The internal structure of a literary work. Introduction: The inner world of a work of art D with Likhachev the inner world of a work of art

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D. LIHACHEV

The inner world of a work of art

Source // Questions of Literature, No. 8, 1968. - P. 74-87.

WHAT MISTAKE DO LITERARY SCIENTISTS MAKE when studying the world of a work of art?

How should it be studied, according to D.S. Dikhachev? Is it enough to find out whether reality is reflected in the work correctly or incorrectly?

What is the transformation of reality in the work connected with?

The inner world of a work of verbal art (literary or folklore) has a certain artistic integrity. Separate elements of reflected reality are connected with each other in this inner world in a certain system, artistic unity.

Studying the reflection of the world of reality in the world of a work of art, literary critics are limited for the most part to paying attention to whether individual phenomena of reality are depicted correctly or incorrectly in the work. Literary critics enlist the help of historians in order to ascertain the accuracy of the depiction of historical events, psychologists and even psychiatrists in order to ascertain the correctness of the depiction of the mental life of the characters. When studying ancient Russian literature, besides historians, we often turn to the help of geographers, zoologists, astronomers, etc. And all this, of course, is quite correct, but, alas, not enough. We usually do not study the inner world of a work of art as a whole, limiting ourselves to searching for "prototypes": prototypes of this or that character, character, landscape, even "prototypes", events and prototypes of the types themselves. Everything is "retail", everything is in parts! Therefore, the world of a work of art appears in our studies in bulk, and its relation to reality is fragmented and devoid of integrity.

At the same time, the mistake of literary critics, who note various “fidelities” or “infidelities” in the artist’s depiction of reality, lies in the fact that, by splitting up the whole reality and the integral world of a work of art, they make both incommensurable: they measure the apartment area in light years.

True, it has already become stereotyped to point out the difference between a real fact and an artistic fact. We can come across such statements when studying War and Peace or Russian epics and historical songs. The difference between the world of reality and the world of a work of art is already realized with sufficient acuteness. But the point is not to "be aware" of something, but to define this "something" as an object of study.

In fact, it is necessary not only to state the very fact of differences, but also to study what these differences consist of, what causes them and how they organize the inner world of the work. We should not simply establish differences between reality and the world of a work of art, and only in these differences should we see the specifics of a work of art. The specificity of a work of art by individual authors or literary movements can sometimes be just the opposite, that is, that there will be too few of these differences in certain parts of the inner world, and there will be too much imitation and accurate reproduction of reality.

In historical source studies, once the study of a historical source was limited to the question: true or false? After the works of A. Shakhmatov on the history of chronicle writing, such a study of the source was recognized as insufficient. A. Shakhmatov studied a historical source as an integral monument from the point of view of how this monument transforms reality: the purposefulness of the source, the worldview and political views of the author. Thanks to this, it became possible to use even a distorted, transformed image of reality as historical evidence. This transformation itself has become an important testament to the history of ideology and social thought. The historical concepts of the chronicler, no matter how they distort reality (and there are no concepts that do not distort reality in the chronicle), are always interesting for the historian, testifying to the historical ideas of the chronicler, about his ideas and views on the world. The concept of the chronicler has itself become historical evidence. A. Shakhmatov made all the sources to some extent important and interesting for the modern historian, and we have no right to reject any source. It is only important to understand about what time the source under study can testify: about the time when it was compiled, or about the time about which he writes.

The same is true in literary criticism. Each work of art (if it is only artistic!) reflects the world of reality in its own creative perspectives. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. Studying the reflection of reality in a work of art, we should not limit ourselves to the question: "true or false" - and admire only fidelity, accuracy, correctness.The inner world of a work of art has more its own interconnected patterns, its own measurements and its own meaning as a system.

