoring soil fertility, and used unlimited quantities of water from irrigation ditches for irrigation. But even under these conditions, Uyghur peasants have made considerable progress in crop production.

The Uighurs live in oases in the middle of the desert, their villages formed as they settled without a specific plan. In addition to working in the fields, villagers always plant trees and shrubs around their homes; fruit growing and melon farming are widespread. From grapes by drying under open air Raisins are prepared, dried fruit is made from apricots, and apricot kernels are dried. Well-known products are Khotan peaches and walnuts, Pishan and Kargalyk pomegranates, Badan apricots, Atush figs, Kuchan apricots, Turfan seedless grapes, Kurlya pears, melons grown in Fayzabad, Megati and Shanshan, Ili apples, sea buckthorn, etc. Xinjiang is an important cotton growing region of national importance to China. The Uyghurs are excellent cotton growers. Living in an arid climate with very little rainfall, the Uyghurs learned to build underground water pipelines and kariz wells, which draw water from rivers. During the years of people's power, especially during the period of reforms and open policy (since 1978), a galaxy of young specialists grew up in Xinjiang, new trends, new agro and livestock technology came to the agricultural sector, and mechanization began to be widely introduced. All this led to a new boom in agriculture in the region.

The diet of Uighur peasants is dominated by small livestock meat, dairy products and fruits. Residents of cities work in the craft field and are engaged in petty trade. Leather production, blacksmithing, and food processing are developed among the crafts. Merchants sell fruit, cook barbecue, bake flatbreads, pies and other types of traditional food. The products of Uyghur artisans are distinguished by great elegance. Khotanese carpets and silk, miniature daggers from Yangisar, embroidered skullcaps and copper items produced in Kashi are in great demand.

Folk customs

Modern Uyghurs are very different from their ancestors: the Huihu, who believed in Manichaeism, or the Gaochang Uyghurs, who believed in Buddhism. Today the dominant religion is Islamism. At the early stage of the spread of Islam, the Uyghurs belonged to the Sufism sect, but today the majority of the population are Sunnis, in addition, there are adherents of the Yichan sect, which requires renunciation of worldly pleasures and wearing rosaries.

Marriages are concluded exclusively between supporters of the same faith; marrying a girl to someone of a different faith is strictly condemned. Marriages between relatives and early marriages occur. According to tradition, the decisive factor when choosing a groom (bride) is the will of the parents. Today, it is true that the right to marriage for love is officially recognized, but it is still believed that any decent groom should be able to present the bride’s family with a rich bride price, otherwise he will be charged with underestimating the bride’s merits. Both among the groom's gifts and the bride's dowry, a prayer rug is an indispensable attribute. The act of marriage must be confirmed by a clergyman - akhun. The newlyweds eat a flatbread soaked in water, to which salt is added, the groom's friends and the bride's friends perform dances and songs. Today, wedding celebrations last one day, but previously they lasted at least three days. According to Uyghur custom, in the event of the death of an older brother, the widow does not remain in her husband’s family, but can return to parents' house or marry someone else. But if the wife dies, then the widower can marry his sister-in-law. Uyghurs show great tolerance towards divorce and remarriage; in a divorce, the divorcing parties divide property equally among themselves. However, custom prohibits married woman file for divorce on your own initiative. Although in Lately and here changes are observed.

The Uyghur family is based on marital relations husband and wife, children who have reached adulthood and started a family are separated from their parents. The youngest son continues to live in his parents’ house so that there is someone to care for the elderly and see them off on their last journey. Moreover, there is a custom according to which a son, if he only child male in the family, is not separated from his parents. At the birth of a child, the mother remains on bed rest for 40 days. The baby is placed in a cradle, in which it is convenient to rock the child. To name a newborn, a special ceremony is held; a male child aged 5-7 years is circumcised, and this operation is timed to coincide with the odd month of the spring or autumn season. Children of both sexes, as well as the wife in the event of the death of the husband, have the right to inherit, but a daughter can inherit property in an amount that is only half the inheritance due to a son. It must be said that these customs today are no longer as absolute as they were in the past. Uighurs place great importance on maintaining relationships with relatives. Relatives are divided into direct, close and distant. But even when dealing with indirect relatives, they resort to such names as “father”, “mother”, “brother”, “sister”, etc. It is customary to provide mutual support between relatives. A personal nomination consists of a first and patronymic, without a surname, but the name of the ancestor (grandfather) is mentioned. It is the custom of the Uyghurs to honor the elderly and old, they are greeted and escorted with respect, and they give way. When greeting each other, Uyghurs place their palms right hand to the chest.

