Factors of production location. What influences the placement of vegetation

Analysis of population distribution is an important task in population geography. Most often, it is determined by the number of inhabitants per 1 square kilometer, that is, by indicators of population density (globally it is 40 people per square kilometer).

Population density

People are distributed extremely unevenly on the planet. About 1/10 of the land is still uninhabited (Antarctica, almost all of Greenland, and so on).

According to other estimates, about half of the land has a density of less than 1 person per square kilometer; for 1/4 the density ranges from 1 to 10 people per 1 square kilometer. km and only the rest of the land has a density of more than 10 people per 1 square kilometer. On the populated part of the Earth (ecumene), the average population density is 32 people per square meter. km.

80% live in the eastern hemisphere, 90% live in the northern hemisphere, and 60% of the total population of the Earth lives in Asia.

Obviously, there is a group of countries with a very high population density - over 200 people per square kilometer. It includes countries such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Israel, Lebanon, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Republic of Korea, Rwanda, El Salvador, etc.

In a number of countries, the density indicator is close to the world average - in Ireland, Iraq, Colombia, Malaysia, Morocco, Tunisia, Mexico, etc.

Some countries have lower density rates than the world average - in them it is no more than 2 people per 1 km 2. This group includes Mongolia, Libya, Mauritania, Namibia, Guiana, Australia, Greenland, etc.

Reasons for uneven population

The uneven distribution of population on the planet is explained by a number of factors.

• Firstly, it is the natural environment. For example, it is known that 1/2 of the world's population is concentrated in the lowlands, although they make up less than 30% of the landmass; 1/3 of the people live at a distance of no more than 50 kilometers from the sea (the area of ​​this strip is 12% of the land) - the population seems to be shifted towards the sea. This factor has probably been the leading one throughout human history, but its influence weakens with socio-economic development. And although vast areas with extreme and unfavorable natural conditions (deserts, tundras, highlands, tropical forests, etc.) are still poorly populated, natural factors alone cannot explain the expansion of ecumene areas and those huge shifts in the distribution of people who have occurred over the last century.
• Secondly, the historical factor has a fairly strong influence. This is due to the duration of the process of human settlement on Earth (about 30 - 40 thousand years).
• Thirdly, the distribution of the population is affected by the current demographic situation. Thus, in some countries the population is growing very quickly due to high natural growth.

In addition, within any country or region, no matter how small, the population density is different and varies greatly depending on the level of development of the productive forces. It follows that average population density indicators provide only an approximate idea of ​​the population and economic potential of the country.

To create a special microclimate, it is effective to use climbing species, ground cover crops and shrubs.

Climbing species and trellises*

In windy places, plants suffer most from lack of shelter. To correct the situation, it is best to install trellises at right angles to the walls of the house. Trellis serve many purposes. They separate living space and places intended for relaxation and work; prevent the movement of cold air along the walls (and act as sun catchers), and also serve as a base for placing climbing plants on them. These trellises can extend from the corners of the house or simply divide the facade into several parts, providing additional space for benches, lawns and vegetable gardens.

Very often, the spaces between large buildings and roads turn into tunnels through which the wind moves at high speed. Boulders, trees, bushes or trellis systems can effectively eliminate this deficiency by blocking dust, noise, and cold air currents that are a consequence of ill-conceived organization. A similar approach can be applied to all types of roads.

In addition to the fact that climbing plants can be used for windbreaks, one must also take into account their potential as fast-growing species (4.5 - 6 meters per year, in warm and humid conditions). This advantage can be used to ensure that climbing plants create the necessary shade at first, until larger trees have grown. It must be borne in mind that climbing species grow very quickly, which subsequently makes it difficult to control their spread. Therefore, such plants need to be pruned periodically. Some types of climbing plants grow into mortar, window frames, roofing, and drain pipes and destroy them. Therefore, before planning to place such plants in any specific place, it is necessary to study all the features inherent in a particular species.

