List of inventions made in China. The incredible story of Chinese inventions

China is home to many significant inventions of human civilization. In particular, the Chinese invented a compass, paper, gunpowder and many other necessary things. It was recently discovered that the ancient Chinese could create reservoirs using complex cascades of water dams as early as 5 thousand years ago. /website/

This week, Chinese archaeologists managed to find the remains of ancient hydraulic structures. The discovery was made near the city of Hangzhou, in Zhejiang province. Scientists have discovered a system of 11 dams, the length of which exceeds six kilometers. “This is thus the largest such archaeological discovery in the entire world,” said Liu Bin, head of the Zhejiang Institute of Archeology.

So far, archaeologists have excavated 3 of the 11 dams discovered. The total area of the complex can be almost 10 square kilometers. According to the researchers, the system could be used to irrigate land, protect against floods, or move goods across water. Initial studies showed that the structure was built 4.7-5.1 thousand years ago.

Other Chinese inventions

This is not the first discovery confirming the engineering and scientific discoveries of the ancient Chinese. Many original technologies in the fields of mechanics, hydraulics, astronomy and other fields were invented in China. During the Warring States Period (403-221 BC), the Chinese had the most advanced technology in metallurgy.

The Chinese have also excelled in cooking. While people in other regions ate mostly meat and vegetables, the Chinese preferred more refined cuisine. During excavations in China, noodles dating back about four thousand years were discovered. It resembled modern lagman noodles, which are made by “repeatedly rolling and stretching the dough with your hands.” The noodles were made from two types of millet grains grown in China for over seven thousand years.

Of course, one of the most famous and useful inventions of China is paper. According to the Chinese chronicles of the Eastern Han Dynasty, paper was invented by the Han Dynasty court eunuch Cai Long in 105 AD. However, archaeologists in the vicinity of Dunhuang found paper that dates back to 8 AD. Initially, paper was used for packaging, then for writing, and later toilet paper appeared.

The advent of paper led to printing, which was also created by the ancient Chinese. The oldest known example of woodblock printing is a Sanskrit sutra printed on hemp paper between approximately 650 and 670 CE. However, the first printed book of standard size is considered to be the Diamond Sutra, created during the Tang Dynasty (618-907).

The compass is also one of the great inventions of the ancient Chinese. A description of the attraction of iron by hematite is found in ancient Chinese treatises. The compass was invented during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and was used to indicate the direction of travel in deserts. However, its first prototype appeared earlier, during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). True, it was not used for orientation, but for fortune telling.

Because China suffered periodic earthquakes, the Chinese created the world's first seismograph. The device was created by the imperial astronomer Zhang Heng during the Han Dynasty. Moreover, the master made the seismograph incredibly beautiful. It was a vessel with nine dragons depicted on it. The dragons were located at an equal distance from each other, and under each dragon there was a frog with its mouth open.

A copy of Zhang Heng's seismograph. Photo: Kowloonese/wikipedia.org/CC BY-SA 3.0

Inside the vessel was a pendulum, which was set in motion by an earthquake. As a result, a ball fell into the dragon's mouth, indicating the epicenter of the earthquake. After this, the ball fell into the mouth of a frog sitting under the dragon. This device existed for about 1.5 thousand years until more modern devices were invented.

The Chinese created many more great inventions such as the bell, crossbow, tea, silk, steamer, porcelain and much more. The powerful and original Chinese civilization has made an invaluable contribution to the history of world art and culture. However, from the beginning of the 20th century, civilization began to decline. In 1949, with the coming to power of the Communist Party, traditional Chinese culture almost completely disappeared.

The inventions of ancient China became the birthplace of the greatest achievements of civilization that we still use today.

Over thousands of years, China has produced a stream of inventions, ranging from chopsticks - traditional cutlery and wheelbarrows - to sophisticated sensors and advanced financial concepts.

But in China there are four famous inventions, traditionally called the Four Inventions of Ancient China.

These are paper, gunpowder, compass and seal.

Paper

The fact that paper was invented in China is known from ancient historical records. It is interesting that the word “paper” in Western European languages is derived from “papyrus” and only in Russian it inherited the eastern pronunciation.

Around 2200 BC, the Egyptians in the lower Nile region discovered that papyrus could be shaped to make it easier to write on. Papyrus for writing was cut into thin strips, which were soaked for a long time in water, and then tapped, clamped into a sheet. But it wasn't really the product we know, it was difficult to write on and it was expensive. The product was an improvement over materials previously used for writing such as bone, wood or stone.

The invention of paper as we know it came from China in the 2nd century BC. In fact, early paper is very similar to modern paper in terms of concept and technology.

The inventor of paper is traditionally considered to be the Han Dynasty Chinese dignitary Chai Lun who was the head of a royal workshop in 2nd century China. He used various materials to make paper.

However, recent archaeological evidence suggests that the prototype of paper was in use in China two hundred years earlier. In any case, China was far ahead of the rest of the world.

How ancient paper was made

Lun tea made a product based on various fibrous materials, including rope, old fishing nets, rags, bamboo fibers, tree bark, and silkworm cocoons. Modern paper is still made from wood pulp. The Chinese used wood ash or lime, keeping it for up to 35 days. Another important ingredient was birch leaves, from which the mucilage was used to strengthen the material and make it even and smooth. The softened fibrous material was processed into a pulp that was more like porridge, and birch leaf extract was added for weight. This "porridge" was then filtered through a sieve, a flat mesh made of fabric trapping the fibers on the screen, the product was then dried. Paper is still made this way, having mechanized the entire process.

The invention of ancient paper by the Chinese dignitary Chai Lun was put into mass production in China. This mass production was ideal for low-cost, relatively light-colored product applications.

This is how paper was invented in the world.

The ancient paper gradually spread from China, reaching Korea in the 3rd century AD. Introduced to Japan in 600 AD, and then moved to Vietnam and India in the early 6th century. It took 1000 years after the invention of paper in China to reach Europe. The manufacturing technology reached Britain around 1490, when the first known paper mill was built in England. The product reached North and South America in the 16th century, when it became a truly global product.

During China's Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, many types of paper were developed, including paper made from bamboo, hemp, and mulberry. Rice paper is still used in Chinese painting and calligraphy due to its smoothness, durability and whiteness.

The only major difference between computer printer paper and Chinese rice paper is the "filler" to make the paper really smooth.

