Artists of the Renaissance and Sochivko. Renaissance - briefly

The Renaissance is a phenomenal phenomenon in the history of mankind. Never again has there been such a brilliant outbreak in the field of art. Sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (their list is long, but we will touch on the most famous), whose names are known to everyone, gave the world priceless Unique and exceptional people showed themselves not in one field, but in several at once.

Early Renaissance painting

The Renaissance era has a relative time frame. It began first in Italy - 1420-1500. At this time, painting and all art in general are not much different from the recent past. However, elements borrowed from classical antiquity begin to appear for the first time. And only in subsequent years did sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (the list of which is very long), under the influence of modern living conditions and progressive trends, finally abandon medieval foundations. They boldly take on board best samples ancient art for his works, both in general and in individual details. Their names are known to many; let’s focus on the most prominent personalities.

Masaccio - the genius of European painting

It was he who made a huge contribution to the development of painting, becoming a great reformer. The Florentine master was born in 1401 into a family of artistic artisans, so a sense of taste and the desire to create were in his blood. At the age of 16-17 he moved to Florence, where he worked in workshops. Donatello and Brunelleschi, great sculptors and architects, are rightfully considered his teachers. Communication with them and the skills adopted could not but affect the young painter. From the first, Masaccio borrowed a new understanding of the human personality, characteristic of sculpture. The second master has the basics. Researchers consider the “Triptych of San Giovenale” (in the first photo), which was discovered in a small church near the town where Masaccio was born, to be the first reliable work. The main work is the frescoes in dedicated to history life of St. Peter. The artist participated in the creation of six of them, namely: “The Miracle of the Statir”, “Expulsion from Paradise”, “Baptism of Neophytes”, “Distribution of Property and Death of Ananias”, “Resurrection of the Son of Theophilus”, “St. Peter Heals the Sick with His Shadow” and "St. Peter in the Pulpit."

Italian artists of the Renaissance were people who devoted themselves entirely to art, not paying attention to ordinary everyday problems, which sometimes led them to a poor existence. Masaccio is no exception: the brilliant master died very early, at the age of 27-28, leaving behind great works and a large number of debts.

Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506)

This is a representative of the Paduan school of painters. He received the basics of his craft from his adoptive father. The style was formed under the influence of the works of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, Donatello and Venetian painting. This determined the somewhat harsh and harsh manner of Andrea Mantegna compared to the Florentines. He was a collector and connoisseur of cultural works of the ancient period. Thanks to his style, unlike any other, he became famous as an innovator. His most famous works: “Dead Christ”, “Triumph of Caesar”, “Judith”, “Battle of the Sea Deities”, “Parnassus” (pictured), etc. From 1460 until his death he worked as a court painter for the Dukes of Gonzaga.

Sandro Botticelli(1445-1510)

Botticelli is a pseudonym, his real name is Filipepi. He did not choose the path of an artist right away, but initially studied jewelry craftsmanship. In his first independent works (several “Madonnas”) one can feel the influence of Masaccio and Lippi. Later he also made a name for himself as a portrait painter; the bulk of orders came from Florence. The refined and sophisticated nature of his works with elements of stylization (generalization of images using conventional techniques - simplicity of form, color, volume) distinguishes him from other masters of that time. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and the young Michelangelo, he left a bright mark on world art (“The Birth of Venus” (photo), “Spring”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “Venus and Mars”, “Christmas”, etc.). His painting is sincere and sensitive, and life path complex and tragic. The romantic perception of the world at a young age gave way to mysticism and religious exaltation in adulthood. The last years of his life Sandro Botticelli lived in poverty and oblivion.

Piero (Pietro) della Francesca (1420-1492)

Italian painter and another representative of the early Renaissance, originally from Tuscany. The author's style was formed under the influence of the Florentine school of painting. In addition to his talent as an artist, Piero della Francesca had outstanding abilities in the field of mathematics, and devoted the last years of his life to it, trying to connect it with high art. The result was two scientific treatises: “On Perspective in Painting” and “The Book of Five Regular Bodies.” His style is distinguished by solemnity, harmony and nobility of images, compositional balance, precise lines and construction, and a soft range of colors. Piero della Francesca had an amazing knowledge of the technical side of painting and the peculiarities of perspective for that time, which earned him high authority among his contemporaries. The most famous works: “The History of the Queen of Sheba”, “The Flagellation of Christ” (pictured), “Altar of Montefeltro”, etc.

High Renaissance painting

If the Proto-Renaissance and early era lasted almost a century and a half and a century, respectively, then this period covers only a few decades (in Italy from 1500 to 1527). It was a bright, dazzling flash that gave the world a whole galaxy of great, versatile and brilliant people. All branches of art went hand in hand, so many masters were also scientists, sculptors, inventors, and not just Renaissance artists. The list is long, but the peak of the Renaissance was marked by the work of L. da Vinci, M. Buanarotti and R. Santi.

The Extraordinary Genius of Da Vinci

Perhaps this is the most extraordinary and outstanding personality in the history of world artistic culture. He was a universal man in every sense this word and had the most versatile knowledge and talents. Artist, sculptor, art theorist, mathematician, architect, anatomist, astronomer, physicist and engineer - all this is about him. Moreover, in each of the areas, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) proved himself to be an innovator. Only 15 of his paintings, as well as many sketches, have survived to this day. Possessing stunning vital energy and thirst for knowledge, he was impatient, he was fascinated by the process of knowledge itself. At a very young age (20 years old) he qualified as a master of the Guild of St. Luke. His most the most important works steel fresco “The Last Supper”, paintings “Mona Lisa”, “ Madonna Benoit"(pictured above), "Lady with an ermine", etc.

Portraits of Renaissance artists are rare. They preferred to leave their images in paintings with many faces. Thus, controversy surrounding da Vinci’s self-portrait (pictured) continues to this day. There are versions that he made it at the age of 60. According to the biographer, artist and writer Vasari, the great master died in the arms of his close friend King Francis I in his castle of Clos-Lucé.