Climbing plants have good heat-insulating properties if they are placed on the roof and walls of buildings. This thick coating can reduce heat absorption by 70% and heat loss by 30%. In temperate regions, ivy has been used for this purpose for centuries. In hot and dry climates, climbing plants with leaves that fall in winter, such as grapes, wisteria, etc., can be placed on the sunny side of the house or garden to create shade.

Ground cover and mulch

Bare soil warms or cools (depending on the season) much more than protected soil. It is best to keep the soil open in the spring, when the sprouts are still underground and the soil needs to warm up. The rest of the time, it is better to have some kind of organic cover on the ground in the form of low-growing species or mulch. Natural coverings (grass, creeping plants) and mulch have the following properties:

♦ reduce soil heating by evaporating moisture and creating shade;

♦ do not emit heat subsequently (the way plastic or stone does);

♦ protect the soil from erosion;

♦ do not reflect light;

♦ keep the soil warm or cool, depending on the weather;

♦ act as a barrier against weeds (although sometimes weeding is still necessary).

Vegetation cover is planted under the trees (not cereals, since in this case young fruit trees do not develop well). Depending on the climate, Dolichos, dichondra, lupine, or dense plantings of marigolds can act as such a covering. If such a covering is made of climbing species, then it needs to be trimmed from time to time. Local legumes are best in this case, as they increase the nitrogen content of the soil.

Shrubs

Shrubs provide moisture concentration around the tree and also protect against cold in places with an unfavorable microclimate. Mariam and Jim Tyler in New Zealand plant coppice broom at a distance of 0.6 - 0.9 meters from avocado trees in order to protect young trees from frost. The broom is pruned 2 to 3 times during the summer, which produces some fuel and mulch, and is eventually cut back completely.

Shrubs can be used to separate garden plots and also provide windbreaks, especially in coastal regions. It is always necessary to select a type suitable for given conditions in order to avoid additional work in the future.

Shrubs or even already growing “noxious” weeds can be used as nurse plants, providing mulch, shade, protection from wind, frost and animals. At the same time, such plants can have a positive effect on the nitrogen content in the soil. On the north coast of New Zealand, Ian Robertson plants tamarillos in places where shrubs have been previously cut and scattered on the ground. Dick Nichols uses the mechanisms of natural species change to revive native forest in areas where the entire space is occupied by prickly gorse. In both cases, the positive qualities of an already present plant are used (mulch, protection from wind and cold). The bush is cut and pressed around a tree, which will eventually provide too much shade for the bush to develop. This method can be used in areas where, for example, a large number of blackberries grow.

In the permaculture scoring system, soil is not a major limiting factor. Its quality can be improved over time and with appropriate effort. The location of the house and Zone 1 (intensively used site) is not necessarily selected based on soil conditions, although the latter is also an important factor, and if in any particular location the soil is of good quality, with most other factors also being favorable, then It’s better to place the house here, which will subsequently save one to two years of labor.

Very few soil types are completely unsuitable for cultivation; There are always corresponding species that can grow in seemingly hopeless conditions. Almonds and olives do well on rocky soil; black currants and gray walnuts grow where there is poor soil drainage; blueberries can grow where the soil is too acidic; Sweet honey locust grows in the most alkaline soils.

On any site, the first thing to do is to establish the acidity of the soil (for the garden), drainage characteristics, and also make observations regarding what types of vegetation are already growing in a given place. Based on this, we will decide which species need to be planted and in what way we will improve the quality of the soil, depending on the scale of land use. Obviously, the greatest effort will need to be spent on the vegetable garden and garden adjacent to the house, while processing the distant parts can be done secondarily.

Bare soil is damaged soil and occurs only when the natural balance of a given location has been disrupted by humans or animals. If the soil is bare, it is easily damaged by sun, wind and water. Therefore, intensive cultivation can not only disrupt the vital processes in the soil, but also lead to more serious damage.

In a permaculture system, there are three main methods for reducing soil loss, each of which aims to saturate the soil with air and nutrients:

♦ Cultivation of forests and shrubs to protect the soil.

♦ Application of non-moldboard plowing methods.

♦ Creating conditions for the emergence of more soil organisms, especially worms, which saturate dense soil with air (mulching and composting).