Seal

The second invention of ancient China, which went closely hand in hand, was the invention of printing. Reproduction technologies were passed down by word of mouth and there were very expensive handwritten manuscripts. Not only was it expensive, but it was slow and there was no guarantee that every copy would be the same. More than 2,000 years ago, a form of printing was developed in the Chinese imperial Western Han dynasty (206 BC-25 AD). It was a stone very similar to brass with relief for the dissemination of Confucian knowledge and Buddhist sutras. Building on this idea, the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD) developed the practice of carving text onto a wooden board, which was then covered with ink and then printed onto a page of paper. This technique became known as block printing and was very similar to the concept of printing. This technology produced the first ever book with a confirmed printing date of 868. It was a Buddhist Sutra. It was the invention of printing that predates the first printed book in Europe by almost 600 years.

During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the technique spread throughout Asia to the Philippines, Vietnam, Korea and Japan. But although this was a great step forward, this block of printing technology had a serious flaw. One mistake can be transformed into the entire product produced because it was unique. In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), a man named Bi Sheng invented the idea of carving individual characters onto small, identical square pieces of clay that were hardened by slow baking. Thus, the world's first printing flare was made. Once printing was completed, individual parts were replaced and used in the future. This new technology spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam, and then later to Europe. The next major invention of printing actually came from Europe when Johannes Gutenberg made individual characters out of metal.

And this was the invention of printing before the advent of the computer age.

Powder

Inventions of ancient China - the discovery of gunpowder. Everything from modern artillery shells owes its origin to this. The invention of gunpowder began with the search for the elixir of eternal life on behalf of the Emperor of China. Alchemists discovered that mixtures of certain fuels and ores could heat up in the right proportions and cause an explosion. The work of alchemists led to the discovery of gunpowder.

In 1044, a Song Dynasty explorer wrote "a collection of the most important discoveries of military technology," and in this text he wrote down three formulas for gunpowder. Each was based on saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur and charcoal. The modern British scientist Joseph Needham identified them as early formulas for what we now know as the invention of gunpowder. The formula for gunpowder reached the Arab world in the 12th century and Europe in the 14th century.

Ancient writings claim that gunpowder was first used for entertainment only with fireworks, but was soon exploited for its military potential. In fact, the earliest known illustrations of a cannon, dating back to around 1127, were found in China, during the change of rulers from the Northern Song Dynasty to the Southern Song Dynasty. Towards the end of the Song Dynasty, the Chinese invented multi-stage rockets.

Thus, the invention of gunpowder can be seen as the idea of the rocket, which laid the foundation for human space flight. Scientist Joseph Needham also suggests that the idea of an explosion in a self-contained cylinder inspired the internal combustion engine over time.

The invention of gunpowder allowed the Chinese to gain military victories and drive the Mongols away from their borders for decades. But eventually the Mongols were able to capture gunpowder technology and incorporate gunpowder into their supply. Captured Chinese experts began working in the Mongol army, and the Mongols began to expand their empire.

Compass

The invention of the compass is the fourth of the great inventions of ancient China. Although the Chinese did not master ore mining and copper production, they used the natural mineral. The natural mineral magnetite attracted iron. The arrow with magnetite always pointed north.

Thus, the inventions of ancient China are among the greatest achievements of mankind used in our time.

The most ancient period of Chinese civilization is considered to be the era of the existence of the Shang state, a slave-owning country in the Yellow River valley. Already in this era, ideographic writing was discovered, which, through long improvement, turned into hieroglyphic calligraphy, and a monthly calendar was compiled in basic terms.

Chinese culture has made a huge contribution to world culture. Thus, at the turn of the millennium, paper and ink were invented for writing. Also at about the same time, writing was created in China. Rapid cultural and technical growth in this country began just with the advent of writing.

But whatever the culture of China, today it is the property of global culture, just like any other national culture. Inviting millions of tourists every year, this country willingly shares with them its cultural attractions, telling about its rich past and offering many travel opportunities.

Paper - an invention of ancient China

The first great invention of ancient China is considered paper. According to the Chinese chronicles of the Eastern Han Dynasty, paper was invented by the Han Dynasty court eunuch Cai Long in 105 AD.

In ancient times, in China, before the advent of paper, bamboo strips rolled into scrolls, silk scrolls, wooden and clay tablets, etc. were used for writing notes. The most ancient Chinese texts or “jiaguwen” were discovered on tortoise shells, which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. (Shang Dynasty).

Artifacts such as ancient stuffing material and wrapping paper dating back to the 2nd century were found. BC. The oldest example of paper is a map from Fanmatan near Tianshui.

In the 3rd century. paper were already widely used for writing instead of more expensive traditional materials. The paper production technology developed by Cai Lun consisted of the following: a boiling mixture of hemp, mulberry bark, old fishing nets and fabrics was turned into pulp, after which it was ground to a homogeneous paste and mixed with water. A sieve in a wooden cane frame was immersed in the mixture, the mixture was scooped out with the sieve, and the liquid was shaken to drain. At the same time, a thin and even layer of fibrous mass was formed in the sieve.

This mass was then tipped onto smooth boards. Boards with castings were placed one on top of the other. They tied the stack together and placed a load on top. Then the sheets, hardened and strengthened under the press, were removed from the boards and dried. A sheet of paper made using this technology was light, smooth, durable, less yellow and more convenient for writing.

Inventions of ancient China: paper Huiji banknote, printed in 1160

The Han Chronicle of 105 reports that Cai Lun "made paper from tree bark, rags and fishing nets and presented it to the emperor." Since then, paper has replaced silk and bamboo from Chinese offices, and paper production has reached gigantic proportions (trade departments alone consumed about 1.5 million sheets annually). Both writing paper was made, the raw materials for which were mulberry bark, ramie, seaweed, and various exquisite types of paper, for the production of which, for example, sandalwood bark was used, which gave it a lasting aroma. For household needs, paper was made from rice or wheat flour (for example, paper wallpaper or toilet paper). Because Chinese paper absorbs ink well, it was ideal for painting and calligraphy. Production technology changed in the 10th century, when bamboo began to be used instead of mulberry bark to make writing paper. Bamboo branches cut in the spring were soaked in water for a long time, after which the bark was separated from the fibers, the wood was mixed with lime, and the resulting mass was dried. But with the advent of cheap industrially produced paper from the middle of the 19th century. handicraft paper production began to decline rapidly.

Printing is an invention of ancient China

The advent of paper, in turn, led to the advent of printing. The oldest known example of woodblock printing is a Sanskrit sutra printed on hemp paper, approximately between 650 and 670 CE. AD However, the first printed book with a standard size is considered to be the Diamond Sutra, made during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). It consists of scrolls 5.18 m long. According to scholar of traditional Chinese culture Joseph Needham, the printing methods used in the calligraphy of the Diamond Sutra are far superior in perfection and sophistication to the miniature sutra printed previously.