Raphael Santi (1483-1520)

Artist and architect originally from Urbino. His name in art is invariably associated with the idea of ​​sublime beauty and natural harmony. In a fairly short life (37 years), he created many world-famous paintings, frescoes and portraits. The subjects he depicted were very diverse, but he was always attracted by the image of the Mother of God. Absolutely justifiably, Raphael is called the “master of Madonnas,” especially those painted by him in Rome. He worked in the Vatican from 1508 until the end of his life in the position official artist at the papal court.

Comprehensively gifted, like many other great artists of the Renaissance, Raphael was also an architect, and also worked archaeological excavations. According to one version, the latest hobby is directly related to premature death. Presumably, he contracted Roman fever at the excavations. The great master was buried in the Pantheon. The photo is his self-portrait.

Michelangelo Buoanarroti (1475-1564)

The long 70-year-old man was bright; he left to his descendants imperishable creations of not only painting, but also sculpture. Like other great Renaissance artists, Michelangelo lived in a time filled with historical events and upheaval. His art is a wonderful final note of the entire Renaissance.

The master put sculpture above all other arts, but by the will of fate he became an outstanding painter and architect. His most ambitious and extraordinary work is the painting (pictured) in the palace in the Vatican. The area of ​​the fresco exceeds 600 square meters and contains 300 human figures. The most impressive and familiar is the Last Judgment scene.

Italian Renaissance artists had multifaceted talents. So, few people know that Michelangelo was also an excellent poet. This facet of his genius fully manifested itself towards the end of his life. About 300 poems have survived to this day.

Late Renaissance painting

The final period covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Renaissance like historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527. Around the same time, the Counter-Reformation triumphed in southern Europe. The Catholic movement looked with caution at any free-thinking, including the glorification of the beauty of the human body and the resurrection of the art of the ancient period - that is, everything that was the pillars of the Renaissance. This resulted in a special movement - mannerism, characterized by the loss of harmony of the spiritual and physical, man and nature. But even in this difficult period, some famous artists The Renaissance created their masterpieces. Among them are Antonio da Correggio (considered the founder of classicism and Palladianism) and Titian.

Titian Vecellio (1488-1490 - 1676)

He is rightfully considered a titan of the Renaissance, along with Michelangelo, Raphael and da Vinci. Even before he turned 30, Titian gained the reputation of “king of painters and painter of kings.” The artist mainly painted paintings on mythological and biblical themes; moreover, he became famous as an excellent portrait painter. Contemporaries believed that to be captured by the brush of a great master meant to gain immortality. And indeed it is. Orders to Titian came from the most revered and noble persons: popes, kings, cardinals and dukes. Here are just a few of his most famous works: “Venus of Urbino”, “The Rape of Europa” (pictured), “Carrying the Cross”, “Crown of Thorns”, “Madonna of Pesaro”, “Woman with a Mirror”, etc.

Nothing is repeated twice. The Renaissance era gave humanity brilliant, extraordinary personalities. Their names are inscribed in the world history of art in golden letters. Architects and sculptors, writers and artists of the Renaissance - the list is very long. We touched only on the titans who made history and brought the ideas of enlightenment and humanism to the world.

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Renaissance Art

Revival – new stage in the history of world culture. At this time, the foundations of modern science were laid, in particular natural science, high level reached literature, which received unprecedented distribution possibilities with the invention of printing. At the same time, a realistic system in art emerged. The term "Renaissance" began to be used back in the 16th century. in relation to fine arts. Author of "Biographies of the Most famous painters, sculptors and architects" (1550), the artist Giorgio Vasari wrote about the revival of art in Italy after many years of decline during the Middle Ages. Later, the concept of “Renaissance” acquired a broad meaning.

The culture of the Renaissance (Rinascimento - in Italian, Renaissance - in French) arose in Europe, in those economically most developed areas where the prerequisites for the transition from feudalism to the initial stage of capitalism were ripe.

With particular consistency and force, the new culture manifested itself in Italian cities, which already at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. embarked on the path of capitalist development; It became widespread in the Netherlands, as well as in some Rhine and South German cities of the 15th century. However, the circle of influence of Renaissance culture was much wider and covered the territories of France, Spain, England, the Czech Republic, Poland, where new trends appeared with different strengths and in specific forms.

The culture of the Renaissance is based on the principle of humanism, the affirmation of the dignity and beauty of man, his mind and will, his creative forces. Unlike the culture of the Middle Ages, the humanistic life-affirming culture of the Renaissance was secular in nature. Liberation from church scholasticism and dogmatics contributed to the rise of science. A passionate thirst for knowledge of the real world and admiration for it led to the reflection in art of the most various sides reality and imparted majestic pathos and deep insight to the most significant creations of artists.

A new understanding of the ancient heritage was of great importance in the development of Renaissance art. The influence of antiquity had the greatest impact on the formation of the Renaissance culture in Italy, where many monuments of ancient Roman art were preserved. The victory of the secular principle in the culture of the Renaissance was a consequence of the social affirmation of the growing strength of the bourgeoisie. However, the humanistic orientation of Renaissance art, its optimism, heroic character images objectively expressed the interests of not only the young bourgeoisie, but also all progressive strata of society as a whole.

The art of the Renaissance was formed in conditions when the foundations of the feudal way of life were shaken, and bourgeois-capitalist relations with all their merchant morality and soulless hypocrisy had not yet taken shape. The consequences of the capitalist division of labor, detrimental to the development of the individual, have not yet had time to manifest themselves; courage, intelligence, resourcefulness, strength of character have not yet lost their importance. This created the illusion of infinity in the further progressive development of human abilities. The ideal of a titanic personality was affirmed in art. Renaissance art was public character. It is this trait that brings him closer to art. classical Greece. And at the same time, in the art of the Renaissance, especially in the late period, the image of a person was embodied, in which the features of individual originality were combined with socially typical qualities.