Funeral customs involve interring the remains of the deceased. The deceased is laid with his head to the west, as a rule, for a period of no more than three days, and the akhun performs a prayer over him. Before burial, the corpse is wrapped in white cloth in several layers: three layers for men and five layers for women; in the mosque, the relatives of the deceased bring the last offerings, after which the funeral procession follows to the cemetery. A grave is dug in a quadrangular shape, most often in a cave, the deceased is laid with his head to the west, the akhun says the words of prayer, and after that the entrance to the cave is walled up. As a rule, people of other faiths are prohibited from entering the cemetery.

Today, the Uyghurs use the generally accepted calendar, but the onset of some holidays is still determined by the old calendar. The beginning of the year according to the Uyghur calendar is the Kurban holiday, and the Small New Year falls on Zhouzijie. According to Muslim custom, one month of the year must be dedicated to fasting. This month you can eat only before sunrise and after sunset. The end of Lent falls on “zhouzijie” (“kaizhaijie”). Now you can eat well. 70 days after "Kaizhaijie" comes New Year(Kurban), when every family slaughters a lamb, arranges a New Year's party and goes to each other with congratulations. During the spring solstice, "Nuwuzhouzijie" is celebrated - the arrival of spring. But this holiday does not apply to Muslim holidays, and is rarely observed nowadays.

The architecture of the Uyghurs is marked by Arabic characteristics. Outstanding monuments architecture are the tomb of Khoja Apoka (Kashi), Etigart Mosque, Imin Minaret (Turfan). Residential buildings are built from wood and clay. The yard is surrounded by an adobe wall, the walls of the house, which are the main load-bearing structures, are also made of adobe, and wooden beams are placed on the edges of the walls to support the roof. In Khotan, the walls of houses are built from clay, which is kneaded with added wood chips. The roof of the house is made flat, fruits are dried on it, etc. In addition to the residential building, in the courtyard there is a grape trellis and an orchard; the house has a door, but there are no windows that are familiar to us; light enters through a window in the ceiling. Niches are made in the walls of the house where household utensils are stored, the bed is replaced by an adobe couch (kan), covered with a mat or carpet, carpets are also hung on the walls. On cold days, the house is heated by heat emanating from the wall, under which a fire is lit. Doors in a Uyghur house never face west. Uyghurs, who live in modern stone-and-brick houses, use modern furniture, but still like to decorate the room with carpets.

Uyghur cuisine is rich in a variety of dishes prepared by baking, boiling, and stewing. Spices are added to food, especially the spice “Parthian anise”, or “Zizhan” in Uyghur. The main bread product is baked flatbread made from fermented dough with added onions and butter. A popular drink is tea with milk. Uighur pilaf, whole fried lamb, sausage, pies, steamed pies with filling, crispy bagels, etc. are widely known. The most delicious dish is considered to be lamb shish kebab, seasoned with anise, salt and pepper. Uighur-style kebab has become a popular dish throughout China.

An integral part of the clothing of Uyghurs, both men and women, is a headdress; skullcaps, beautifully embroidered with gold or silver threads, are especially popular. Everyday men's clothing is a long-skirted chepan, which is sewn with wide sleeves, without a collar and without fasteners. It is worn wrapped to the side and belted with a sash. Currently, Uyghurs living in cities began to dress in a modern way, men wear jackets and trousers, women wear dresses. When choosing cosmetic creams and lipsticks, Uighur women prefer products based on natural plant materials. Developed by a Xinjiang company, Osman brand eyebrow tint has been quality tested and offered for sale in China and abroad.

Culture and art

Uyghur culture has deep roots. During the time of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Uyghurs used the Zhuni script (a Turkic language group). It is in “zhuny” that the “Moyancho” stele is written. Later, syllabic writing came into use using the letters “sutewen”; it was written vertically from top to bottom, from right to left. During the Chagatai Khanate, the Uyghurs adopted the Arabic alphabet, giving rise to a writing system called Old Uyghur. Kashgar pronunciation was considered generally accepted. The alphabet consisted of letters, written from right to left. In the 19th century they switched to modern Uyghur writing. Modern Uyghur language has 8 vowels and 24 consonants. In the 11th century, the Uyghur poet Yusup from the city of Balasaguni (Karakhan Khanate) published the didactic poem “Knowledge that Gives Happiness,” the poet Aplinchotele wrote the idyllic poem “There is such a place.” During the Chagatai period, the love poem “Laila and Matain” and the poet Abdujeim Nizari’s poem “Zhebiya and Saddin” appeared. Modern Uyghur fiction and poetry developed already in the 20th century.