Of course, and this is very important, the inner world of a work of art does not exist by itself and not for itself. He is not independent . It depends on reality, "reflects" the world of reality, but thentransforming this world , which allows for a work of art, has a holistic and purposeful character. The transformation of reality is connected with the idea of, with those tasks that the artist sets for himself. The world of a work of art is the result of both a correct display and an active transformation of reality. In his work, the writer creates certain space in which the action takes place. This space may be large, spanning a series of strange travel novels, or even extending beyond the terrestrial planet (in fantasy and romantic novels), but it may also shrink to the narrow confines of a single room. The space created by the author in his work may have peculiar “geographical” properties, be real (as in a chronicle or historical novel) or imaginary, as in a fairy tale . The writer in hiswork creates and time I, in which the action takes place. A work may span centuries or only hours. Time in a work can go quickly or slowly, intermittently or continuously, be intensely filled with events or flow lazily and remain “empty”, rarely “populated” with events.

Quite a lot of works are devoted to the issue of artistic time in the literature, although their authors often replace the study of the artistic time of a work with the study of the author's views on the problem of time and make simple selections of writers' statements about time, not noticing or not attaching importance to the fact that these statements may be in conflict. with the artistic time that the writer himself creates in his work 1.

1 For literature on artistic time and artistic space, see: D. S. Likhachev, Poetics of Old Russian Literature, "Nauka", L. 1967, pp. 213-214 and 357. Additionally, I will indicate: Em. S t a i g s, Die Zeit als Einbil-dungskraft des Dichters. Untersuchungen zu Gedichton Von Brentano, Goethe und Kcllor, Ziirich, 1939, 1953, 1963; H. W e i n r i c h, Tempus. Besprochene und crzahltc Welt, Stuttgart, 1964.

Works can have their own psychological world , not the psychology of individual actors, but the general laws of psychology, subjugating all the actors, creating a "psychological environment" in which the plot unfolds. These laws may be different from the laws of psychology that exist in reality, and it is useless to look for exact matches in psychology textbooks or psychiatry textbooks. So, the heroes of a fairy tale have their own psychology: people and animals, as well as fantastic creatures. They are characterized by a special type of reaction to external events, a special argumentation and special responses to the arguments of the antagonists. One psychology is characteristic of the heroes of Goncharov, another - of the characters of Proust, another - of Kafka, a very special one - of the characters of the annals or the lives of the saints. The psychology of the historical characters of Karamzin or the romantic heroes of Lermontov is also special. All these psychological worlds must be studied as a whole.

The same should be said about the social structure of the world of works of art , and this social structure of the artistic world of the work should be distinguished from the views of the author on social issues and not confuse the study of this world with its scattered comparisons with the world of reality. The world of social relations in a work of art also requires study in its integrity and independence.

You can also explore the world of history in some literary works : in the annals, in the tragedy of classicism, in historical novels of realistic directions, etc. And in this area, not only accurate or inaccurate reproductions of the events of real history will be found, but also their own laws, according to which historical events take place, their own system of causality or "causelessness »events, - in a word, its own .. inner world of history. The task of studying this world of the history of the work is just as different from studying the writer's views on history, just as the study of artistic time is different from studying the artist's views on time. One can study Tolstoy's historical views as expressed in the well-known historical digressions of his novel War and Peace, but one can also study how the events in War and Peace unfold. These are two different tasks, although they are related. However, I think that the last task is more important, and the first serves only as a guide (far from being paramount) for the second. If Leo Tolstoy had been a historian and not a novelist, perhaps these two tasks would have been reversed in their significance. Curious, by the way, is one regularity that emerges when studying the difference between writers' views on history and its artistic depiction. As a historian (in his discussions on historical topics), the writer very often emphasizes the regularity of the historical process, but in his artistic practice he involuntarily emphasizes the role of chance in the fate of historical and simply characters in his work. Let me remind you of the role of the hare sheepskin coat in the fate of Grinev and Pugachev in Pushkin's The Captain's Daughter. Pushkin history

I hardly agreed with Pushkin the artist on this.

The moral side of the world of a work of art is also very important. and has, like everything else in this world, a direct “designing” meaning. So, for example, the world of medieval works knows absolute good, but evil in it is relative. Therefore, a saint cannot not only become a villain, but even commit an evil deed. If he did this, then he would not be a saint from a medieval point of view, then he would only pretend, be hypocritical, wait until the time, etc., etc. But any villain in the world of medieval works can change dramatically and become a saint. Hence a kind of asymmetry and "one-pointedness" of the moral world of the artistic works of the Middle Ages. This determines the originality of the action, the construction of plots (in particular, the lives of saints), the interested expectation of the reader of medieval works, etc. (the psychology of reader interest - the reader's "expectation" of continuation).