Painting experienced a flourishing unprecedented before that time, revealing enormous possibilities in depicting life phenomena, man and his environment. Development of sciences, development of linear, and then aerial perspective, the study of proportions and human anatomy - all this contributed to the establishment in painting of a method based on reflecting reality with images of reality itself.

New demands facing art have led to the enrichment of its types and genres.
In a monumental Italian painting fresco dominated. Since the 15th century Easel painting occupies an increasingly important place, in the development of which Dutch masters played a special role. Along with the previously existing genres of religious and mythological painting, filled with new meaning, the portrait came to the fore, and historical and landscape painting arose.

In Germany and the Netherlands, where popular movements created a need for art that quickly and actively responded to current events, engraving became widespread and was often used in decoration books.

The process of isolating sculpture, which began in the Middle Ages, was completed: along with decorative sculpture decorating buildings, independent round sculpture appeared - easel and monumental. The decorative relief acquired the character of a perspectively constructed multi-figure composition.

The ideals of humanism were expressed in architecture, in the clear harmonious appearance of buildings, in the classical language of their forms, in their proportions and scales related to man.

The nature of applied art has changed, borrowing the forms and motifs of ornamentation in life and in antiquity and associated not so much with church, but with secular orders. Its general cheerful character, the nobility of forms and colors reflected that sense of unity of style that is inherent in all types of art of the Renaissance, constituting a synthesis of art on the basis of equal cooperation of all its types.

The art of the Renaissance went through the stages of the early (XV century, corresponds to the time of the emergence of capitalist production in individual cities of Italy, Germany, the Netherlands), High (90s of the XV century - the first third of the XVI century) and late Renaissance (second half of the XVI century .).
IN different countries it manifested itself in different ways. For example, there was no High Renaissance in the Netherlands. The classical country of the Renaissance was Italy, where the periods of the so-called Proto-Renaissance (a harbinger of the Renaissance), the early, High and late Renaissance are clearly distinguished, and within the framework of the late Renaissance, along with humanistic art, a decadent manneristic direction, which does not contribute to the knowledge of reality, became widespread.

In the second half of the 16th century. In Western Europe, a crisis of spiritual culture is emerging, caused by deep social upheavals - the so-called price revolution, which caused far-reaching social changes - the pauperization of the masses, the destruction of the feudal classes, civil wars in France, political clashes associated with the Dutch revolution, the violent onslaught of the Counter-Reformation. In fragmented Italy, as in Germany, petty princely despotism is establishing itself. A campaign against humanism in all its manifestations is being declared in Europe. However, humanism was too powerful and a vital phenomenon to fade away without a heroic struggle for its high ideals. In these conditions of the late, final stage of the Renaissance, “tragic humanism” arises, revealing more deeply the contradictions between the human personality and the society around it, the cruel gap between Renaissance ideals and hostile anti-humanistic forces that are beginning to win in society is realized. In addition to Italy, the Netherlands, France and England are also undergoing the late Renaissance stage. This stage gives rise to the richest and most mature fruits of the Renaissance in art and literature - in them realism, filled with internal tragedy, flourishes.

Italian art of the Renaissance had a unique character and at all stages of almost three centuries of development it rose to exceptional creative heights. The grandiose scope of Renaissance culture, the huge number of outstanding works compared to the small territories where they were created, still cause surprise and admiration. All forms of art were on the rise. In various regions of Italy, local schools of painting developed, producing artists whose creative quests found their highest implementation in the art of the titans of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian.

Art acquired a huge role in public life; it became an urgent need of the people of that time. The construction of public buildings was considered a matter of civic importance; the opening of the most significant monuments turned into national holidays.

The first rise of a new culture in Italy dates back to the 12th–13th centuries. The northern Italian cities of the state, led by Venice, seized the intermediary trade between Western Europe and the East. Florence, Siena, and Milan are becoming major centers of handicraft production. Political power in them was concentrated in the hands of merchants and artisans. United into guilds, they actively opposed local feudal lords and helped repel the onslaught of foreign conquerors (primarily German emperors). Under conditions of political independence, new forms of capitalist structure arose in cities. These changes caused fundamental shifts in worldview and culture, characterized by an interest in man as a thinking and feeling personality, in antiquity. At the early stage of the transitional era, culture was largely contradictory; the new often coexisted with the old, or was clothed in traditional forms.

A decisive turn towards overcoming the medieval tradition in Italian art occurred in the 15th century. (quattrocento). At this time, various territorial schools were emerging, paving the way for the realistic method. Florence remains the leading center of humanistic culture and realistic art.

The art of the High Renaissance dates back to the end of the 15th century. and the first three decades
XVI century The "Golden Age" of Italian art was chronologically very brief, and only in Venice did it last longer, until the middle of the century. But it was at this time that the wonderful creations of the titans of the Renaissance were created.

The highest rise of culture took place during the most difficult historical period in the life of Italy, in conditions of a sharp economic and political weakening of the Italian states. Turkish conquests in the East, the discovery of America and a new sea route to India deprive Italian cities of their most important role shopping centers; disunity and constant internecine hostility make them easy prey for the increasingly centralized northwestern states. The movement of capital within the country from trade and industry to agriculture and the gradual transformation of the bourgeoisie into the class of landowners contributed to the spread of feudal reaction. The invasion of French troops in 1494, the devastating wars of the first decades of the 16th century, and the defeat of Rome greatly weakened Italy. It was at this time, when the threat of its complete enslavement by foreign conquerors loomed over the country, that the strength of the people was revealed, entering the struggle for national independence, for a republican form of government, and its national self-awareness was growing. This is evidenced by the popular movements of the early 16th century. in many Italian cities, and in particular in Florence, where republican rule was established twice: from 1494 to 1512 and from 1527 to 1530. A huge social upsurge served as the basis for the flowering of the powerful culture of the High Renaissance. In the difficult conditions of the first decades of the 16th century. The principles of culture and art of a new style were formed.