Typesetting fonts

The Chinese statesman and polymath Shen Kuo (1031-1095) first outlined the method of printing using typeface in his work “Notes on the Stream of Dreams” in 1088, attributing this innovation to the unknown master Bi Sheng. Shen Kuo described the technological process for producing baked clay type, the printing process, and the production of typefaces.

Binding technology

The emergence of printing in the ninth century significantly changed the technique of weaving. Towards the end of the Tang era, the book evolved from rolled up scrolls of paper into a stack of sheets resembling a modern brochure. Subsequently, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the sheets began to be folded in the center, making a “butterfly” type binding, which is why the book has already acquired a modern look. The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) introduced the stiff paper spine, and later during the Ming Dynasty sheets were stitched with thread. Printing in China has made a great contribution to the preservation of the rich culture that has developed over centuries.

In ancient times, in China, to identify an official or a master, a seal with carved family hieroglyphs instead of a signature was used. They are still used by Chinese artists today. Carving hieroglyphs on stone seals has always been considered not only skill, but also a refined art. These seals were the predecessors of the boards from which book printing began. The oldest examples of printed books date back to the first half of the 8th century, and their widespread distribution dates back to the period of the Song Dynasty (X-XIII). The absence of state monopoly and censorship for a long time favored the development of the book market. By the 13th century. There were more than 100 family publishing houses in the provinces of Zhejiang and Fujian alone. In China, printing spread in the form of woodcuts (printing from boards on which a mirror image of the printed text was cut out), which made it possible to preserve the graphic features of the original manuscript and, if necessary, replace characters, as well as combine printed text and engravings. The Chinese printed book reached its final form by the 16th century, largely reproducing examples of the Song era and had the appearance of a stitched notebook. And since the 17th century. The technique of color engraving was mastered in China.

Inventions of ancient China: An illustration given in the book of the scholar Wang Zhen (1313) shows typesetting letters, which are arranged in a special order according to the sectors of the round table.

Compass - an invention of ancient China

First prototype compass, is believed to have originated during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), when the Chinese began using north-south oriented magnetic iron ore. True, it was not used for navigation, but for fortune telling. In the ancient text "Lunheng", written in the 1st century. BC, in chapter 52, the ancient compass is described as follows: “This instrument resembles a spoon, and if placed on a plate, its handle will point south.”

Inventions of ancient China: Model of a Chinese compass from the Han Dynasty

Description magnetic compass to determine the cardinal directions was first outlined in the Chinese manuscript “Wujing Zongyao” in 1044. The compass worked on the principle of residual magnetization from heated steel or iron blanks, which were cast in the shape of a fish. The latter were placed in a bowl of water, and weak magnetic forces appeared as a result of induction and residual magnetization. The manuscript mentions that this device was used as a heading indicator paired with a mechanical “chariot that points south.”

A more advanced compass design was proposed by the already mentioned Chinese scientist Shen Ko. In his “Notes on the Brook of Dreams” (1088), he described in detail the magnetic declination, that is, the deviation from the direction of true north, and the design of a magnetic compass with a needle. The use of a compass for navigation was first proposed by Zhu Yu in the book “Table Talks in Ningzhou” (1119).

Magnet has been known to the Chinese since ancient times. Back in the 3rd century. BC. they knew that a magnet attracts iron. In the 11th century The Chinese began to use not the magnet itself, but magnetized steel and iron. At that time, a water compass was also used: a magnetized steel needle in the shape of a fish, 5-6 cm long, was placed in a cup of water. The needle could be magnetized through strong heating. The fish's head always pointed south. Subsequently, the fish underwent a number of changes and turned into a compass needle.

Already during the Han Dynasty in China, they knew that identical magnetic poles repel each other, and different ones attract each other. In the X-XIII centuries. The Chinese discovered that a magnet only attracts iron and nickel. In the West, this phenomenon was discovered only at the beginning of the 17th century. English scientist Gilbert.

In navigation compass began to be used by the Chinese in the 11th century. At the beginning of the 12th century. The Chinese ambassador, who arrived in Korea by sea, said that in poor visibility conditions, the ship steered solely according to the compass attached to the bow and stern, and the compass needles floated on the surface of the water.

Around the end of the 12th century. The Arabs brought the Chinese water compass to the West.

Gunpowder - an invention of ancient China

Powder was developed in China in the 10th century. It was first used as a filling in incendiary projectiles, and later explosive gunpowder projectiles were invented. Gunpowder barreled weapons, according to Chinese chronicles, were first used in battles in 1132. It was a long bamboo tube into which gunpowder was placed and then set on fire. This “flamethrower” caused severe burns to the enemy.

A century later, in 1259, a gun that fired bullets was invented for the first time - a thick bamboo tube that held a charge of gunpowder and a bullet. Later, at the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. Metal cannons loaded with stone cannonballs spread throughout the Middle Kingdom.

In addition to military affairs, gunpowder was also actively used in everyday life. Thus, gunpowder was considered a good disinfectant in the treatment of ulcers and wounds, during epidemics, and it was also used to poison harmful insects.

Fireworks

However, perhaps the most “bright” invention that appeared thanks to the creation of gunpowder is fireworks. In the Celestial Empire they had a special meaning. According to ancient beliefs, evil spirits are very afraid of bright light and loud sounds. Therefore, since ancient times, on the Chinese New Year, there was a tradition in the courtyards of burning bonfires made of bamboo, which hissed in the fire and burst with a bang. And the invention of gunpowder charges undoubtedly frightened the “evil spirits” seriously - after all, in terms of the power of sound and light, they were significantly superior to the old method. Later, Chinese craftsmen began to create multi-colored fireworks by adding various substances to gunpowder. Today, fireworks have become an indispensable attribute of New Year celebrations in almost all countries of the world. Some believe that the inventor of gunpowder or the forerunner of the invention was Wei Boyang in the 2nd century.

Chinese technologies in metallurgy

In (403-221 BC) the Chinese had the most advanced technology in metallurgy, including blast furnaces and cupola furnaces, and the forge and forge-pudding process were known during the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD). The emergence of a complex economic system in China gave rise to the invention of paper money during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). The invention of gunpowder gave rise to a number of unique inventions, such as the burning spear, land mines, sea mines, arquebuses, exploding cannonballs, multi-stage rockets and airfoil rockets. Using a navigation compass and using it, known from the 1st century. helm with a sternpost, Chinese sailors achieved great success in steering a ship on the high seas, and in the 11th century. they sailed to East Africa and Egypt. As for water clocks, the Chinese have used an anchor mechanism since the 8th century, and a chain drive since the 11th century. They also created large mechanical puppet theaters driven by a water wheel, a spoked wheel, and a vending machine driven by a spoked wheel.