The moral world of works of art is constantly changing with the development of literature. Attempts to justify evil, to find objective reasons in it, to consider evil as a social or religious protest are characteristic of the works of the romantic direction (Byron, Njegosh, Lermontov, etc.). In classicism, evil and good, as it were, stand above the world and acquire a peculiar historical coloring. In realism, moral problems permeate everyday life, appear in thousands of aspects, among which, as realism develops, social aspects steadily increase. Etc.

Building materials for building the inner world of a work of art are taken from the reality surrounding the artist, but he creates his own world in accordance with his ideas about how this world was, is or should be.

The world of a work of art reflects reality at the same time indirectly and directly: indirectly through the artist’s vision, through his artistic representations, and directly, directly in those cases when the artist unconsciously, without attaching artistic significance to this, transfers phenomena of reality or representations and concepts into the world he creates. of his era.

Question: By what parameters does D.S. Likhachev analyze and compare the Tale and the works of Dostoevsky?

With what parameters (levels) of the work, indicated above, is the plot connected?

I will give an example from the field of artistic time created in a literary work. This time of a work of art, as I said, can flow very quickly, "jumps", "nervously" (in the novels of Dostoevsky ) or proceed slowly and evenly (by Goncharov or Turgenev), mate with "eternity" (in the ancient Russian chronicles), capture a larger or smaller range of phenomena. In all these cases, we are dealing with artistic time - time that indirectly reproduces real time, artistically transforming it. If, like us, the writer of modern times divides the day into 24 hours, and the chronicler - in accordance with church services - into 9, then there is no artistic "task" and meaning in this. This is a direct reflection of the contemporary writer's time reckoning, which is transferred from reality without changes. For us, of course, the first, artistically transformed time is important.

It is this that gives the possibility of creativity, creates the “maneuverability” necessary for the artist, allows you to create your own world, different from the world of another work, another writer, another literary movement, style, etc.

The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "reduced", conditional version. The artist, building his world, cannot, of course, reproduce reality with the same degree of complexity inherent in reality. In the world of a literary work, there is not much of what is in the real world. This world is limited in its own way. Literature takes only certain phenomena of reality and then conventionally shortens or expands them, makes them more colorful or faded, organizes them stylistically, but at the same time, as already mentioned, creates its own system, an internally closed system with its own laws.

Literature "replays" reality. This “replaying” occurs in connection with those “style-forming” tendencies that characterize the work of this or that author, this or that literary trend or “style of the era”. These style-forming tendencies make the world of a work of art in some respects more diverse and richer than the world of reality, despite all its conditional brevity.

Let's look at some examples. First of all, I would like to dwell on the Russian fairy tale.

One of the main features of the inner world of a Russian fairy tale is the small resistance of the material environment in it. And with this are connected the peculiarities of her artistic space, and the peculiarities of her artistic time, and then - the fabulous specificity of constructing a plot, a system of images, etc. 1

But first of all, I will explain what I mean by "environmental resistance" in the inner world of a work of art. Actions in the work can be fast or inhibited, slow. They can capture more or less space. Action, encountering unexpected obstacles or not encountering obstacles, can be either uneven or even and calm (quietly fast or calmly slow). In general, depending on the resistance of the environment, actions can be very diverse in nature.

Some works will be characterized by the ease of fulfilling the wishes of the characters at low potential barriers, while others will be characterized by the difficulty and height of potential barriers. Therefore, we can talk about varying degrees of predictability in individual works, which is extremely important for studying the technique of “interesting reading”. Phenomena such as turbulence, drag crisis, fluidity, kinematic viscosity, diffusion, entropy, etc., can be essential features of the dynamic structure of the inner world of a literary work.