The first two methods are used on large areas of cultivated land, while the third method is mainly used on small areas. Forestry and cover crop cultivation produces large quantities of mulch, which can then be successfully applied to small vegetable gardens.

Very often, those weeds that we complain about (blackberries, mullein, thistles) turn out to be themselves indicators that the soil is in an abnormal condition. Some of these plants are pioneer plants*, and they will eventually change the soil for the better so that other species can then grow there.

A sign of good soil is adequate levels of moisture, oxygen, nutrients and organic matter. Soils are formed and enriched as a result of cyclical processes. First of all, this concerns the process of drawing moisture and nutrients from the soil, carried out by the root systems of plants, and the subsequent process of dumping foliage and fruits to the surface.

The following steps can be taken to restore the soil:

♦ Prevent erosion by covering exposed soil and afforesting areas that are prone to erosion (steep slopes, ravines, river banks, road embankments). This also includes control over the movement of water masses within a specific territory (installation of water storage facilities, drainage channels, as well as the use of non-moldboard plowing methods). For plant cover, it is preferable to use local fast-growing species. Large logs can be placed on slopes to retain water and plant debris, and then the plants themselves can be planted behind the logs.

♦ Adding organic material to the soil. On a large scale: planting specialty crops that are then cut and plowed under. On a small scale: fertilization with organic waste as well as plant residues.

♦ Loosening compacted soil and providing it with air. On a large scale: the use of non-moldboard plowing (knife*) and special methods of mechanized tillage. Small scale: loosening the soil with a pitchfork.

♦ Changing the acidity of the soil or planting plants for which the level of soil acidity would be quite acceptable (the latter is more preferable than the former). In order to increase the alkali content in acidic soils, materials such as chalk, limestone, gypsum, magnesite and dolomite can be successfully used. To obtain the opposite effect, phosphates are used, as well as pet feces. Blood, bones, manure and compost can be used on all types of soil if there is a need to bring the pH level to neutral.

♦ Compensation for the lack of nutrients in the soil through mineral supplements (manganese, phosphorus, potassium), as well as by introducing manure and plant residues into the soil. Effective methods in this case are placing the seeds, before sowing, in special shells containing nutrients, as well as irrigating the foliage of plants with nutrient solutions.

♦ Activation of various life forms, such as, for example, worms, which are indicators of normal soil.

In general, methods for restoring and creating soils can be summarized as follows:

♦ Correct organization of plants and animals in a specific area.

♦ Mechanical processing methods (on a large scale).

♦ Consistent soil building (on a small scale).

Factors placement of productive forces (production) - a set of spatially unequal conditions and resources, their properties, the correct use of which ensures the best results in the placement of production facilities and the development of the regional economy. Factors in the distribution of productive forces mediate the action of the principles of distribution of productive forces.

TO accommodation conditions include the population (producer of the product and its consumer), the material, technical and scientific base, the system of production communications (for the organization, operation and management of production), the socio-historical conditions for the development of production.

Conditions and factors are interrelated and have a direct or indirect impact on the development and location of individual enterprises, industries, and the territorial organization of the economy of individual regions.

Natural, which include quantitative reserves and qualitative composition of natural resources, mining, geological and other conditions of their extraction and use, climatic, hydrogeological, orographic characteristics of the territory. They play a decisive role in the location of the mining industry and fuel, energy, raw materials, and water-intensive industries.

Socio-economic, which primarily include the characteristics of population distribution, territorial concentration of labor resources and their qualitative characteristics.

Logistics and market-infrastructural conditions and factors include material, technical and scientific-technical bases, as well as market infrastructure.

Technical and economic factors determine the costs of production and sales of raw materials, materials and finished products.

These include:

Energy factor

The energy factor is important due to the shortage of energy resources and the implementation of energy-saving policies in the European regions of the country. In highly energy-intensive industries of the chemical industry and non-ferrous metallurgy (nylon and viscose silk, aluminum, nickel), fuel consumption significantly exceeds the weight of the finished product, reaching 7-10 tons or more for each ton. The total energy costs for the production of such products are greater than for raw materials. The share of the energy component is largest, in addition to electricity, in the metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries. In ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper industry, production of copper, lead, hydrolytic yeast, caustic soda and some other specific energy intensity of production is 1-3 tons of standard fuel, but the total need for energy resources due to large production volumes is very significant. Therefore, further development of energy-intensive industries is most effective in the eastern regions, primarily in Siberia, based on the rich and cheap energy resources available there.