The contemporaneous cultures of Peiligang and Pengtoushan are the oldest Neolithic cultures of China, they arose around 7 thousand BC. Neolithic inventions of prehistoric China include sickle and rectangular stone knives, stone hoes and shovels, the cultivation of millet, rice and soybeans, sericulture, the construction of earthen structures, lime plastered houses, the creation of the potter's wheel, the creation of pottery with cord and basket designs, creating a ceramic vessel with three legs (tripod), creating a ceramic steamer, as well as creating ceremonial vessels for fortune telling. Francesca Bray argues that the domestication of oxen and buffaloes during the Longshan period (3000-2000 BC), the lack of irrigation and high-yield crops in the Longshan period, the fully proven cultivation of drought-resistant grain crops that produce high yields "only when the soil carefully processed." This explains the high agricultural yields that fueled the rise of Chinese civilization during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1050 BC). Together with the subsequent invention of the seed drill and the steel moldboard plow, Chinese agricultural production could feed a much larger population.

Seismoscope - an invention of ancient China

During the late Han era, imperial astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139) invented the world's first seismoscope, which noted weak earthquakes over long distances. This device has not survived to this day. Its design can be judged from an incomplete description in Hou Han Shu (History of the Second Han). Although some details of this device are still unknown, the general principle is quite clear.

Seismoscope was cast from bronze and looked like a wine vessel with a domed lid. Its diameter was 8 chi (1.9 m). Around the circumference of this vessel were placed the figures of eight dragons or only the heads of dragons, oriented in eight directions of space: the four cardinal points and intermediate directions. The dragons' heads had movable lower jaws. Each dragon has a bronze ball in its mouth. Eight bronze toads with their mouths wide open were placed next to the vessel under the heads of the dragons. The vessel likely contained an inverted pendulum, similar to that found in modern seismographs. This pendulum was connected by a system of levers to the movable lower jaws of the dragon heads. During an earthquake, the pendulum began to move, the mouth of the dragon, located on the side of the epicenter of the earthquake, opened, the ball fell into the toad’s mouth, producing a strong noise, which served as a signal for the observer. As soon as one ball fell out, a mechanism inside was activated to prevent other balls from falling out during subsequent pushes.

As the chronicles testify, the device acted quite accurately. Zhang Heng's seismoscope was sensitive even to detect small tremors passing over a distance of hundreds of li (0.5 km). The effectiveness of this device was demonstrated shortly after its manufacture. When the ball first fell from the dragon's mouth, no one at court believed that it meant an earthquake, since the tremors were not felt at that moment. But a few days later a messenger arrived with news of an earthquake in the city of Longxi, which was located northwest of the capital at a distance of more than 600 km. From then on, it was the duty of officials of the astronomical department to record the directions of origin of earthquakes. Later, similar instruments were built many times in China. Three centuries later, the mathematician Xintu Fan described a similar instrument and may have made it. Ling Xiaogong made a seismoscope between 581 and 604 AD. By the time of Mongol rule in the 13th century. the principles of making a seismoscope were forgotten. The first seismograph appeared in Europe in 1703.

Chinese tea

In China tea has been known since ancient times. In sources dating back to the 1st millennium BC. There are references to a healing infusion obtained from the leaves of the tea bush. The first book on tea, Classic Tea, written by the poet Lu Yu, who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), talks about the various methods of growing and preparing tea, and the art of drinking tea. Tea became a common drink in China already in the 6th century.

There are many legends about the origin of tea. One of them tells about a holy hermit who moved away from the world, settling on a hillside in a secluded hut. And then one day, as he sat, immersed in thought, sleep began to overwhelm him. No matter how he struggled, he became increasingly sleepy, and his eyelids began to close against his will. Then, so that sleep would not interrupt his thoughts, the hermit took a sharp knife, cut off his eyelids and threw them to the side so that his eyes could not close. From these centuries the tea bush grew.

According to another legend, Emperor Shen Non was the first to try tea by chance. Leaves from a wild camellia growing nearby fell into the boiling water. The aroma that wafted from the drink was so tempting that the emperor could not resist taking a sip. He was so amazed by the taste that he made tea a national drink.

Nowadays in China, tea is grown mainly in the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Fujian and Guangdong. The lower slopes of the hills are best suited for growing tea bushes. The seeds of the tea bush are first sown in special “nurseries”, from where, after a year, the sprouts are transplanted to the plantation. From a three-year-old bush you can already start collecting leaves. During the summer season, as a rule, 4 collections are carried out: the first in April (white tea is obtained from the leaves of this collection), the second in May, the third in July and the fourth in August. Each subsequent harvest produces a coarser leaf with less flavor. The best tea is obtained in the first two harvests. Only young green tea shoots are collected, at the end of which there are no more than 2-3 leaves and a bud. The bud can be either just set or half-bloomed. Fully blossomed flowers have no value for tea, because... do not transfer their aroma to the brew. The top of a tea shoot (2-3 leaves and a bud) is called flush. The best tea is obtained when the picker picks a flush with 1-2 top leaves and a half-opened bud. In addition, the best tea flushes are collected from the apical shoots rather than the side shoots, where they are coarser. Typically, tea made from the top three leaves (including the bud) is labeled on the packets as “Golden Tea,” and tea made from the top three leaves without buds is labeled “Silver Tea.” Often, elite teas also have indications - “first leaf”, “second leaf”, “third leaf”. This indicates that this tea varietal blend is dominated by hand-selected apical leaves.

Initially, Chinese teas were only green. Black tea appeared much later, but here too the Chinese were pioneers. And as new fermentation technologies developed, white, blue-green, yellow, and red teas emerged.

The most popular varieties of tea are green (liu cha) and black tea (hong cha). Although they are prepared from the leaves of the same shrub, they differ in color, taste, etc. This difference appears due to the processing methods. To obtain green tea, the castings are poured onto mats for simmering for two to three hours. After this, they are placed for five minutes in round iron frying pans, slightly heated from below by fire, and constantly stirred and turned over. Under the influence of heat, the leaves burst and become moist and soft from the juice. After this, they are placed on bamboo tables and rolled out by hand. In this case, part of the juice is squeezed out and flows out through the cracks of the table, while the leaves themselves curl up. Then they are again laid out on mats and kept for some time in the shade in the open air. Next comes the toasting process. The leaves are again placed in the pan and heated, stirring constantly. As a result, they gradually dry out, shrink, and curl up. After about an hour, the roasting is complete, and after sifting through a series of sieves and sorting, the tea is ready.