In a Russian fairy tale there is almost no resistance in the medium. The heroes move at an extraordinary speed, and their path is not difficult and not easy: "he rides the road, rides wide and ran into the golden feather of the firebird." The obstacles that the heroes encounter along the way are only plot-related, but not natural, not natural. The physical environment of the fairy tale itself, as it were, knows no resistance. Therefore, formulas like "it is said and done" are so frequent in the fairy tale. The fairy tale has no psychological inertia either. The hero knows no hesitation: he decided - and did it, thought - and went. All decisions of the heroes are also quick and are made without much thought. The hero sets off on a journey and reaches the goal, as if meeting no resistance: without fatigue, road inconvenience, illness, random encounters that are not related to the plot, etc. The road in front of the hero is usually “straight ahead” and “wide”; if it can sometimes be “bewitched”, then not by its natural state, but because someone has bewitched it. The field in the fairy tale is wide. The sea does not hinder the shipbuilders by itself - only when the hero's opponent intervenes does a storm rise.

In the fairy tale, it is not the inertia of the environment that makes itself felt, but offensive forces, and at the same time mainly “spiritual” ones: there is a struggle of ingenuity, a struggle of intentions, the magical forces of witchcraft. Intentions do not meet the resistance of the environment, but collide with other intentions, often not motivated. Therefore, obstacles in a fairy tale cannot be foreseen - they are sudden. This is a kind of ball game: the ball is thrown, it is beaten off, but the flight of the ball itself in space does not meet air resistance and does not know the force of gravity. Everything that happens in the fairy tale is unexpected: “they drove, they drove and suddenly”, “they walked, walked and saw a river” (A. N. Afanasiev, Folk Russian fairy tales). The action of the fairy tale seems to go towards the desires of the hero: as soon as the hero thought of how to exterminate his enemy, and towards him the Baba Yaga gives advice (Afanasiev, No. 212). If the heroine needs to run, she takes a flying carpet, sits on it and rushes on it like a bird (Afanasiev, No. 267). Money is obtained in a fairy tale not by labor, but by chance: someone instructs the hero to dig it out from under a damp oak (Afanasiev, No. 259). Everything the hero does, he does on time. The heroes of the tale seem to be waiting for each other. The hero needs to go to the king - he runs straight to him, and the king, as it were, is already waiting for him, he is in place, you don’t have to ask him to accept or wait (Afanasiev, No. 212). In a struggle, a fight, a duel, the heroes also do not offer each other prolonged resistance, and the outcome of the duel is decided not so much by physical strength as by intelligence, cunning or magic.

The dynamic lightness of a fairy tale finds its correspondence in the ease with which the characters understand each other, in the fact that animals can speak, and trees can understand the words of the hero. The hero himself not only moves easily, but also easily turns into animals, plants, and objects. The hero's failures are usually the result of his mistake, forgetfulness, disobedience, the fact that someone deceived or bewitched him. Very rarely, failure is the result of the hero's physical weakness, his illness, fatigue, and the severity of the task before him. Everything in a fairy tale is done easily and immediately - “like in a fairy tale”.

The dynamic lightness of a fairy tale leads to an extreme expansion of its artistic space. The hero travels far away to the farthest country to accomplish a feat. He finds the heroine "at the end of the world." The well-groomed Sagittarius gets the tsar's bride Vasilisa the princess - "at the very end of the world" (Afanasiev, No. 169). Each feat is performed in a new place. Thanks to this, the action of a fairy tale is a hero's journey through the vast world of a fairy tale. Here is “The Tale of Ivan Tsarevich, the Firebird and the Gray Wolf” (Afanasiev, No. 168). At first, the action of this tale takes place "in a certain ... kingdom, in a certain state." Here Ivan Tsarevich accomplishes his first feat - he gets the feather of the firebird. For the second feat, he goes, "not knowing himself where he is going." From the place of his second feat, Ivan Tsarevich travels again “for distant lands to a distant state” to accomplish his third feat. Then he moves to perform his fourth feat for new distant lands.