Colorful dance and song creativity of the Uyghurs. Even during the time of the Yarkand Khanate, the musical suite “Twelve Mukams” was created, which includes 340 fragments: ancient tunes, oral folk tales, dance music, etc. The Kash Mukam is especially large in scale, which includes 170 musical fragments and 72 pieces of instrumental music. They can be performed continuously for 24 hours. Musical instruments Uyghurs include flute, trumpet, sona, balaman, sator, zheczek, dutar, tambur, zhevapa (a type of balalaika), kalun and yangqing. Percussion instruments include a leather-covered drum and a metal drum. Uyghur dances can be divided into two categories: dances accompanied by singing and dances to music. Popular dance style"Sanem", which is distinguished by a free choice of movements, is performed both by one dancer and in a pair, as well as by an entire ensemble. "Syatyana" is a cheerful dance performed by an unlimited number of artists. In this dance, the performers, raising their arms up, make turns and swings with their hands in time with the small dance steps; in addition, the performers' shoulders make characteristic movements so that the neck remains motionless. In addition, circus acts are popular: tightrope walkers walking on a steel cable suspended at a high altitude, tightrope walking with a wheel, etc. Even the Qianlong Emperor (Ding Qing) wrote with admiration about the Uighur tightrope walkers. In 1997, the Uyghur tightrope walker, a native of Kashgar, Adil Ushur crossed the Yangtze River on a steel cable, entering a record in the Guinness Book.

http://www.abirus.ru/content/564/623/624/639/11455/11458.html

Dzungars (Zungars, zengors, jungars, jungars, (Mong. zungar, calm. zүn һar) - the population of the medieval Oirat possession "zүүngar nutug" (in Russian-language literature the Dzhungar Khanate), whose descendants are now part of the European Oirats or Kalmyks, the Oirat of Mongolia, China. Sometimes identified with olets.

In the 17th century, four Oirat tribes - Zungars, Derbets, Khoshuts, Torguts - created Derben Oirad Nutug in the west of Mongolia - translated from the Kalmyk language - “Union” or “State of Four Oirat”, in scientific world called the Dzungar Khanate (translated from the Kalmyk language as “jun gar”, or “zyun gar” - “left hand”), once the left wing of the Mongol army). Therefore, all subjects of this khanate were also called Dzungars (Zungars). The territory in which it was located was (and is) called Dzungaria.

In the 17th-18th centuries, the Oirats (Dzungars), as a result of migration and military clashes with the Manchurian Qing Empire and the states of Central Asia, formed three state entities: the Dzungar Khanate in Central Asia, the Kalmyk Khanate in the Volga region, and the Kukunar Khanate in Tibet and modern China.

In 1755-1759 As a result of internal strife caused by infighting among the ruling elite of Dzungaria, one of whose representatives called for help from the troops of the Manchu Qing dynasty, this state fell. At the same time, the territory of the Dzungar Khanate was surrounded by two Manchu armies, numbering a million people, and 90 percent of the then population of Dzungaria was exterminated, incl. women, old people and children. One combined ulus - about ten thousand tents (families) of Zungars, Derbets, Khoyts, fought their way through heavy battles and reached the Volga into the Kalmyk Khanate. The remnants of some Dzungar uluses made their way to Afghanistan, Badakhshan, Bukhara, were accepted into military service by the local rulers and subsequently converted to Islam.

Currently, the Oirats (Dzungars) live in the Russian Federation (Republic of Kalmykia), China (Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region), Mongolia (Western Mongolian aimaks), Afghanistan (Hazarajat).

http://ru.jazz.openfun.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B

China is a country with its own unique and wonderful culture. Happens here every year more than a million people who come to admire its beauty. Travelers choose this state not only to look at the greatest buildings of China, but also to get acquainted with the culture of the people.

The Celestial Empire (as this country is often called) is home to many nations. Because of this, traditions, everyday life, and lifestyle acquire new motives. Although more than 90% of the population are indigenous Chinese, they readily accept changes in their culture, easily allowing other nations into life.

There are minorities in China who speak their own dialect. On this moment many speak various Chinese dialects that differ from the generally accepted norms, there are about 300 of them, including Jurchen (one of

China

Known throughout the world for its tourist sites. Travelers are attracted by rural views that gradually give way to city skyscrapers. Landscapes are the first reason why there are so many foreigners here. They can surprise not only experienced tourists, but also the most inexperienced ones.

In ancient times, the people of China considered their homeland to be the center of the whole world. Those nations who lived on the border of the country were called barbarians. They were often subject to repression and discrimination.