Water factor

The water factor plays a significant, and in some cases, a decisive role in the location of enterprises in the chemical, pulp and paper, textile industries, ferrous metallurgy, and electric power industries. The costs of the entire complex of water management activities (water supply, disposal and wastewater treatment) range from 1-2% to 15-25% of the cost of an enterprise under construction in water-intensive industries. As a result, they should be located in Siberia, the Far East, and the European North, where the cost of 1 m3 of fresh water is 3-4 times less than in the regions of the Center and South of the European part.

Labor factor

The labor factor (the cost of living labor for the manufacture of products) remains important when locating mechanical engineering (in particular instrument making), light industry, as well as the largest enterprises in other industries. Since labor costs per 1 ton of product and the share of wages in the cost do not give a correct idea of ​​the labor intensity of the product, when organizing the placement of productive forces taking into account the labor factor, it is advisable to focus on the absolute need of each enterprise for labor.

Land factor

The land factor becomes especially acute when sites are allocated for industrial construction (their size for large enterprises reaches hundreds of hectares), in areas of intensive agriculture and in cities with limited urban communications and engineering structures. The most rational option in this case is the group placement of enterprises in the form of industrial hubs.

Raw material factor

The raw material factor determines material intensity, i.e. the consumption of raw materials and basic materials per unit of finished product. To industries with the highest material intensity indices (more than 1.5 tons of raw materials and supplies per
1 t of products) include full-cycle ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper, hydrolysis, plywood, cement, and sugar industries. At the same time, enterprises remote from sources of supply of raw materials and enterprises with large-tonnage products (metallurgical, chemical, pulp and paper mills) require special attention. When placing them, it is necessary to correctly determine the areas of consumption of finished products and the costs of their transportation.

Transport factor

The transport factor is of particular importance for Russia with its large continental spaces. Despite the systematic reduction in the share of transport costs in the cost of industrial products, in a number of industries it remains very high - from 20% for ferrous metal ores to 40% for mineral construction materials. The transportability of raw materials and finished products depends on the material intensity of production, the transport intensity of transported goods, the quality properties of raw materials and finished products in terms of the possibility of their transportation and storage. When the material intensity index is more than 1.0, production gravitates towards raw material bases, less than 1.0 - towards regions and places of consumption of finished products.

Agroclimatic conditions

Agroclimatic conditions play a decisive role in the distribution of agricultural activities of the population. The specialization and efficiency of the agricultural sector of the Russian economy is directly related to the natural fertility of soils, climate, and water regime of the territory. Agricultural climate assessment is based on a comparison of the agroclimatic conditions of the territory with the requirements of various cultivated plants for their life factors and has significant regional differences.

Environmental factors in the location of productive forces at the present stage of economic development play a special role, since they are directly related to the careful use of natural resources and the provision of necessary living conditions for the population. Significant economic losses from anthropogenic pollution of the natural environment and increasing negative consequences for public health have led to an urgent need to constantly take into account the environmental factor in the location of production.

Features of socio-historical development. These include: the nature of social relations, features of the current stage of development of the state, stability of the economic and political system, perfection of the legislative framework, etc.

Recent decades have been marked by a noticeable change in the role of factors in the location of productive forces in a developed market environment. Thus, the process of scientific identification (the synthesis of science with production) led to the advancement of potential opportunities for establishing close ties through cooperation and the attraction of industrial enterprises to the largest scientific centers to the forefront in the location of industry. However, due to the extremely high fuel, energy, raw material and material intensity of the Russian economy, the specifics of the sectoral structure of its economy and the gigantic continental spaces, new factors for the location of productive forces in our country have not yet acquired such great importance as in developed post-industrial countries.