A distinctive feature of the culture of the High Renaissance was the extraordinary expansion of the social horizons of its creators, the scale of their ideas about the world and space. The view of a person and his attitude to the world changes. The very type of artist, his worldview, and position in society are decidedly different from that occupied by the masters of the 15th century, who were still largely associated with the class of artisans. The artists of the High Renaissance were not only people of great culture, but creative individuals, free from the guild framework, forcing representatives of the ruling classes to take their ideas into account.

At the center of their art, generalized in artistic language, is the image of an ideal wonderful person perfect physically and spiritually, not abstracted from reality, but filled with life, inner strength and significance, the titanic power of self-affirmation. The most important centers of new art, along with Florence, at the beginning of the 16th century. become papal Rome and patrician Venice. Since the 30s, the feudal-Catholic reaction has been growing in Central Italy,
and along with it, a decadent movement in art, called Mannerism, spreads. And already in the second half of the 16th century. tendencies of anti-mannerist art emerge.

In this late period, when only individual centers of Renaissance culture retain their role, it is they who produce the most significant works of artistic merit. These are the late creations of Michelangelo, Palladio and the great Venetians.

The second half of the 16th century was a complex transitional period in the art of Venice, marked by the interweaving of a variety of trends. With the intensification of the economic crisis in Venice, the growth of the feudal-Catholic reaction throughout Italy, a gradual transition from the artistic ideals of the High Renaissance to late Renaissance. The perception of the world becomes more complex, a person’s dependence on the environment is more realized, ideas about the variability of life develop, and the ideals of harmony and integrity of the universe are lost.

A kind of center of Renaissance art of the 15th–16th centuries. there were the Netherlands - one of the richest and most advanced countries in Europe, which successfully competed in trade and industry with the cities of Italy and gradually ousted them from the world market. However, the process of formation of Renaissance culture proceeded more slowly in the Netherlands than in Italy, and was accompanied by compromises between the old and the new. Until the end of the 14th century. Dutch art developed in traditionally religious forms, absorbing the advanced achievements of French and German Gothic. The beginning of the independent development of art dates back to the end of the 14th century, when the Dutch provinces were forcibly brought together under the rule of the Burgundian dukes (1363–1477) into an independent “intermediate” (Engels) state located between France and Germany; it included Flanders, Holland and numerous provinces between the Meuse and Scheldt. Heterogeneous in ethnic, economic and political terms, speaking various dialects of Romanesque and German origin, these provinces and their cities did not create a single nation state until the end of the 16th century. Together with the rapid economic recovery, the democratic movement of free trade and craft cities and the awakening in them national identity a culture blossoms, much like the Italian Renaissance. The main centers of new art and culture were the rich cities of the southern provinces of Flanders and Brabant (Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, Tournai, and later Antwerp). Urban burgher culture with its cult of sober practicality developed here next to the lush culture of the princely court, which grew on French-Burgundian soil.

The peculiarities of the historical development of the Netherlands determined the unique coloring of art. Feudal foundations and traditions were preserved here until the end of the 16th century, although the emergence of capitalist relations, which broke class isolation, led to a change in the assessment of the human personality in accordance with real place, which she began to occupy in life. The Dutch cities did not gain the political independence that the commune cities had in Italy. At the same time, thanks to the constant movement of industry into the countryside, capitalist development penetrated into deeper layers of society in the Netherlands, laying the foundations for further national unity and the strengthening of the corporate spirit that bound certain social groups together. The liberation movement was not limited to cities. The decisive fighting force in it was the peasantry. The fight against feudalism therefore acquired more acute forms. At the end of the 16th century. it grew into a powerful Reformation movement and ended in the victory of the bourgeois revolution.

Dutch art acquired a more democratic character than Italian art.
It has strong features of folklore, fantasy, grotesque, sharp satire, but its main feature is a deep feeling national identity life, folk forms of culture, way of life, morals, types, as well as displaying social contrasts in the life of various strata of society. The social contradictions in the life of society, the reign of hostility and violence in it, the diversity of opposing forces exacerbated the awareness of its disharmony. Hence the critical tendencies of the Dutch Renaissance, manifested in the flowering of expressive and sometimes tragic grotesque in art and literature, often hidden under the guise of a joke “to speak the truth to kings with a smile” (Erasmus of Rotterdam. “A word of praise for stupidity”). Another feature of the Dutch artistic culture of the Renaissance is the stability of medieval traditions, which largely determined the character of Dutch realism in the 15th–16th centuries. Everything new that was revealed to people over a long period of time was applied to the old medieval system views, which limited the possibilities of independent development of new views, but at the same time forced to assimilate the valuable elements contained in this system.

Interest in exact sciences, ancient heritage and the Italian Renaissance appeared in the Netherlands already in the 15th century. In the 16th century with the help of his “sayings” (1500), Erasmus of Rotterdam “unraveled the secret of the mysteries” of the erudites and introduced living, free-loving ancient wisdom into the everyday life of wide circles of the “uninitiated.” However, in art, turning to the achievements of the ancient heritage and the Italians of the Renaissance, Dutch artists followed their own path. Intuition replaced scientific approach to the image of nature. The development of the main problems of realistic art - mastering the proportions of the human figure, constructing space, volume, etc. - was achieved through acute direct observation of specific individual phenomena. In this, the Dutch masters followed the national Gothic tradition, which, on the one hand, they overcame, and on the other, rethought and developed towards a conscious, purposeful generalization of the image, complicating individual characteristics.