Residents have great respect for books, scientists and various knowledge. All businessmen must have business cards on which the text is printed in Chinese and English languages. The Chinese are characterized by saving, so they easily and quickly accumulate huge capital.

Geography of China

China is a country located in eastern Asia. It borders on 15 states. The territory is washed by the South China, Yellow and East China seas. It must be said that the Celestial Empire has a sufficient number of mountains. Only 30% of the total is below sea level. In addition to the hills, there are bodies of water. They are famous for their properties as well as their beautiful views. Many rivers are used for shipping, fishing and irrigation. Minerals such as oil, coal, ore, manganese, zinc, lead, etc. are mined here.

China on the map is conventionally divided into two parts: eastern (located in East Asia) and western (located in Central Asia). This country's possessions include Taiwan and Hainan. These islands are the largest.

History of the country

After the formation of the Republic of China, the first ruling dynasty was the Shang. After some time, she was replaced by the Zhou tribe. Subsequently, the territory was divided into several parts, for which wars were constantly fought. It was because of them that a multi-kilometer wall was erected to protect against the gunas. The heyday of the state coincided with the period of the Han Dynasty. At that time, China already occupied a significant place on the map, having expanded its borders to the south and west.

Almost immediately after the conquest of Taiwan (which is still a colony of the country), the state became a republic. This happened in 1949. The government constantly carried out various cultural reforms, and also tried to change the economic sphere. China's ideology has changed.

Chinese as a nation

The Chinese are a nation inhabiting the People's Republic of China. In terms of their numbers, they deservedly took first place. call themselves "Han". This name came about due to the fact that it was able to unite the entire territory of the state under one government. In ancient times, the word "Han" meant " Milky Way" This is due to the fact that the people of China called their country the Celestial Empire.

The largest number of Han Chinese are found in China. More than 1 billion people live here. They also make up almost 98% of the total population of Taiwan. It is safe to say that the Chinese inhabit absolutely all districts and municipalities.

The USA, Canada, Australia are the states that currently lead in terms of the number of Chinese diaspora. Over the past 5 years, almost 40 million Han Chinese have moved to these countries.

Peoples inhabiting China

According to official data, in Republic of China Representatives of 56 nations live here. Due to the fact that the Chinese occupy more than 92% of the population, the remaining nationalities are divided into minorities. The number of such people in the country greatly exceeds the figure announced by the government.

In the south of the country, residents speak northern. However, it is worth noting that they still belong to the Han group.

Main peoples of China:

• Chinese (Han, Huizu, Bai);
• Tibeto-Burman (Tujia, Yi, Tibetans, etc.);
• Thai (chuang, bui, dun, etc.);
• Kadai (Gelao);
• whether peoples;
• Miao-Yao peoples (Miao, Yao, She);
• Mon-Khmer (Wa, Bulan, Jing, etc.);
• Mongolian (Mongols, Dongxiang, Tu, etc.);
• Turkic (Uighurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, etc.);
• Tungus-Manchu (Manchus, Sibos, Evenks, etc.):
• Taiwanese (Gaoshan);
• Indo-European (Pamir Tajiks, Russians).

State culture

The culture of the Chinese people goes back to ancient times. It began to emerge even before our era. There are legends that the gods passed on certain principles of life and way of life to the Chinese. In the history of the Celestial Empire, colossal changes in culture can be traced over several centuries.

The main myths of the state, known today, tell the story that Pangu created the whole world, Nuwa created humanity, Shen Nun was able to discover special medicinal plants, and Qiang Ze became the father of writing.

Since ancient times, the architecture of China has had a powerful influence on the structures of Vietnam, Japan and Korea.

Standard houses have a maximum of two floors. In cities, modern buildings have acquired a Western look over time, while in villages the original design of residential buildings is preserved.

Traditions of the Chinese people

Many traditions are associated with etiquette, ceremonies, and gifts. It was they who gave birth to some proverbs that have spread throughout the world.

In order to feel comfortable in this country, you need to know the basic rules of this nation:

• A handshake is a respectful gesture used by the Chinese when greeting foreigners.
• Knives, scissors and other cutting objects should never be given as gifts. They mean a break in the relationship. Apart from these, it is better not to give a watch, a scarf, flowers, or straw sandals. These things mean imminent death for the Chinese people.
• People don’t eat with forks here, so you should get used to eating with special chopsticks.
• Gifts should be opened at home, not immediately upon receipt.
• Tourists are not advised to wear clothing bright colors. You should choose those things that are done in pastel colors. This is explained by the fact that the people of China have a bad attitude towards this type of self-expression.