Of the variety of economic location factors, some of them are characteristic of many sectors of the production complex (for example, attraction to the consumer) and the non-production sphere, others are inherent only in one industry or group of industries (gravity towards recreational resources).

However, each sector of the economy has its own set of factors for its location. Moreover, even factors common to other industries in each specific case manifest themselves with varying strength, and if for some industries a factor has a decisive influence on the location of the industry, then in another industry it is of secondary importance.

• Each sector of the economy is characterized by its own set and combination of factors for its location;
• the combination and role of individual factors in the location of an economy in a certain territory depends on the sectoral structure of the economy of a country or region.

At the same time, for most non-production industries, consumer orientation is the most important factor in their location. And the higher the share of non-production sectors in the economic complex of a country or region, the greater the role in the location of the economy plays by the attraction to the consumer. Since the industrial structure of most countries of the world is evolving along the path of increasing the share of non-production sectors and decreasing the production sector, it can be stated that the increasing role of the consumer factor in the location of the economy is a global trend.

Approaches and methods of production research

Scientific research into the processes of production location involves the use of certain approaches and methods that make it possible to determine the prevailing trends in the formation of the territorial structure of the national economy, quantitative and qualitative parameters of the socio-economic development of the region and the degree of its participation in the all-Russian and international division of labor.

Research approaches refer to the use of specific techniques and organizational forms for conducting scientific research. All approaches, based on the time of their origin, are conventionally divided into traditional and new.

Traditional approaches

These include territorial, complex, historical and typological.

Territorial approach

For Russia, with its gigantic spaces, the territorial approach is of great importance, the use of which makes it possible to regulate territorial and economic processes. The essence of this approach is to take into account the complex relationships between various objects and phenomena located in the same territory. In this case, the study is carried out at different spatial levels (ranks), the highest of which is global, followed by regional (subregional), national (country), district and local levels. The need to apply a territorial approach follows from the presence of the territorial organization of the country and the existing political and administrative structure of the Russian Federation. The enormous scale of Russia, the diversity of natural and social conditions characteristic of individual zones and regions requires taking into account regional characteristics when solving complex economic problems, especially the development of new territories. This approach was used in previous decades and found its manifestation in the development of such programs as the transformation of the Non-Black Earth Zone of Russia, the development of the BAM zone, and the development of the economy and culture of the indigenous peoples of the North.

The territorial approach reveals ways of rational distribution of production throughout the country and its regions, ensuring the integrated development of individual territories based on their rational specialization, optimal dynamic spatial proportions of production and distribution of products, improving settlement systems, nature conservation and environmental improvement. At the same time, the ultimate goal of using the territorial approach in studying the location of productive forces is the most effective development of the economy in the interests of society as a whole.

A complex approach

An integrated approach means establishing optimal interconnectedness between the elements of the economy of a certain territory, in which the main economic function (specialization) of the region is successfully performed based on the rational use of its natural, scientific, industrial, technical and socio-economic potential.

An integrated approach involves balancing the economic and social aspects of the functioning of the economy, the proportionality of the development of specialized, auxiliary and service industries, material production and non-production spheres by coordinating the activities of enterprises and organizations of various departmental subordination located in the district.

Historical approach

The historical approach reveals patterns of development of various territorial objects, processes and phenomena, features of their occurrence and functioning at different time stages, and makes it possible to trace trends in their development.

Typological approach

The typological approach is used in territorial studies of various objects when comparing classifications (groupings) and typologies. This approach is associated with the development of typologies that notice the quantitative differences of spatial objects, and the search for characterizing features and fundamental criteria for these typologies.

New approaches

New approaches include systemic, environmental, constructive, behavioral and problematic.

Systems approach

The systems approach involves considering each object (phenomenon, process, complex) as a complex formation consisting of various elements (structural parts) interacting with each other. The use of this approach is most appropriate when studying objects with various internal and external connections (territorial production complexes, transport systems).

Ecological approach

The ecological approach involves identifying and studying the connections that exist between the object being studied and its environment. According to Academician I.P. Gerasimov, it should include monitoring environmental changes, forecasting the consequences of the impact of economic activities on the environment, and optimizing the environment in the created natural-technical systems.