To receive the same black tea The first drying in air lasts from twelve to twenty hours. During this time, slight fermentation occurs in the leaves. Roll out the leaves on the tables more vigorously, so as to squeeze out as much juice as possible. Then they are laid out in the open air for two to three days for further fermentation. The main difference in preparing green and black tea lies in this process. Heating in frying pans and rolling is repeated until all the juice has been squeezed out. Final toasting stops fermentation. After this, the tea is sifted and sorted. There are a huge number (more than 600) of different varieties of Chinese tea, special rituals and methods of brewing tea, and tea drinking ceremonies. These traditions have not been lost in China to this day.

China - the birthplace of silk

For a long time, for the West, China was primarily the homeland silks. Even the Greek name for China - Seres, from which the names of China in most European languages originate, goes back to the Chinese word Sy - silk. Weaving and embroidery have always been considered an exclusively female activity in China; absolutely all girls, even those from the highest class, were taught this craft. The secret of silk production has been known to the Chinese since ancient times. According to legend, to breed silkworms, process silk and Chinese women were taught to weave silk threads by Xi Ling, the wife of the first emperor Huang Di, who, according to legend, reigned more than 2.5 thousand BC. As the patroness of sericulture, a separate temple was dedicated to her. Every spring, the emperor's eldest wife collected mulberry leaves and sacrificed them. Silk fabric is made from threads obtained from the cocoons of silkworms. Their breeding requires a lot of attention and painstaking work. Great care must be taken, since even noise, drafts or smoke can harm them, and the temperature and humidity in the room must be carefully regulated. And you can feed the worms only with leaves of the mulberry tree, and completely clean, exclusively fresh and dry. Worms are very fragile creatures, susceptible to various diseases: an entire colony can die in just one day if not carefully cared for. In early April, small caterpillars hatch from the eggs, and in 40 days they reach adulthood and can already spin cocoons. An adult caterpillar, as a rule, is flesh-colored, 7-8 cm long and as thick as a little finger. These caterpillars weave cocoons on specially prepared bundles of straw. The process lasts 3-4 days, and the length of the thread of one cocoon ranges from 350 to 1000 meters. Silk is obtained from the cocoon by so-called unwinding. The cocoon consists of a silk thread and glue that holds this thread together. To soften it, the cocoon is thrown into hot water. Since the thread of one cocoon is too thin, as a rule, they take the threads of 4-18 cocoons and, having connected them, pass them through an agate ring and attach them to a reel, which slowly rotates, and the threads, passing through the ring, are glued into one. Thus, raw silk is obtained. It is so light that 1 kg of finished fabric contains from 300 to 900 kilometers of thread.

Mostly sericulture practice in Southern and Central China. Natural silk can be white or yellow. The first is produced mainly in the provinces of Guangdong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong and Hubei. This variety is produced by the caterpillars of the “domestic silkworm,” which is fed only with garden mulberry leaves. Natural yellow silk is produced in the provinces of Sichuan, Hubei and Shandong. To obtain a yellow color, the caterpillars are fed the leaves of Zhe trees for the first half of their life (it is similar to mulberry and grows in the mountains), and only in the other half of their life are they given garden mulberry leaves. There is another variety of silk - wild silk, it is produced by the “wild silkworm” caterpillar, which feeds on the leaves of different types of oak. This silk is brown in color and difficult to dye.

Weaving art of China

The Chinese tradition of artistic weaving and dyeing has a fairly long history. Samples of weaving art dating back to the second half of the 1st millennium BC have survived to this day almost unchanged. These are a variety of types of silk, from thin gauze to brocade. Many of them are embroidered with patterns in the form of mythical animals and various geometric shapes. Chinese weaving flourished during the Tang Dynasty. Sources of that time mention 50 varieties of patterns on silk: “dragons frolicking among flowers”, “lotus and reeds”, “water grasses with fish”, “peonies”, “dragon and phoenix”, “palaces and pavilions”, “pearls” with grains of rice”, etc. Many of these motifs already existed in the Han era and have survived to this day. During the Song era, beautiful woven images on silk appeared, made in the style of “engraved silk” (ke si). Silk paintings form an integral part of China's cultural heritage. Calligraphic inscriptions and landscapes of famous artists were often reproduced on them. In his books on fine household items, Wen Zhenheng states that “an exalted husband cannot help but keep one or two such paintings in his house among other paintings.” The quality of Chinese woven products, which typically used gold and silver threads, is unmatched in the world. Suffice it to say that the frequency of threads in the works of Chinese masters is 3 times higher than that in the best French tapestries, and the gold embroidery in them has not faded even after the 6th – 7th centuries.

Chinese porcelain

Chinese porcelain is known all over the world and is highly valued for its extraordinary quality and beauty; the word “porcelain” itself means “king” in Persian. In Europe of the 13th century. it was considered a great treasure; the treasuries of the most influential persons contained examples of Chinese ceramic art, inserted by jewelers into gold frames. There are many myths associated with it, for example, in India and Iran it was believed that Chinese porcelain has magical properties and changes color if poison is mixed into food.

Ceramic art traditionally well developed in China, ceramics from the Shang period (2 thousand BC) are not only historical, but also artistic value. Later, products from proto-porcelain appeared, which the Western classification classifies as so-called stone masses, since it does not have transparency and whiteness. The Chinese, on the contrary, value porcelain primarily for its sonority and durability, and therefore consider proto-porcelain to be true porcelain. Among the beautiful ceramics of the Tang period, the first examples of “real” white matte porcelain are found. At the beginning of the 7th century. Chinese ceramists learned to produce porcelain masses mixed from feldspar, silicon and kaolin - the most important element of the porcelain mass, which got its name from Mount Gaoling, where it was first mined. Firing the porcelain mass at high temperatures made it possible to obtain hard, white, translucent ceramics. Tang porcelain ceramics continued in their massive and rounded forms the traditions of ancient potters, but necks in the form of bird heads and serpentine handles imitating the forms of Iranian vessels indicate a noticeable foreign influence. Then there was a desire for uniformity of the surface of the vessel, which was later developed by Sung ceramists.

Heyday ceramic production in China during the Song Dynasty. The increased demand for porcelain products generated a huge number of new kilns and led to imperial patronage of the production. From V – VI centuries. in the north and south of China there were special departments that supervised the production of high-quality ceramics. Song porcelain is characterized by simplicity and elegance of forms, smooth monochrome glazes and restraint of ornaments. The finest milky-white ceramics with delicate carved or stamped patterns were called “din” ceramics; sometimes iron oxides were added to the glaze and then black, brown, green, purple or red vessels were obtained. Much later, during the Qing era, the popularity of single-color vessels led to the appearance of an almost endless number of glaze colors.