Attractions

The main attraction that has been preserved since ancient times is the Great Wall of China. It was built in the 3rd century BC. At that time, its length was almost 5 thousand km, its height varied from 6 to 10 m.

Beijing is also home to other important architectural structures which are popular among tourists. Most of them were built in the XV-XIX centuries. Shanghai is rich in temples, the decoration of which is made of precious stone. The center of Lamaism is Lhasa. The people of China love another cultural heritage - the monastery in which the residence of the Dalai Lama was located.

Some mountains (Huangshan), caves (Mogao), Victoria Port, the Li River and the Forbidden City are also considered attractions. Ancient Buddhist buildings are common.

Chinese ethnicity

China is the most populous country in the entire world. Currently, 1,368,021,966 people live there.

Officially, there are 56 nationalities in China. Since the Han Chinese make up approximately 92% of the country's population, the remaining peoples are usually called national minorities.

In practice, many small ethno-linguistic groups are combined with larger ones, and the actual number of ethnic groups is noticeably higher. Thus, according to Ethnologue, there are 236 languages ​​in China - 235 living and one extinct (Jurchen).

It is also important to note that although most residents of China's southern provinces speak Chinese dialects that differ significantly from the official standard based on northern dialects (e.g. Cantonese, Fujianese, Hakka, etc.), they are not officially considered separate nationalities , but as part of the Han ethnicity.

In certain periods, the number of officially recognized groups differed. Thus, in the 1953 census, 41 national minorities were indicated. And in the 1964 census, 183 national minorities were registered, of which the government recognized only 54. Of the remaining 129 peoples, 74 were included in the recognized 54, while 23 were classified as “other” and 32 as “doubtful.”

In turn, the governments of the Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions also do not differentiate between China's many ethnic groups.

Even in ancient times, the Chinese greeted each other with a special gesture - folding their hands on their chests and nodding their heads. This is also used now, but most people minimize this greeting to just a nod.

In China, gifts are especially treated, which is an integral part of communication. In this country, everyone will happily accept Chinese tea, cigarettes, wine or candy as a gift. However, the Chinese should not give watches as a gift - it is a symbol of death. An odd number of gifts should also not be presented, but the number 4 should also be avoided, as well as black and white things. The most important holiday of every person in China was and remains his birthday. It can be celebrated in any way you like. And special noodles are cooked for the birthday boy - shoumian. She is a symbol of longevity and health. Some families place a cake on the festive table. The main qualities of the Chinese people include such character traits as discipline, flexibility, generosity, perseverance and patience. These qualities have developed over centuries and were influenced by many factors. These are, for example, natural disasters that from time to time overtake this peaceful people. Another distinctive quality of the Chinese is patriotism, the willingness to die for their homeland. People in China are very friendly and hospitable. Meeting each other on the street, they ask: “Have you eaten today?” “However, the answer means absolutely nothing. It's just a sign of respect for another.

But besides all this, the Chinese have at least one negative trait, and that is negligence. Everything there is done carelessly, and the favorite word of almost every Chinese is the word “maskee”, which translated into Russian means “oh well, it’ll do,” almost “don’t give a damn.” However, this does not offend local residents at all. This attitude to business has already become a tradition. And this greatly hinders the Chinese in political affairs with other countries.

In China, it is not customary to show off your wealth. Even millionaires behave quite modestly and even help the poor part of the population.

Also in the Celestial Empire, as the Chinese often call their country, there is a very strict hierarchical ladder; every Chinese knows his place in society. An official is an official; servant, so servant.

General information about Chinese history

China is one of the four ancient states of the world. Chinese civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. The history of China, the pages of which are documented, began more than 4 thousand years ago during the Shang Dynasty.

Anthropologists have discovered the remains of China's oldest hominid. Yuanmou man lived about 1.7 million years ago. Peking Man (see section on Beijing, page Peking Man from Zhoukoudian), who lived in the area southwest of today's Beijing between 400 thousand and 500 thousand years ago, had the basic characteristics of Homo sapiens. Man in China went from the creation of a primitive society to the formation of a slave society in the 21st century BC and the first ruling dynasty - the Xia dynasty. During the era of the next dynasty - the Shang Dynasty (Shang, 16th century BC - 11th century BC), as well as during the reign of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC - 771 BC AD) the further development of slave society continued. This period was followed by the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC – 476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475 BC – 221 BC) , which marked the transition from a slave society to a feudal system.