The successes achieved by Dutch art in this direction prepared the achievements realism XVII V. Unlike Italian, Dutch Renaissance art did not come to establish the unlimited dominance of the image of the perfect titanic man. As in the Middle Ages, man seemed to the Dutch to be an integral part of the universe, woven into its complex spiritual whole. The Renaissance essence of man was determined only by the fact that he was recognized as the greatest value among the multiple phenomena of the Universe. Dutch art is characterized by a new, realistic vision of the world, an affirmation artistic value reality as it is, an expression of the organic connection between man and his environment, comprehension of the possibilities that nature and life endow a person with. In depicting a person, artists are interested in the characteristic and special, the sphere of everyday and spiritual life; They enthusiastically capture the diversity of people's individualities, the inexhaustible colorful wealth of nature, its material diversity, they subtly feel the poetry of everyday things, unnoticed but close to people, the comfort of lived-in interiors. These features of the perception of the world manifested themselves in Dutch painting and graphics of the 15th and 16th centuries. in the everyday genre, portrait, interior, landscape. They revealed the typical Dutch love for details, the concreteness of their depiction, narration, subtlety in conveying moods, and at the same time an amazing ability to reproduce a holistic picture of the universe with its spatial boundlessness.

New trends manifested themselves unevenly in various types of art. Architecture and sculpture up to the 16th century. developed within gothic style. The turning point that took place in the art of the first third of the 15th century was most fully reflected in painting. Her greatest achievement is associated with the emergence of easel painting in Western Europe, which replaced the wall paintings of Romanesque churches and Gothic stained glass windows. Easel paintings on religious themes were originally actually works of icon painting. In the form of painted folds with Gospel and biblical stories they decorated the altars of churches. Gradually, secular subjects began to be included in altar compositions, which later received independent meaning. Easel painting separated from icon painting and became an integral part of the interiors of wealthy and aristocratic houses.

For Dutch artists the main means artistic expression– color, which opens up the possibility of recreating visual images in their colorful richness with utmost tangibility. The Dutch were sensitive to the subtle differences between objects, reproducing the texture of materials, optical effects - the shine of metal, the transparency of glass, the reflection of a mirror, the refraction features of reflected and scattered light, the impression of the airy atmosphere of a landscape receding into the distance. As in Gothic stained glass, the tradition of which played important role in the development of pictorial perception of the world, color served as the main means of conveying the emotional richness of the image. The development of realism caused a transition in the Netherlands from tempera to oil paint, which made it possible to more illusively reproduce the materiality of the world.

Improvement of technology known in the Middle Ages oil painting, the development of new compounds is attributed to Jan van Eyck. Application oil paint and resinous substances in easel painting, applying it in a transparent, thin layer on the underpainting and white or red chalk primer accentuated the saturation, depth and purity of bright colors, expanded the possibilities of painting - made it possible to achieve richness and variety in color, the finest tonal transitions.

Jan van Eyck's enduring painting and method continued almost unchanged into the 15th and 16th centuries. in the practice of artists from Italy, France, Germany and other countries.

By the end of the 15th - first third of the 16th century. Renaissance art also developed in Germany. This is a time of greatest creative tension, the awakening of passionate interest in human individuality, the search for new means of comprehending reality. The rich experience of Italian and Dutch art helped German artistic culture to move forward. But German artists were attracted to other aspects of life than the Italians. Like the Dutch, they turned to the innermost spiritual life of man, his experiences, and psychological conflicts. The image of a person here is marked either by dreaminess and deep sincerity, or by severity and rebellious impulses, and by the drama of passions.

True to the truth of life, German art was less rational, it was inferior to Italian in the development of scientific foundations, it did not have those consistently rationalistic philosophical views that among the Italians led to unconditional faith in the human mind. The desire for scientific knowledge of the world did not diminish the role of imagination.
German art invariably showed the excitedly personal attitude of its creators to the world, the ability to see life in its complexity and variability. The attraction to a harmonious ideal and complete classical forms was combined with keen sense individually unique. It is no coincidence that the most significant achievements here are associated with portraiture.

The art of the German Renaissance is in many ways close to the Dutch; it's the same developed sense individual, the same perception of life phenomena in close connection with environment. This determines the special importance of landscape and interior in solving the emotional structure of images. The plastic understanding of forms is combined with an emotional pictorial solution to the problems of light and tonality, which is important for revealing the interconnection of phenomena; it was the most important achievement of the German school of the 16th century, anticipating the search for black grouse in the 17th century.

Compared to Italy and the Netherlands, where Renaissance art flourished earlier, new trends appeared belatedly in German art. In the 15th century German art was almost exclusively religious, and medieval traditions continued to live in it. The suddenness and sharpness of the leap that took place on the verge of the 15th–16th centuries gave rise to contrasts, contradictions, and unexpected combinations of old and new trends in German Renaissance art in general and in the work of individual masters. German art did not know the synthetic development of architecture, sculpture and painting that accompanied the flowering Italian Renaissance, where many major artists worked in various forms of art. It bears the stamp of disharmony and tragedy that abounded public life Germany 16th century

The reason for the complexity of the development of art in Germany is rooted in the peculiarities of the historical development of the country, which became at the end of the 15th–16th centuries. arena of the deepest social conflicts.
In the first half of the 16th century. Germany, part of the powerful Habsburg Empire, remained economically backward and politically fragmented. Many towns and villages in Germany, far from the advanced centers involved in world trade, vegetated in the harsh conditions of the Middle Ages. Like in no other country, the struggle of the bourgeoisie, peasantry and plebeian masses against feudalism here took on the character of a general crisis. At the beginning of the 16th century. The first major national uprising of the burghers took place in Germany. His struggle with the nobility, with the major feudal princes, the uprising of the burghers and a broad popular movement grew into the Reformation.

The Great Peasant War, with its ideals of universal property equality, marked the culmination of the revolutionary movement. The rise of the creative forces of society accompanying the revolution created the conditions for a comprehensive, but short-term flourishing German culture.
In Germany and its largest cities, the ideas of humanism spread and science developed. Unlike medieval heresies, the Reformation persistently defended the value of earthly things and called on each person to follow his calling and improve himself. Luther's teaching cultivated an effective principle in the individual. Munzer preached active work among the people, refusal to satisfy personal passions. Like no other Western European country at the beginning of the 16th century, art in Germany was drawn into the whirlpool of the peasant liberation struggle. The principles of realism and new ideals were established in it. Political graphics are being developed: leaflets, pamphlets, caricatures. Many German artists became participants in the political and religious struggle and were persecuted (sculptor T. Riemenschneider, artists M. Grunewald, G. Greifenberg, G. Plattner, P. Lautensack). The invention of printing contributed to the spread scientific literature, political pamphlets, combat satire (“Letters dark people"), pamphlets not only in literature, but also in the visual arts (Dürer's students - B. and G. Beham, G. Penz).