Constructive approach

The constructive approach is associated with changes in spatial objects, phenomena and processes from the point of view of the possibility and feasibility of their use in human life and economic activity. This approach is a unique tool for building an optimal territorial organization of society and the basis for the development of applied regional research (district planning, long-term forecast of socio-economic development, etc.).

Behavioral approach

The behavioral approach is used to study the behavior of people in space, which is determined by the characteristics of the perception of the environment by various social, professional, gender, age, ethnic and other groups of people and is manifested in population migrations, the planning structure of populated areas, the territorial organization of places of employment, etc.

Problem Approach

The problem-based approach focuses research on the analysis and solution of a problem - a subjective category (since it is formulated by people) and acting as a barrier to achieving the goal. The development goal of society is a social benchmark (result) that must be achieved and in accordance with which society organizes its resources. Accordingly, a problem is understood as a concentrated expression of the contradictions of spatio-temporal development, which is important for the distribution of productive forces.

You will learn from this article what reasons influence the distribution and density of the world's population.

What influences the settlement of people?

On Earth, humanity is distributed extremely unevenly: 70% of the population lives on 7% of the land. Mostly people live within the subtropical, subequatorial and temperate climatic zones. The population density can reach several hundred people per 1 km2. The average population density is 40 people per 1 km2. The most densely populated areas in the world are South Asia (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan), Northeast USA, East Asia (east coast of Japan, China, North Korea), Foreign Europe.

Factors influencing population distribution:

• Geographical or natural factor

Modern scientists believe that the homeland of people is the island of Java. Presumably our ancestors were dark-skinned and short. They mastered vast expanses of land and, in the process of adapting to new conditions, divided into races. But, nevertheless, the habitat of people covered the entire surface of the Earth - mountains, deserts, the Arctic and the Arctic, tropical jungles. These are the most populated areas of the planet. Thus, up to 56% of earthlings live in the lowlands, 25% of people live at an altitude of 200 to 500 meters, and 8% of the population lives above 1000 meters. The highest population density is in the subtropics and subequator of the planet.

• Socio-economic factor

There is a dependence in the distribution of the population relative to the distance from the coast, a favorable zone for farming. The following settlement zones are distinguished: direct coastal settlement up to 50 km from the sea (30% of the world's population and 40% of all city dwellers), indirect settlement from 50 to 200 km (25% of the world's population), independent zones from 200 km from the sea (45% of settlements) . Conclusion - almost half of the population lives 200 kilometers from the ocean coast.

• General historical factor

The raids of nomads, the advance and collapse of glaciers, mass migrations of tribes and animals, epidemics and numerous wars have left their mark on the geographical distribution of human settlements. A particularly important role was played by the Great Migration and the Age of Discovery, when the Northeast of the United States was settled and slaves were exported from African countries.

• Demographic factor

This is a mathematical dependence of migrations and natural population growth on the population density of the territory. Today, natural increase rates are influenced by state demographic policy. Highly industrialized countries in Europe and some countries in Africa and Asia are characterized by the highest population density.

We hope that from this article you learned what factors influence the distribution of the population.

• Remember from botany and zoology courses how plants and animals are adapted to their environment.
• What primarily influences the placement of plants and animals?

The flora and fauna are often called “wildlife,” thereby emphasizing the role of these components in the biosphere. It is living nature that primarily personifies the beauty of the landscape for us. Love for living nature enriches our lives, inspires artists, poets, composers, and cultivates humane feelings in people. Caring “for our little brothers” is an indicator of a person’s morality.

It is generally accepted that the most important thing in living nature is vegetation. Even the names of natural zones speak about it - taiga, steppes, etc. But the animal world is richer in species composition. In our country there are up to 130 thousand species of animals (of which up to 90 thousand are insects), and there are only about 18 thousand higher plants. It is interesting that among the representatives of the plant world, species of herbaceous plants predominate - there are many thousands of them, while there are slightly more than 500 species of trees.

Among representatives of the animal world, insects hold the championship. There are significantly fewer vertebrates, especially terrestrial ones, in the fauna of Russia. Fish are numerous, there are more than 1450 species.