Production of polychrome painted porcelain began during the Yuan Dynasty, when they began to make the famous blue underglaze painting on a white background. During the Ming Dynasty, this technique was improved and began to be combined with five-color overglaze paintings (wucai). The development of colored enamels technology led to the emergence of three “families” of Chinese porcelain. “Green Family” are products painted on a white background in several shades of green. Typically, the vessels of this family depicted battle scenes or simply figures and flowers. Products with color painting on a deep black background were called the “black family”. Porcelain painted in soft pink tones with iridescent shades on the subject of “women and flowers” received the name “pink family”.

During the Ming Dynasty, porcelain became somewhat of a strategic commodity and was supplied in huge quantities to the countries of Europe and Asia, even reaching South Africa through Arab traders. The enormous scale of porcelain exports during the Ming era and subsequent years is evidenced by the fact that in 1723, 350 thousand porcelain products were sold to the French city of Lorient alone. And for many Europeans to this day the term "Minsk vase" means all Chinese ceramics.

Suspension bridges - an invention of ancient China

Since ancient times, the Chinese have paid great attention to the construction of bridges. Initially, they were built only from wood and bamboo. The first stone bridges in China date back to the Shang-Yin era. They were built from blocks laid on overpasses, the distance between which did not exceed 6 m. This method of construction was used in subsequent times, having undergone significant development. For example, during the Song Dynasty, unique giant bridges with large spans were built, the size of which reached 21 m. Stone blocks weighing up to 200 tons were used.

Suspension bridges were invented in China, and their chain links were made of malleable steel instead of woven bamboo. Cast iron was called “raw iron,” steel was called “great iron,” and malleable steel was called “ripened iron.” The Chinese were well aware that during “ripening” iron loses some important component, and described this process as “the loss of life-giving juices.” However, without knowing chemistry, they could not determine that it was carbon.

In the 3rd century. BC. suspension bridges have gained popularity. They were built mainly in the southwest, where there are many gorges. The most famous Chinese suspension bridge is the Anlan Bridge in Guanxiang. It is believed that it was built in the 3rd century. BC. engineer Li Bin. The bridge has a total length of 320 m, a width of about 3 m and is composed of eight spans.

Other Chinese inventions

Archaeological finds of trigger mechanisms suggest that crossbow weapon appeared in China around the 5th century. BC. The archaeological materials found are bronze devices of some sort of arrow-throwing weapon. In the famous dictionary “Shi Min” (Interpretation of Names), created by Lu Xi during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century. BC, it is mentioned that the term "ji" is used to apply to this type of weapon, which resembles a crossbow.

Throughout the long history of horse riding, people have managed without support for their feet. Ancient peoples - Persians, Medes. The Romans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks did not know stirrups. Around the 3rd century. the Chinese managed to find a way out of the situation. By that time they were already quite skilled metallurgists and began to leak stirrups made of bronze and iron. This invention was brought to the West by the warriors of the Zhuan-Zhuan tribe, which became known as the Avars. The success of their cavalry was due to the fact that they were equipped with cast iron stirrups. Around the middle of the 6th century. The Avars settled between the Danube and Tissa. In 580, Emperor Mark Tiberius issued a military manual, the Strategikon, which laid out the basics of cavalry technology. It also emphasized the need to use iron stirrups. This was the first mention of them in European literature.

Decimal system Calculus, fundamental to all modern science, first arose in China. Evidence can be found confirming its use dating back to the 14th century. BC, during the reign of the Shang Dynasty. An example of the use of the decimal system in Ancient China is an inscription dating back to the 13th century. BC, in which 547 days are designated as "five hundred plus four tens plus seven days." Since ancient times, the positional number system was understood literally: the Chinese actually put counting sticks in the boxes assigned to them.

Ancient China made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The entire richness of their culture is amazing, and it is impossible to overestimate its importance for world culture. Many of the discoveries made by Europeans were much later, and technologies long kept secret allowed China to flourish and develop for many centuries independently of other countries. It is obvious that this heritage gives the Chinese the strength to actively develop even now, because the country’s culture, its history is something that no one can take away, it is something that instills pride and confidence in every decent citizen.

Student: Tuikov A.S.
Head: Zaparii V.V.

The Chinese invented original technologies in the fields of mechanics, hydraulics, mathematics as applied to the measurement of time, metallurgy, astronomy, agriculture, mechanical design, music theory, art, navigation and warfare.

Ancient China;
paper;
compass;
powder;
typography;
typesetting fonts;
bookbinding technology;
fireworks;
seismoscope;
silk;
porcelain.

http://ru.admissions.cn/Culture/2009-8/view10172.html
http://www.epochtimes.ru/content/view/37664/4/
http://ru.wikipedia.org/
http://www.abc-people.com/typework/art/antich1-txt.htm
http://kitaia.ru/kultura-kitaya/neprehodyashchie-cennosti/
http://intway-holiday.com/page2b.htm

Most of the things that exist in the modern world are taken for granted by us. Fiber optic cables transmit enormous amounts of information, and global positioning systems allow you to find your location anywhere in the world. But little known remains the fact that many achievements of modern mankind owe their origin to ancient China.

As we pass through time, we often forget the significance of those things that were invented before us. Surprisingly, back in the 19th century, the prevailing opinion among many prominent minds was that the pinnacle of technology had been reached, and humanity had invented everything it could. To some extent, these words made sense, because every new global invention used the foundation left by our distant ancestors. In this rating we will present the achievements of Chinese civilization, which are used to this day.

10.Gunpowder
Gunpowder is perhaps the most famous of Chinese achievements. According to ancient legend, it was created completely by accident at the moment when ancient Chinese alchemists were trying to create an elixir of immortality. It is very ironic that attempts to find eternal life led to the creation of a substance that brings death. The first gunpowder mixture was described in a book in 1044 AD. The first gunpowder was used by the Chinese to make signal flares and fireworks. Subsequently, by adding various metals to the powder mixture, humanity learned to create bright colored fireworks, which we see to this day.

9.Compass
How possible would great geographical discoveries and long-distance expeditions have been without the invention of the compass? As ancient records indicate, the first compasses were invented by the Chinese in the fourth century BC, and the basis of their design was a magnet. The first models of the compass could only point to the south direction, later with the discovery of a magnetic iron ore called Lodstone, they were able to make a device that was magnetized in both the north and south directions. To this day, it is not known exactly who came up with the idea of creating this mechanism, but it is known for sure that it is of Chinese origin.