In 221 BC. e. Ying Zheng, a man of great talent and strategic vision, stopped the wave of civil strife among many small independent states during the Warring States Period (475 BC - 221 BC) and formed the first centralized, unified, multinational state in Chinese history. Thus began the reign of the Qin Dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC). Ying Zheng called himself Shi Huang Di (first emperor) and went down in history as Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC). During his reign, Qin Shi Huang standardized writing, money, weights and lengths, established a new administrative system with prefectures and counties, and began construction of the now world-famous Great Wall of China, as well as big palace and the mausoleum, which are now known far beyond China as the absolutely fantastic Museum of the Terracotta Army. In many places, such as the cities of Xianyang, Lishan, etc., Emperor Qin Shi Huang established temporary royal palaces. IN last years During the reign of the Qin dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC), the emperor began to lose influence. One of the peasant leaders named Liu Bang entered into an alliance with the aristocratic general Xiang Yu and overthrew the Qin Dynasty. Liu Bang's ambitions did not stop there. A few years later he defeated the troops of Xiang Yu and in 206 BC. e. established the rule of the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220), which was distinguished by stability and strength.

During the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220), China had well-developed agriculture, handicrafts and trade. During the reign of Emperor Wudi (Liu Che, 140 BC–87 BC), the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) regime reached its peak of power and the emperor managed to defeat the Xiongnu tribes. To achieve this, the following strategic move was invented: he sent General Zhang Qian as an envoy to the regions located to the west of China (the territory of what is now Central Asia and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region). Tom, despite his temporary captivity, managed to come to an agreement with the nomads and after some time active trade began with these areas, which subsequently led to the formation of what is today known as the Great Silk Road. This route led from the ancient capital of the Han Dynasty, the city of Chang'an (present-day Xi'an) through the territory of the modern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to Europe. In 33 BC. e. a girl from the imperial circle, Wang Zhaojun, fell in love with a man named Huhanse, who was one of the leaders of the warlike Xiongnu tribes. The young people got married, and this incident became the basis of a touching story about how representatives of the Han and Xiongnu peoples fell in love and became related. This story has survived to this day. You can hear this story, as well as get acquainted with numerous historical facts, at the former residence of Wang Zhaojun in the city of Yichang, where all cruises upstream the Yangtze River begin. The multinational country gradually became more consolidated. The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220) lasted a total of 426 years. After this came the Period of the Three Kingdoms (220 - 280). The main states of that period were Wei, Shu and Wu.

Religion in China

China is a multi-religious state. Over the centuries, various religions have developed in China. Today Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, Protestantism and Catholicism are represented there. Freedom of belief is ensured by government policy. According to the constitution, any citizen of the country has the right to practice religious worship and rituals.

Buddhism

Buddhism came to China from India about 2 thousand years ago. Chinese Buddhism can be classified into three groups based on language. These are Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and Bali Buddhism. The followers of Chinese Buddhism are representatives of the main ethnic group of China - the Han Chinese. Tibetan Buddhism, which is also called Lamaist Buddhism, is practiced by Tibetans, Mongols, Uighurs, as well as representatives of the Loba, Moinba and Tujia peoples. Bali Buddhism is common among ethnic groups such as the Dai and Bulan. These peoples mainly live in Yunnan Province. Buddhists are the largest religious group in China. However, when counting the followers of various religions in China, one must take into account the fact that quite a large number of representatives of the Han people are not always obvious adherents of Buddhism.

Taoism

Taoism is a purely Chinese religion. Its history goes back more than 1700 years. The founder of this unique religion is the famous thinker Lao Tzu (Laozi). His doctrines became the basis of a new religion. Taoism is a polytheistic religion. Among the fans of Taoism are many representatives of the Han people living in rural areas of China.

Islam

Islam entered China from Arab countries more than 1,300 years ago. Currently, there are 14 million followers of this religion in China. These are mainly representatives of such peoples as Hui, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Tatars, Kyrgyz, Dongxiang Sala and Banan. The majority of Muslims live in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and Gansu and Qinghai provinces. All these regions are located in northwest China. In addition to this, there are quite large groups of Muslims living in almost every city in China. Muslims do not eat pork or horse meat.

Christianity

Catholicism and other branches of Christianity began to spread in China quite early. In 635, one of the missionaries of the Nestorian sect arrived in China from Persia. In general, it can be said that in the early periods of history Christianity failed to gain a good position in China. Another wave of the spread of Christianity occurred at the end of the Opium War between the Chinese and the British in 1840. Chinese Catholic and Protestant communities followed the path of independence and autonomous governance. IN currently There are more than 3.3 million Catholics and almost 5 million Protestants in China.

In addition to this, there are also followers of the Eastern Orthodox Church and other religions among various nationalities.