The space of a fairy tale is unusually large, it is boundless, infinite, but at the same time it is closely connected with the action. It is not independent, but it has nothing to do with real space either. Other in the annals. The space in the annals is also very large. The action in the chronicle is easily transferred from one point to another. The chronicler on one line of the chronicle can report what happened in Novgorod, on the other - about what happened in Kyiv, and in the third - about the events in Constantinople. But in the annals, geographic space is real. We even guess (although not always) in which city the chronicler writes, and we know exactly where the events take place in real geographical space with real cities and villages. The space of a fairy tale does not correlate with the space in which the storyteller lives. It is very special, different from the space of sleep.

And from this point of view, the fairy-tale formula that accompanies the actions of the hero is very important: "is it close, is it far, is it low, is it high." This formula also has a continuation, which is already related to the artistic time of the fairy tale: "soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done." The time of the fairy tale also does not correlate with real time. It is not known whether the events of the tale took place long ago or recently. Time in a fairy tale is special - and at the same time “fast”. An event can take place for thirty years and three years, but it can also take place in one day. There is no particular difference. Heroes do not get bored, do not languish, do not grow old, do not get sick. Real time has no power over them. Powerful only event time. There is only a sequence of events, and then this sequence of events is the artistic time of a fairy tale. On the other hand, the story can neither go back nor skip over the sequence of events. The action is unidirectional, but artistic time is closely connected with it.

Due to the peculiarities of artistic space and artistic time in a fairy tale, exceptionally favorable conditions are for the development of action. Action in a fairy tale is performed more easily than in any other genre of folklore.

This ease, as you can easily see, is directly related to the magic of a fairy tale. Actions in a fairy tale not only do not meet with the resistance of the environment, they are also facilitated by various forms of magic and magic objects: a flying carpet, a self-assembly tablecloth, a magic ball, a magic mirror, a finist feather - a clear falcon, a wonderful shirt, etc. In the fairy tale “Come there - I don’t know where, bring it - I don’t know what ”(Afanasiev, No. 212) a magic ball rolls in front of the hero of a fairy tale - an archer:“ where the river meets, there the ball will be thrown over by a bridge; where the archer wants to rest, there the ball will spread like a downy bed. These magical helpers also include the so-called "helping animals" (gray wolf, humpbacked horse, etc.), the magic word that the hero knows, living and dead water, etc.

Comparing this magical relief of the characters' actions with the absence of environmental resistance in the tale, we can see that these two essential properties of the tale are not of the same nature. One phenomenon is obviously of an earlier origin, the other of a later one. I suppose that magic in a fairy tale is not primary, but secondary. It was not the absence of environmental resistance that was “added” to magic, but the very absence of environmental resistance demanded its “justification” and explanation in magic. Magic invaded the fairy tale more than any other genre of folklore in order to give a “real” explanation - why the hero is transported from place to place with such speed, why certain events take place in a fairy tale that are incomprehensible to consciousness, which has already begun to look for an explanation and does not satisfied with the statement of what is happening.

Paradoxical as it may seem, but magic in lubrication is an element of a “materialistic explanation” of the miraculous ease with which individual events of transformation, escapes, feats, finds, etc. take place in a fairy tale. , conspiracies, etc. - these are not miracles themselves, but only "explanations" of the wonderful lightness of the inner world of a fairy tale. The absence of environmental resistance, the constant overcoming of the laws of nature in a fairy tale is also a kind of miracle that required its own explanation ... This explanation was all the “technical weapons” of the fairy tale: magical objects, helpful animals, the magical properties of trees, witchcraft, etc.

The primacy of the absence of environmental resistance and the secondary nature of magic in a fairy tale can be supported by the following consideration. The environment in a fairy tale has no resistance in its entirety, entirely. The magic in it explains only a certain, and at the same time insignificant, part of the wonderful lightness of the fairy tale.