8.Paper
It has not been established for certain who came up with the idea of recording thoughts using paper; there are different points of view. Among the contenders, both the Sumerians and the Harappans and Kemites from Egypt are mentioned. However, the first languages appeared approximately five thousand years ago, and the first basis for writing was a variety of materials, such as papyrus, clay, bamboo, and stone. Naturally, they required a lot of effort to keep records. Everything changed after the discovery of the first prototype of modern paper by the Chinese Cai Lun in 105 BC. For those years, the technology was quite complicated: the Chinese created a mixture of water and wood fibers, and then pressed it with a special cloth. Thanks to the weaves of the fabric, the resulting substance leaked out - this is how the first paper appeared. Unfortunately, it is unknown what exactly was written by Tsai Lun on the first sheet.

7.Pasta
Lovers of Italian cuisine, in particular pasta, for the most part have no idea whose hands are responsible for its creation. Meanwhile, in 2006, archaeologists exploring ancient settlements dating back more than four thousand years in the Chinese province of Qinghai stumbled upon a bowl of stringy noodles buried three and a half meters deep. Most experts are inclined to believe that this is the oldest pasta on earth. And it was made from two different types of grains, which were grown in China for more than seven thousand years, and to this day the Chinese use them to make pasta.

6. Wheelbarrow
Such a simple but necessary invention as a wheelbarrow also owes its origin to the Chinese. Yugo Liang, a Han Dynasty general, created the first prototype of a single-wheel wheelbarrow for transporting heavy military cargo around the second century AD. The only drawback of the antique design was the lack of handles - they appeared later after the original invention was finalized. Wheelbarrows gave the Chinese a significant advantage over their rivals not only when transporting goods, they were also used in the form of barricades. It is surprising that the invention was kept secret for a long time, and a special code was used to designate it.

5.Seismograph
It was the Chinese who created the first seismograph. Of course, they did not have the opportunity to use the Richter scale to indicate the strength of the crushing elements, because it was invented only in 1935. But they had their own graduation system, and the device was unusually beautiful. The first seismograph was a bronze vessel on which dragons were depicted at equal distances from each other. There was a stationary pendulum inside the vessel, but the pendulum was stationary until shocks began to move it in such a way that many internal levers began to move it. Thanks to its complex design, the pendulum pointed in the direction of the earthquake's epicenter. This seismograph was used for one and a half thousand years, until Western civilization created its own, more progressive device.

4.Alcohol
Surprisingly, all modern lovers of relaxing with alcohol should also thank the Chinese - they created ethanol and isopropyl alcohol. It was long believed that fermentation was a natural process, but in the third century AD, the Chinese learned to distill and ferment soy sauce and vinegar, which became the harbinger of the advent of alcohol. In addition, the latest work of archaeologists suggests that in fact it was invented earlier, because fragments of ceramics found in Henan province, which are more than nine thousand years old, carry traces of alcohol.

3.Kite
The national pride of the Chinese is the kite. In the fourth century BC it was discovered by two Chinese lovers of art and philosophy as entertainment, but very soon it began to be used in many other industries - both for fishing and for military affairs. Another interesting fact is that kites were essentially the first unmanned aerial vehicles - in one of the conflicts the Chinese used them to deliver propaganda materials to the Mongol camp.

2.Hang glider
In the sixth century AD, the Chinese were able to create a kite so large and strong that it could easily support the weight of a person. Over time, they began to be used to punish convicted criminals - they were tied to gliders and forced to jump from high cliffs. Sometimes there were cases when convicts covered several kilometers and landed successfully. Surprisingly, with this invention the Chinese were 1300 years ahead of Western civilization.

1.Silk
Silk became, in its meaning, an invention completely different from gunpowder - thanks to its extraordinary properties, it created peace between the Chinese and representatives of a dozen other civilizations. As a result, the creation of silk led to the emergence of the Great Silk Road, stretching from Europe to the East, from China to the Mediterranean. For a long time, the Chinese kept the process of creating this marvelous material secret, but lost their monopoly when monks from Europe obtained silkworm eggs and were able to distribute them in the West.

Chinese civilization has given humanity many inventions, without which we cannot imagine our lives today. Everyone knows that it was from the Celestial Empire that they came into our everyday life:

paper,
powder,
porcelain,
silk.

However, ancient Chinese scientists and inventors created a lot of other equally useful things. Many Chinese discoveries were made again by Western scientists, but much later.

Inventions of Ancient China

Compass

It was in China that magnetized iron was first used to determine the cardinal directions. The estimated date of creation of the compass is still unknown to scientists. According to some estimates, the first compasses could have appeared between the 3rd century. BC e. and X century n. e. Initially, the compass was a metal spoon, the handle of which always pointed north. Thanks to this invention, Chinese travelers could accurately determine their position in space without any landmarks. This was especially convenient if the traveler was in the middle of the desert or sea. However, the first compasses were used not only in navigation, but also in construction. Chinese architects designed palaces and temples in accordance with the rules of Feng Shui. In those days, people believed that in order for only positive energies to enter the erected building, and for its inhabitants to be happy, rich and healthy, windows, doors and rooms must be correctly oriented to the cardinal points. This rule is still observed even in atheistic China; many large companies invite feng shui specialists to work, whose tasks include the correct layout of rooms and arrangement of furniture.

Typography

Residents of Europe and Russia usually associate the invention of the first printing press with the name of the German master Johannes Gutenberg, who lived in the 15th century. But few people know that the first printing devices in the world appeared in China. However, book printing was not as popular here as in Europe. Preference was given to manuscripts. This may be due to the fact that the hieroglyphic system is too complex for printing, as well as the special attitude of the Chinese to the art of calligraphy.

At first, woodblock printing was used to print books: text and engravings were cut out in a mirror image on a wooden board. Then the board was covered with paint and an imprint was made on paper. Using woodcut printing, designs could also be applied to silk fabric. It was quite difficult to print large works in this way, so the first typesetting boards appeared in the 11th century. At first, typesetting impressions were made from clay, and then they were replaced by bronze type.

Ethanol

Since ancient times, people have known that fermented grains and fruits have an intoxicating effect. On the territory of modern China, alcohol production began in the 7th millennium BC. e. Over time, the Chinese learned to subject plant materials to fermentation and distillation, producing different types of wines, tinctures and sauces.

Kite

It is believed that the first kite appeared in China in the 5th century BC. e. The very fact that the inhabitants of Ancient China were able to create such a design suggests that these people had an understanding of the basic laws of aerodynamics. In those days, the Chinese did not treat kites as simple toys. From the first years of its appearance, this invention was used by the Chinese army: with the help of a kite it was possible to deliver an important message to a besieged fortress. And a snake filled with gunpowder and set on fire immediately turned into a formidable weapon. Some resourceful Chinese have even learned to fish using kites. It was enough to simply tie the bait to the structure and wait for the bite.