No one religion has ever gained a dominant position in China. Foreign religions in Chinese realities were strongly influenced and were either significantly changed or assimilated into Chinese culture. Over time, they became religions with distinctly Chinese characteristics. Overall, the number of believers is a small part of China's population of 1.3 billion people.

Introduction

China is a very ancient and mysterious country.

Today it is a country that has overcome the dire consequences of the Cultural Revolution; This is a country that combines old and new, ancient and modern, young and outdated. All this has come into motion today and has created the atmosphere of change that characterizes the country today.

China has come a long way of development, but, despite all sorts of changes, their ancient traditions and their unusual culture have reached us.

The people of China are very sensitive to their history. Thanks to the unchanging mentality of the Chinese, this country is one of the most patriotic.

During the formation of their state, all nationalities living in China made the country’s culture more complete and vibrant. They brought their knowledge and skills to it, which made it possible to make the state completely extraordinary.

China has a large number of striking features. One of them is Chinese hieroglyphic writing. All nationalities that have their own dialects can understand each other using hieroglyphs. This ancient letter, which has survived to this day practically unchanged, is a connecting link among all the peoples of this country.

Despite its multinationality, China remains a single, dynamically developing state.

Chapter 1. general characteristics Chinese population

China is the third largest country in the world after Russia and Canada. Its territory is about 9.6 million km2. In terms of population, China is known to be far ahead of all other countries in the world. According to statistics in 2000, there were 1.295 billion people living in mainland China. (not including the population of Hong Kong SAR, Taiwan Province and Macau), which is 22% of the world's population.

Administratively, the territory of China is divided into 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 cities of central subordination, as well as 2 special administrative regions (Aomen and Hong Kong). 1

The very factor of China's dense population, the close proximity of large masses of people, is the key to understanding many important features Chinese civilization in its most varied manifestations, no matter the everyday life, politics or traditionalism of the Chinese population.

China has come a long way before becoming a full-fledged civilization. The population played a big role in this. Many times it moved from place to place, leaving behind part of its culture.

The initial area of ​​settlement of the ancient Chinese was the Loess Plateau and the plain of the lower reaches of the Yellow River. In these areas, already in the era of classical antiquity (V-III centuries BC), for the first time in Chinese history, a state of extreme saturation of the landscape with economic and cultural activities of people was achieved, which became the natural and economic basis of Chinese civilization.

Almost at the turn of our era, the Chinese mastered a number of areas along the rivers in the south and the Sichuan Basin. Subsequently, despite the unusual climate for the inhabitants of the northern plains and the resistance of local tribes, the gradual colonization of the fertile lands of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River by the Chinese population continued. Mass colonization of the southern lands occurred around the 3rd-4th centuries, at which time Northern China was conquered by nomadic tribes, and it was at this time that Southern China began to play an independent political and cultural role in the life of the empire. Some of the Chinese fled to the Liaodong Peninsula, where they mixed with the ancestors of modern Koreans.

Over the next few centuries, economic and political center China gradually moved south of the Yangtze River. By the 2nd century AD all the low-lying areas of the South had already been completely developed by the Chinese. At the same time, there was a second mass movement of the Chinese population to the South, associated with a new invasion of nomads from the North. Thus, the Chinese South - more precisely Jiangan, and the adjacent areas became the political, cultural and economic center of Chinese civilization.

In subsequent centuries, the demographic situation in the country stabilized, and there was even an outflow of the population back to the North due to overpopulation in the most developed regions of the South. Later, Chinese expansion extends beyond China itself. In many countries of Southeast Asia - on the Malay Peninsula, in Indonesia, in the Philippines - numerous Chinese communities are emerging. Here, the Chinese settlers call themselves “tanka”, that is, “Tang people” after the name of the Tang dynasty, which ruled China in the 7th-9th centuries, during the era of active settlement of the South.

In the present century, after the overthrow of the monarchy in 1911, the Manchurian Plain is rapidly populated by the population of Northern China. In 1927-1928 About 1 million moved here. people, at least 400 thousand people moved from China to Hong Kong.

Currently, the entire population of China is distributed unevenly across the territory of the republic. The bulk of the Han people are located in the valleys of the Yellow, Yangtze, and Zhujiang rivers, as well as in the east of the Songlia Plain, which is very closely related to geographical location countries.

Due to the fact that the territory of settlement of the Chinese ethnic group is very vast and diverse, there are significant ethnocultural differences between the population of various provinces and regions of China.

Two factors contributed to the great diversity of the Chinese ethnic group:

1. The difference in climatic conditions of the North and the South, which is quite closely related to the difference in the economic and cultural ways of the northern and southern Chinese.