There are very few amphibians and reptiles - only 160 species. The diversity of birds is expressed (including all those that occur during seasonal migrations) by a figure of about 710. Of the mammals, about 350 species live in our country.

The composition and abundance of living organisms is greatly influenced by human activities. As a result, some species have sharply reduced their numbers, and some have even been completely exterminated.

At the same time, there are species artificially introduced into our flora and fauna, for example, the American muskrat, raccoon, mink, etc., and among the plants are the tea bush and bamboo.

The flora and fauna of our country are very diverse. The appearance and composition of the flora and fauna of our country, as well as the entire planet, is determined by two main factors: physical and geographical differences between regions - different regimes of light, temperature and humidity, the nature of the soil, relief features - and the geological history of the territory.

The change in the face of the Earth during geological evolution, its surface and climate, the appearance and disappearance of continental connections were the reason that the processes of speciation proceeded differently in different regions. In the distribution of representatives of certain species of plants and animals, patterns can be traced, determined primarily by latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality.

Think about which continents and countries the flora and fauna of our country are similar to.

But all these differences are explained not only by modern conditions. Both plants and animals carry in their appearance and distribution features inherited from the distant past. Desert-steppe groups of plants and animals came to us from Central Asia. North American conifers penetrated from Alaska to the Far East. The specific features of our Far Eastern flora are combined with the originality of the Manchu-Chinese fauna.

The flora and fauna of Russia were greatly influenced by the Quaternary glaciation.

Main types of vegetation in Russia include vegetation of arctic deserts, tundras, forests, steppes, and deserts.

The vegetation of Arctic deserts does not form a continuous cover. Individual patches of lichens and individual plant stems are replaced by bare areas.

The harsh climatic conditions of the tundra (low temperatures, large swampy areas, permafrost, strong winds) determine the characteristics of the vegetation cover of the tundra. Mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs predominate here; The absence of forest is also characteristic. Typical representatives of tundra vegetation are moss lichen (“reindeer moss”), green mosses, lingonberries, polar poppies, dwarf birch, and polar willow.

Think about how to explain the small growth of plants in the tundra and their tendency to spread along the ground. What species form the northern border of the forest in Russia and why?

Rice. 60. Typical representatives of woody vegetation of Russia

The forest vegetation of Russia is widespread in the temperate zone, represented by dark coniferous forests of spruce and fir in the north, taiga cedar-larch forests in Siberia, mixed forests of spruce, pine, aspen, birch, etc. in the middle zone and broad-leaved forests in the southern regions of this zone .

Using the map (Fig. 60), identify typical representatives of the flora of the forest zone of Russia. Remember from your botany course how taiga plants are adapted to severe frosts.

The steppe zone in its virgin form, unaffected by human agricultural activity, is a sea of ​​grass vegetation. The most common in the steppe are feather grass, fescue, tonkonog, and a host of other flowering plants. Since the steppes are located in an area with insufficient moisture, representatives of herbaceous vegetation tolerate the lack of moisture in the soil well.

In semi-deserts and temperate deserts, conditions are less favorable for the existence of plants and animals than in the steppe, therefore, as in Arctic deserts, a continuous cover of vegetation does not form here. Desert vegetation is well adapted to drought: the leaves of many plants have turned into thorns, evaporating a minimum of moisture, the roots are branched and very long. Various types of wormwood and solyanka predominate.

Diversity of the animal world of Russia. The fauna of the Arctic deserts is mainly associated with the sea. Walruses, seals, polar bears, and many bird colonies are common here. In the tundra, the number of terrestrial animals increases somewhat, although a small number of their species are represented here: lemming, mountain hare, wolf, arctic fox, ptarmigan, snowy owl, and reindeer. Huge flocks of migratory birds fly to the tundra in the summer. Waterfowl are especially numerous: geese, ducks, swans.

In the taiga, predators include the bear, wolf, and lynx; from ungulates - elk, wild boar; among rodents the squirrel and chipmunk predominate; Fur-bearing species include marten and sable. In broad-leaved forests the number of ungulates increases: deer, roe deer, elk. Birds are more diverse than in the taiga: blackbirds, black grouse, etc.