Luther “created modern German prose and composed the text and melody of that triumphant chorale that became the Marseillaise of the 16th century.” The heyday dates back to this time book illustration, caricatures, easel engravings. New trends clearly manifested themselves in the field of engraving - the most popular form of art, less constrained by tradition (engraving arose at the beginning of the 15th century). However, other forms of art have also embarked on the path of transformation.

Renaissance Art

The Renaissance is the heyday of all arts (Theatre, Music, painting, architecture, Literature, etc.). I will talk about literature and fine arts.

Renaissance Literature- a major trend in literature, an integral part of the entire culture of the Renaissance. Occupies the period from the 14th to the 16th centuries. It differs from medieval literature in that it is based on new, progressive ideas of humanism. A synonym for Renaissance is the term "Renaissance", of French origin. The ideas of humanism first emerged in Italy and then spread throughout Europe. Also, the literature of the Renaissance spread throughout Europe, but acquired its own national character in each individual country. The term Renaissance means renewal, the appeal of artists, writers, thinkers to the culture and art of antiquity, imitation of its high ideals.

The concept of humanism

The concept of “humanism” was introduced into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas ( human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes an ideology directed towards man. In the Middle Ages there was a religious and feudal ideology.

During the Renaissance, there was a departure from feudal-church ideology, ideas of emancipation of the individual, the affirmation of the high dignity of man as a free creator of earthly happiness appeared. Ideas became decisive in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, and were reflected in politics. Humanism is a worldview of a secular nature, anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic. The development of humanism begins in the 14th century, in the works of humanists such as Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc. In the 16th century, the process of development of a new worldview slows down due to the influence of the feudal-Catholic reaction. It is replaced by the Reformation.

Renaissance literature in general

Speaking about the Renaissance, we are talking directly about Italy, as the bearer of the main part of ancient culture, and about the so-called Northern Renaissance, which took place in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.

The literature of the Renaissance is characterized by the above-mentioned humanistic ideals. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called “Renaissance realism” (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist.

The works of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes express a new understanding of life as a person who rejects the slavish obedience preached by the church. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the richness of his soul and mind. Renaissance realism is characterized by the scale of images (Hamlet, King Lear), poeticization of the image, the ability to have great feelings and at the same time the high intensity of the tragic conflict (Romeo and Juliet), reflecting the collision of a person with forces hostile to him.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular genre was the short story, which is called the Renaissance short story. In poetry, the sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a specific rhyme) becomes the most characteristic form. Dramaturgy is receiving great development. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works and creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Authors such as Michel de Montaigne (“Experiments”) and Erasmus of Rotterdam (“In Praise of Folly”) are also widely known.

Among the writers of that time were crowned heads. Duke Lorenzo de' Medici writes poetry, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection Heptameron.

Fine art of the Renaissance

The first harbingers of Renaissance art appeared in Italy in the 14th century. The artists of this time, Pietro Cavallini (1259-1344), Simone Martini (1284-1344) and (primarily) Giotto (1267-1337), when creating paintings of traditional religious themes, started from the tradition of international Gothic (Distinctive features of international Gothic painting: colorfulness , sophistication and decorativeness, exaltation, sophistication.), however, they began to use new artistic techniques: building a three-dimensional composition, using a landscape in the background, which allowed them to make the images more realistic and animated. This sharply distinguished their work from the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image. The term Proto-Renaissance is used to refer to their work.

Various centuries in the history of Italian art have names derived from the corresponding numerals:

Ducento - 1200s. From Italian duento (two hundred). International Gothic.

Trecento - 1300s. From Italian trecento (three hundred). Proto-Renaissance.

Quattrocento - 1400s. From Italian quattrocento (four hundred). Early Renaissance, High Renaissance.

Cinquecento - 1500s. From Italian cinquecento (five hundred). End of the High Renaissance, Late Renaissance.

Early Renaissance

At the beginning of the 15th century, Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), a Florentine scientist and architect, discovered and described the laws of linear perspective in painting. This allowed artists to obtain perfect images of three-dimensional space on a flat painting canvas.

Another important step was the emergence of non-religious, secular art. Portrait and landscape established themselves as independent genres. Even religious subjects acquired a different interpretation - Renaissance artists began to view their characters as heroes with pronounced individual traits and human motivation for actions.

The most famous artists of this period are Masaccio (1401-1428), Masolino (1383-1440), Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), Piero Della Francesco (1420-1492), Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Niccolo Pizzolo (1421-1497). 1453), Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), Antonello da Messina (1430-1479), Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-1494), Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510).

Sculpture became widespread. In the work of sculptors, many forms were developed: statue, relief, bust, etc. They reached new heights in depicting the plasticity of the human body: emotions, body movements, complex scenes in multifaceted, perspective reliefs. The most famous sculptors of this period are Donatello (1386-1466) and Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1456).

High Renaissance

The highest flowering of Renaissance art occurred in the first quarter of the 16th century, which was called the “High Renaissance.” Works by Sansovino (1486-1570), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Giorgione (1476-1510), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Correggio ( 1489-1534) constitute the golden fund of European art.

Approaching painting from the point of view of a natural scientist, Leonardo da Vinci achieved high skill in conveying facial expressions of the human face and body, methods of conveying space, and constructing a composition. At the same time, his works create a harmonious image of a person that meets humanistic ideals. These innovations were later developed by Rafael Santi.