More than two millennia later, the principle of the kite became the impetus for the development of modern aircraft construction.

Umbrella

The umbrella we are used to, made of water-repellent fabric and metal, was patented in the 1850s in England. However, the history of this ingenious invention began much earlier and on the other side of the world. According to scientists, the first umbrellas appeared independently of each other simultaneously in China, Egypt and India about 3,200 years ago. Initially, they were intended only for protection from the sun and only the richest and most influential citizens could have them. Umbrellas were made from feathers, paper or large leaves. The owners of the very first umbrellas very rarely carried them in their hands. During walks, umbrellas were held by servants accompanying their master. If a dignitary or emperor had to sit in one place for a long time, the umbrella was simply attached to the back of his chair or throne.

Toothbrush

Since ancient times, people have cared about the cleanliness of their teeth. The first toothpicks and brushes used for oral hygiene appeared in prehistoric times. For a long time, chewing blades made of wood, mastic or bamboo were used to clean teeth. But at the end of the 15th century, the first modern brushes appeared in China. The Chinese thought of attaching tufts of boar bristles to a bamboo or bone handle. Although the materials used to make toothbrushes have changed greatly over the past five centuries, the shape of the brush itself has remained the same.

Wheelbarrow

The wheelbarrow, without which no farmstead today can be imagined, also came into our everyday life from China. Such a simple device had a very long and interesting history. The first wheelbarrows appeared in the 1st century BC. e. and began to be used in military affairs. There are no extensive river networks in China, and in ancient times almost no pack animals were bred here. Therefore, during military operations, the question of methods of supplying the army and transporting goods was quite acute. In the end, the problem was solved. The army began to use a structure that was a wooden flooring with two handles, mounted on one wheel. For a long time, wheelbarrows, as real advanced military technology, were even hidden from the enemy.

Unlike the European car, the Chinese one was much more convenient and maneuverable. If the European wheelbarrow had one small wheel in front, which is why the worker had to partially take the weight of the load on himself, then the Chinese wheelbarrow had a much larger wheel and was located in the center. Thanks to this engineering solution, the person transporting the load could only push the structure in front of him. In some cases, for speedy movement, small sails were even attached to the wheelbarrows: such a design on a smooth road could reach speeds of up to 60 km/h. The cars were very comfortable and roomy. They did not require the construction of such wide roads as in countries where goods were transported by horses and oxen. The whole of China was entangled in a network of narrow winding paved paths, on which two workers with wheelbarrows could easily pass each other.

Until the beginning of the twentieth century, wheelbarrows were one of the main devices for transporting goods for the Chinese. Often they were even used as a means of transport: up to 5-6 people could ride on a wheelbarrow driven by one worker.

Mechanical watches

People have found ways to measure time even before our era. At first, time was determined simply by the position of the heavenly bodies. The first clocks were solar (appeared in Egypt) and water (appeared in Babylon). Perhaps in some regions already in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The operating principle of the hourglass was developed. Shortly before the beginning of the 1st century AD. e. The Chinese borrowed clepsydra from the Middle East. But at the beginning of the 7th century, China invented its own completely new type of watch. Their creator was the Buddhist monk Yi Xing. He came up with a complex design that displayed the time of sunrise and sunset, the movement of celestial bodies and time. Yi Xing's device was both a clock and a small planetarium. The clock was driven by the power of water. Two and a half centuries later, Yi Xing's clock was improved by replacing water with mercury.

Cast iron

According to archaeological research, cast iron was known to the Chinese from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Already in this era, China had many technological innovations and techniques that made it possible to achieve great success in metallurgy. Here:

built blast furnaces,
used a horn,
used stack casting technology, thanks to which it was possible to produce up to hundreds of identical products at a time,
They made chill molds - metal molds for casting.

In fact, cast iron is iron ore enriched with carbon. The higher the carbon content in cast iron and the fewer impurities, the stronger the metal. Mass production of cast iron products began after the Chinese began using coal as fuel. Unlike wood, coal made it possible to maintain very high temperatures in smelting furnaces. Iron ore was placed in special pipes, which were then placed in burning coal. Since the pipes were closed, the raw materials did not come into contact with the sulfur produced by burning coal. Therefore, Chinese cast iron was pure and durable.

Many useful items were made from cast iron: agricultural implements, horse harness, cannons, dishes, mouthpieces, coins and even children's toys.

The production of cast iron led to a number of new important discoveries. Firstly, thanks to cast iron cookware, which was ideal for evaporating salt, the salt industry began to develop rapidly in China. The scale of salt development expanded every year, and new mines were created throughout the country. Apparently, the Chinese discovered natural gas during salt mining. Scientists have not been able to establish the exact date of this amazing discovery. But already in the notes of Marco Polo (13th century) there are references to the fact that the Chinese used gas as fuel.

Steel

The discovery of cast iron soon led to the development of steel. To obtain steel from cast iron, it is necessary to clean it, among other things, of excess carbon. Chinese craftsmen reduced the amount of carbon in metal by injecting oxygen into the raw material. To make steel products stronger, they were subjected to hardening: white-hot metal was instantly cooled in water. Repeating this procedure many times made it possible to obtain ultra-strong products.

Many techniques discovered by ancient Chinese metallurgists are still used in heavy industry. Some of them, for example, formed the basis of the operating principle of an open-hearth furnace.

Varnish

The Chinese became aware of the beneficial properties of the resin produced by lacquer wood back in the 5th-4th millennium BC. e. Objects coated with such resin became protected from exposure to water and various chemicals, temperature changes, and corrosion.

The varnish was collected by making cuts in the bark of trees. Since freshly collected varnish contains a lot of water, it was boiled to evaporate excess moisture. To prevent the mass from becoming too thick, crabs were added to the container with varnish. Their shells contain a substance that prevents the resin from thickening.

Over time, mineral dyes, metals and various organic substances began to be added to the resin. This is how the Chinese received a whole range of colored varnishes. In the Middle Ages, in order for the varnish to adhere better to the surface being treated, purified resin began to be mixed with vegetable oils. Varnishes were used to coat paper products, jewelry, imperial tombs, wooden utensils, and much more. Even before the advent of our era, a fashion for painted nails appeared among the Chinese nobility. Both women and men took care of the manicure. Long (up to 25 cm) bright nails were a sign that their owner did not engage in hard manual labor. In some cases, nails were an amulet that protected a person from the evil eye and evil spirits.