Rice. 61. Typical representatives of the animal world of Russia

In the steppe the number of birds increases even more. There are many birds nesting on the ground. Some of them feed on plants (quail), others on plants and insects (bustard, little bustard, lark), and others are predators that eat insects and small rodents (steppe kestrel, steppe eagle). There are many rodents in the steppe - gophers, hamsters, voles. By storing large reserves of grain in their burrows for the winter, they cause significant damage to agriculture.

Of the large animals in the steppe, there are ungulates - saigas, which escape from enemies with the help of fast legs.

The fauna of deserts is dominated by reptiles (lizards, snakes), fast-moving ungulates (galled gazelles, saigas, kulans), and rodents (jerboas). Common birds include larks, pipits, desert sparrows, and bustards.

Rice. 62. Game animals of Russia

Plants and animals are perfectly adapted to their habitats. For example, in our forests birch and spruce coexist. Birches promote the growth of shade-loving young spruce trees under their canopy, and then the grown spruce trees are left without light by the birches that helped them grow... Trees in forests, grasses in the steppes, dwarf trees and crooked forests in the tundra - all these are examples of the ideal adaptation of plants to their habitat.

Animals - flying, running, climbing, swimming - also differ in appearance and adaptability to the same conditions.

Birch

The white-trunked tender birch tree has long symbolized Russian nature, Russia. The image of the Russian birch has been sung by many wonderful poets and artists.

Birch trees reach a height of 10-25 m (maximum 45), trunk diameter - 25-120 cm (maximum up to 150).

The bark of birch trees (birch bark) is white in many species. This is the only breed in the world with snow-white bark. The lifespan of a birch is from 40 to 120 years. Flowering from 8-15 years, in plantings - from 20-30 years, abundant and almost annual.

Birch is light-loving, grows successfully in various climatic conditions, is frost-resistant, tolerates permafrost, is drought-resistant, has little demand for soil fertility and moisture, and therefore is found on rocky, poor sandy soils, and peat bogs. The birch goes far to the north and south, rising high into the mountains. It is one of the first to settle in pine-spruce clearings. In the spring, the birch tree is one of the first to awaken in the forest: there is still snow, and there are already thawed patches near it, orange earrings are swollen on the tree... And in the fall, the birch tree is among the first to rush to put on a beautiful golden headdress...

Brown bear

The brown bear is a mammal of the bear family of the carnivorous order. This is a large animal: body length up to 2.5 m, height at withers up to 135 cm, weight up to 450 kg. The largest bears are found in our country in Kamchatka and Sakhalin. Limbs with severely blunted claws. The fur is thick and long. The coloring is monochromatic. The bear lives in various forests, preferring taiga forests, especially spruce forests. The diet is dominated by plant foods: pine nuts, hazel, beech nuts, acorns, all kinds of berries, wild fruits, green parts of plants; Bears also feast on fish and insects. Sometimes the bear attacks wild ungulates and livestock. Causes damage to people by visiting oats, corn, orchards, and apiaries.

For the winter it hides in a den and hibernates. In January - February, cubs appear in the mother bear's den, usually two or three.

The most numerous bears are in Kamchatka, Primorye, Yakutia, in the mountains of Siberia, and in the north-west of the European part of Russia. The bear has become a symbol of the animal world of Russia. For a long time, the figure of a bear has been present in various coats of arms. The most striking example of this is the coat of arms of the city of Yaroslavl.

Questions and tasks

1. What is richer in species composition - the flora or fauna of Russia?
2. What influences the placement of vegetation?
3. Name the main types of vegetation in our country.
4. How are animals adapted to life in treeless areas? in the forests?
5. Practical work No. 7. Making a forecast of changes in flora and fauna when other components of the natural complex change.

   Analyze the flora and fauna of this natural complex. How have plants and animals adapted to the peculiarities of the relief, climate, and moisture of the territory?

   Who will be the first to respond to changes in the natural complex: plants or animals?

   How will the flora and fauna change with changes in other components of the natural complex?