The paintings and sculptures of Michelangelo Buonarroti are full of heroic pathos and, at the same time, a tragic sense of the crisis of humanism. His paintings glorify the strength and power of man, the beauty of his body, while emphasizing his loneliness in the world

The works of Giorgione and Titian are distinguished by their interest in landscape and poeticization of the plot. Both artists achieved great mastery in the art of portraiture, with the help of which they conveyed character and richness. inner world their characters.

Late Renaissance

Following the sack of Rome by imperial forces in 1527, the Italian Renaissance entered a period of crisis. Already in the work of late Raphael, a new artistic line was outlined, called mannerism. This era is characterized by inflated and broken lines, elongated or even deformed figures, often naked, tense and unnatural poses, unusual or bizarre effects associated with size, lighting or perspective, the use of a caustic chromatic range, overloaded composition, etc. The first masters Mannerism - Parmigianino, Pontormo, Bronzino - lived and worked at the court of the Dukes of the House of Medici in Florence. Mannerist fashion later spread throughout Italy and beyond. In the 1590s, Mannerism was replaced by Baroque art (transitional figures - Tintoretto and El Greco)

Northern Renaissance

Artists who lived north of the Alps did not have examples of ancient art before their eyes. The archaeological dimension of the Italian Renaissance, which consisted in the study of newly discovered ancient monuments, was completely alien to them. The traditions and skills of Gothic art were preserved here for a long time, less attention was paid to the study of ancient inheritance and knowledge of human anatomy. Portraits of northern artists (for example, Holbein) lack the harmonization and idealization of reality that is characteristic of their southern counterparts; in their realism they reach the point of naturalism. On the other hand, they do not break with the elements of folk, peasant life and folklore traditions; The work of Pieter Bruegel the Elder is especially indicative in this regard.

At the junction of international Gothic and pre-Renaissance trends in the Burgundian Netherlands, Old Netherlandish art was born in the 1st half of the 15th century. Complex iconography and intricate symbolism were combined with extreme attention to the details of domestic use. The transition from tempera to oil painting allowed the artist to more clearly and comprehensively convey the diversity, depth and brilliance of the objective world. All these achievements are associated with the names of Robert Campin and his students - the van Eykovy brothers, Roger van der Weyden. In the second half of the century, remnants of Gothic and Italian influences were intricately intertwined in Memling's work.

Although Italy of the Quattrocento era followed with interest the achievements of Dutch artists, Italian influence began to penetrate these parts only in the 16th century, when the Bavarian Albrecht Dürer went to improve his art in Venice, and in the Netherlands the school of Antwerp mannerism was formed, to which he belonged, in particular , Mabuse. With the beginning of the Reformation, religious painting in northern Europe was banned, but new genres began to form, based not so much on rethinking the artistic achievements of previous generations (as in Italy), but on direct observation of nature - namely, landscape, still life, genre painting.

The Renaissance is of global significance in the history of the formation and development of culture in Western and of Eastern Europe. The period of ideological and cultural development falls on the 14th-16th centuries, when a secular culture arose in place of religious domination and a system of vassalage. There is a renewed interest in, which is where the Renaissance period gets its name.

History of origin

The first signs of the beginning of the era appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. in Italy, but it came into its own only in the 20s of the 14th century. The unshakable feudal system of the Middle Ages begins to shake - trading cities begin to fight for the rights of self-government and their own independence.

It was at this time that a socio-philosophical movement called “humanism” appeared.

A person is now considered as an individual, the question of freedom and personal activity is raised. IN major cities Secular centers of art and science appear, operating outside the total control of the church. There is an active revival of antiquity - it personifies a striking example of non-ascetic humanism. In the mid-15th century, printing was invented, thanks to which the new worldview and ancient heritage spread widely throughout Europe. The Renaissance peaked at the end of the 15th century, but less than a century later an ideological crisis was brewing. This marked the beginning of the emergence of two style directions: And .

Periods

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance began in the 2nd half of the 13th century and ended at the end of the 14th century.

It is the so-called first step in preparation for the emergence of the Renaissance. Before 1337 famous architect and the artist Giotto di Bondone was developing a new approach to depicting spatial figures. He filled religious compositions with secular content, outlined a transition from flat image to relief, and also depicted the interior in painting. At the end of the 13th century, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence) was built. The author of this main temple structure is Arnoldo di Cambio. Giotto designed the campanile of the Florence Cathedral, thereby continuing the work of Arnoldo.

After the death of Giotto di Bondone, a plague epidemic hits Italy and the active development of the period ends.

Early Renaissance

Duration of the period Early Renaissance was no more than 80 years (1420-1500). During this phase, there were no significant changes in the field of art, and only a few elements from classical antiquity complemented the work of artists of that time. But by the end of the 15th century, medieval foundations were completely replaced by examples of ancient culture, which is observed both in the concept of the paintings and in small details.

High Renaissance

The shortest, but at the same time magnificent period of the Renaissance was the third stage, called High Renaissance. It lasted only 27 years (1500-1527). After the accession of Julius II to the throne, the center of influence of Italian art moved to Rome. The new pope attracted the most talented Italian artists to the court, which led to the active development of culture and art:

• Luxurious monumental buildings are being erected.
• Paintings and frescoes are being painted.
• Unique sculptural creations are created.

Each branch of art is closely intertwined with each other, harmonizing and developing in unison. A more thorough study of antiquity is underway.

Late Renaissance

The last period of the Renaissance covers approximately 1590-1620. Its distinctive feature is the diversity of culture and art. The Counter-Reformation was actively advancing in Southern Europe. This movement did not welcome free thought and protested against the revival of antiquity in culture and art, as well as the glorification of the human body.

The Counter-Reformation was a Catholic movement that aimed to restore the Christian and Roman Catholic faith. The beginning of development was observed after the expression of their ideas by Calvin, Zwingli, Luther and other European reformers.

In Florence, contradictions led to the emergence of a movement called mannerism.

Mannerism is a Western European artistic and literary style that emerged in the 16th century. Features of mannerism: loss of harmony between the spiritual and the physical, man and nature.