2. Contacts of the Chinese with various neighboring peoples.

The population of the North China Plain is more homogeneous in culture and language than the population of the South. There are also differences in appearance. Northern Chinese are taller, they have lighter skin, wider cheekbones and thinner nose, and the forehead is slightly sloping. In turn, southerners are shorter, their skin is darker, their faces are more elongated, their noses are flatter, and their foreheads are straight.

Modern sociological surveys show that even today, many residents of a particular province are attributed different sets of character traits and behavior. So it is believed that the residents of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi are characterized by cunning, infidelity in friendship, a penchant for luxury, as well as business acumen and insight. Fujian and Guangdong people are considered to be crafty, enterprising, and committed to family ties. The people of Hunan and Sichuan are passionate and straightforward, the people of Guizhou and Yunnan are thrifty and simple-minded. These estimates are very close to similar evidence from ancient written sources. “I noticed that the people of some provinces have their shortcomings: the natives of Fujian are too hot-tempered and impudent, and the natives of Shaanxi are rude and cruel. Residents of Shandong are too stubborn and always want to be ahead of everyone: they are full of bad feelings, do not value life and willingly take the path of robbery. The people of Shaanxi are so stingy that they don't even care about their elderly parents. The people of Jiangsu are rich and dissolute, their shortcomings are obvious to everyone,” Emperor Kangxi. 7th century 3

Another important feature of the Chinese ethnic group is the presence of Chinese various local dialects. Thus, in the North there is a single dialect, which is understood by the inhabitants of the Middle Plain, Manchuria, the Loess Plateau and the northwestern regions, while in the South, for a long time, there have been a large number of local dialects, the speakers of which are forced to use a written language to communicate. There are seven main groups of dialects:

1. Dialects of the lower Yangtze - Jiangnan region.

2. Dialects of Fujian Province.

3. Dialects of the South, covering Guangdong Province and eastern Guangxi.

4. Dialects of Jiangxi Province.

5. Dialects of Hunan Province.

6. Dialects of Sichuan Province.

7. Dialects of the Hakka ethnic group

Currently, the population of Southern China is distributed as follows:

1. Dialects of Wu (lower Yangtze)……………………………..69 million.

2. Dialects of Yue (Guangdong)…………………………………..40 million.

3. Dialects of Hunan and Guangxi……………………………….50 million.

4. Hakka dialects………………………………………….30 million.

5. Dialects of Min (Fujian)……………………………..55 million.

Despite their centuries-old migratory lifestyle, even despite the fact that they speak almost different languages, Chinese people managed to maintain the unity of its culture, which was compiled over many centuries.

Chapter 2 . National minorities in China

In China, as a multi-ethnic state, there is a typological feature - the presence in it of one nationality of the overwhelming majority and numerous small ethnic groups. According to the National Population Census conducted in November 2000, indigenous Han Chinese account for 91.59% of China's total population. Other nationalities accounted for 8.41%. All nationalities except the Han are usually called national minorities.

In total, national minorities include 55 nationalities living in China. They include: Zhuang, Hui, Uighurs, Yi, Miao, Manchus, Tibetans, Mongols, Tujia, Bui, Koreans, Dong, Yao, Bai, Hani, Kazakhs, Tai, Li, Lisu, She, Lahu, Wa, Shu, Dongxiang, Nasi, Tu, Kirghiz, Qing, Daurs, Jingpo, Mulao, Sibo, Salars, Bulans, Gelao, Maonan, Tajiks, Pumi, Well, Achans, Evenks, Jing, Uzbeks, Jino, Uyghurs, Baoan, Dulongs, Orochons, Tatars, Russians, Gaoshan, Hezhe, Menba, Loba.

There are quite large differences in numbers between ethnic minorities. Thus, the Zhuang are the largest group, its population is 15.556 million people, and the smallest ethnic group is the Loba, its population is 2322 people.

National minorities occupy 50-60% of the entire territory of China, and live in Inner Mongolia, Tibet, the autonomous regions of Xinjiang Uyghur, Guangxi Zhuang, Ningxia Hui, as well as in some provinces and border areas.

Since ancient times in the territory modern China lived the ancestors of all the nationalities that now inhabit China. For many centuries they expanded the borders of the state. From the Xia dynasty to the times of the Qin and Han empires, various tribes such as the Miao, Yao, and Bai explored the valleys of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Wuhuan, Xianbei, Huns, and Donghu were settled in the territories of the modern provinces of Heilongjiang, Luoning, and Jilin. In the west, in the area of ​​modern Xianjiang province, lived the ancestors of modern Uzbeks, Yuezhi, Guizi, Yutian.