There are no exact dates for the Late Stage as such. The Encyclopedia Britannica says that the Renaissance ended after the fall of Rome (1527).

Buildings in the style of “Mannerism”

Interior

The new understanding of interior space was deeply influenced by the simple and clear interiors of Filippo Brunelleschi. This can be observed in the example of the Pazzi Chapel (Church of Santa Croce, France). Talented sculptor and the architect used light colors to decorate the tinted plastered walls, adding architectural relief divisions from gray stone. In rich houses and palaces, special attention was paid to the lobbies where guests were received. Huge rooms were allocated for libraries. The advent of printing immediately attracted the attention of the rich in Europe. There were no dining rooms as such, and dining tables were mostly folding ones. They played an important role in country and city houses. The images on the furniture were without shades, almost monochrome. The most common decorative compositions:

• Acanthus leaf.
• Still life.
• Cityscapes.
• Curly stems.
• Musical instruments.

On the doors of carved sideboards, cabinets and other furniture parts, a positive-negative pattern was used. The product technology looked like this:

• Two sheets of plywood were painted different colors and placed one on top of the other.
• A fragment of a certain pattern was cut out.
• The finished pattern was glued onto the base.
• Fragments of different colors, but identical in design, swapped places.

Motives and techniques for decorating the surface of furniture changed and expanded: painted wood was used, figurative compositions and grotesques appeared, and the technique of tinting with hot sand was mastered.

Art

In 14th-century Italy, harbingers of Renaissance art began to appear. When creating canvases on religious themes, artists used international Gothic as a basis. International Gothic is one of the stylistic options that developed in Northern Italy, Burgundy and Bohemia (1380-1430). Distinctive features: sophistication of forms, colorfulness, sophistication, decorative character. There are also signs of mannerism: grotesque, sharpness and expressiveness of bright forms, graphics. They supplemented their paintings with new artistic techniques:

• Use of volumetric compositions.
• Image of landscapes in the background.

Thanks to the use of these techniques, artists were able to convey the realism of the image and its liveliness.

Active development visual arts begins at the first stage of the Renaissance - Proto-Renaissance. There are several periods in the history of visual arts in Italy:

• 13th century – duncento (two hundred). International Gothic.
• 14th century – trecento (three hundred). Proto-Renaissance.
• 15th century – quattrocento (four hundred). Early – High stage.
• 16th century – cinquecento (five hundred). High – Late Renaissance.

All the details of a bathroom renovation:

How eras were created: The world through the eyes of Leonardo da Vinci

One of the key figures in the formation of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci. This great creator, artist, creator and founder of the development of science in Florence. For more details on his work, watch this video. Enjoy watching!

conclusions

During the Renaissance, something unprecedented came into being, which arose in the form of a reflection of classical antiquity in the Empire style. Based on the culture of the Renaissance, many stylistic branches arose, thanks to which new works of art appeared in the fields of painting, architecture and sculpture. As an example, where the light tones of gloomy Scandinavia are taken as a basis. Or, widely used in America.

The human body was the main source of inspiration and object of study for Renaissance artists, and the emphasis was on the resemblance of works of painting and sculpture to reality.

Skillful use of the brush, complex compositions, perspective ( three dimensional painting), color, light, radiance, play of light and shadow, emotionality and scrupulousness in work - all these were the main characteristics of Renaissance art. Mythological and biblical characters were central to artists of that period.

Sculpture of clothing folds. "An Exercise in Drawing a Seated Figure" by Leonardo da Vinci. Photo courtesy of Art Renewal Center The human body was a major source of inspiration and object of study in Renaissance art. The resemblance to reality reached such a degree that the characters depicted in the works seemed alive, in contrast to the art of the twentieth century, where, for example, in the paintings of Georges Seurat, people look more like fossils.

For artists and scientists, the human body is an infinite source. They constantly improve their knowledge and skills by studying the human body. Physical perfection reflected the then prevailing idea that man was created in the image and likeness of God. The gods were truly personified and depicted as people, with characteristics that were more human, unlike the works of art of the Middle Ages.

Gods were important and primary subjects of Renaissance art. What influenced artists who depicted gods? How did this affect the culture of the time?

It is interesting to note that the Renaissance ("Renaissance" in French is rebirth), which lasted from the late 14th century to the 17th century, was a period that saw progress in various fields: the discovery of America, scientific discoveries, the exploration of new materials, minerals and products (such as tea and cocoa). The initial elements of ballet appeared in the dances. Religion was a central link in social settlement and Everyday life. This same religion later became an excuse for committing atrocities and violating basic human values.

The spread of the white man to other continents, the colonization and enslavement of the aborigines and their natural resources raises moral issues. One can see a strong contrast between enslavement and a flourishing art immersed in spirituality and the worship of beauty.

In art itself, drawing technique and painting, the main requirement for artists was skill highest degree. Painters and sculptures continually improved their skills. Art was a profession, and artists continued to improve their skills even after they became famous.

Improvements in methods of representation and perspective led to a gradual transition from the art of the Middle Ages to the Renaissance.

Nature also began to be given attention great attention. Landscapes typically include rich and varied vegetation. The blue-blue skies, pierced by the rays of the sun penetrating through the white clouds, were a magnificent backdrop for the soaring divine beings.

The rendering of light and shadow, the shine of pearls and metal (swords, jewelry and vases), the detailed depiction of fabrics with graceful folds by Renaissance artists is a real breakthrough in painting.

Artists of the time worshiped the beauty of the human body, this was manifested in the exquisitely precise details of the body and muscles and understanding of their motor skills. Complex poses, gestures and facial expressions, harmonious and expressive colors - all this is characteristic of the work of painters and sculptors of that period: Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt, Titian, etc.

The art of the Renaissance, represented by the masters of painting, sculpture and architecture and their immortal works, is for all humanity an example of uncompromising hard work and high spirituality, the desire for highest values humanity.