If magic were primary, then the absence of environmental resistance would occur in a fairy tale only on the path of this magic. Meanwhile, in a fairy tale, very often events develop with extraordinary ease, “just like that”, without explanation by magic. For example, in the fairy tale "The Frog Princess" (Afanasyev, No. 267), the tsar orders his three sons to shoot an arrow, and "as a woman brings an arrow, that is the bride." All three arrows of sons are brought by women: the first two are "princely daughter and general's daughter" and only the third arrow is brought by the princess turned into a frog by witchcraft. But neither the king has witchcraft when he offers his sons to find brides in this way, nor the first two brides. Witchcraft does not "cover", does not explain by itself all the miracles of a fairy tale. All these invisibility hats and flying carpets are “small” for a fairy tale. Therefore, they are clearly the latest.

So, storytelling requires that the world of a work of art be "light" - easy, first of all, for the development of the plot itself. Where the plot dominates, the inner world of the work is always "uncomplicated" to some extent. The resistance of the environment falls, time speeds up, space expands. The action metronome swings fast and wide.

Let's take another example, this time from a field quite different from folklore. Action at Dostoevsky , as you know, develops with extraordinary speed, proceeds vigorously, lively. And in accordance with this, in the artistic world of Dostoevsky, as in a fairy tale, the coefficient of resistance turns out to be very low. But since the plots of Dostoevsky's works make their way in the sphere of psychological and ideological life, it is precisely this part of the inner world of Dostoevsky's works that is distinguished by the least "resistance".

The inner world of a work of verbal art (literary or folklore) has a certain artistic integrity. Separate elements of reflected reality are connected with each other in a given inner world in a certain definite system, artistic unity.

Studying the reflection of the world of reality in the world of a work of art, literary critics are limited for the most part to paying attention to whether individual phenomena of reality are depicted correctly or incorrectly in the work. Literary critics enlist the help of historians in order to find out the accuracy of the depiction of historical events, psychologists and even psychiatrists in order to find out the correctness of the depiction of the mental life of the characters. When studying ancient Russian literature, besides historians, we often turn to the help of geographers, zoologists, astronomers, etc. And all this, of course, is quite correct, but, alas, not enough. We usually do not study the inner world of a work of art as a whole, limiting ourselves to searching for ʼʼprototypesʼʼ: prototypes of this or that character, character, landscape, even ʼʼprototypesʼʼ, events and prototypes of the types themselves. All in ʼʼretailʼʼ, all in parts! In connection with this, the world of a work of art appears in our studies in bulk, and its relation to reality is fragmented and lacks integrity.

At the same time, the mistake of literary critics who note various “fidelity” or “infidelity” in the artist’s depiction of reality is, in fact, that, by splitting up the whole reality and the integral world of a work of art, they make both incommensurable: they measure the apartment area in light years.

True, it has already become stereotyped to point out the difference between a real fact and an artistic fact. We can meet such statements when studying ʼʼWar and Peaceʼʼ or Russian epics and historical songs. The difference between the world of reality and the world of a work of art is already realized with sufficient acuteness. But the point is not to ʼʼbe awareʼʼ of something, but to define this ʼʼsomethingʼʼ as an object of study.

In fact, it is necessary not only to state the very fact of differences, but also to study what these differences consist of, what causes them and how they organize the inner world of the work. We should not simply establish differences between reality and the world of a work of art, and only in these differences should we see the specifics of a work of art. The specificity of a work of art by individual authors or literary movements can sometimes be just the opposite, that is, that there will be too few of these differences in certain parts of the inner world, and there will be too much imitation and accurate reproduction of reality.

In historical source studies, once the study of a historical source was limited to the question: true or false? After the works of A. Shakhmatov on the history of chronicle writing, such a study of the source was recognized as insufficient. A. Shakhmatov studied a historical source as an integral monument from the point of view of how this monument transforms reality: the purposefulness of the source, the worldview and political views of the author. Thanks to this, it became possible to use even a distorted, transformed image of reality as historical evidence. This transformation itself has become an important testament to the history of ideology and social thought. The historical concepts of the chronicler, no matter how they distort reality (and there are no concepts that do not distort reality in the chronicle), are always interesting for the historian, testifying to the historical ideas of the chronicler, about his ideas and views on the world.
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The concept of the chronicler has itself become historical evidence. A. Shakhmatov made all sources important and interesting to a modern historian in some way, and we have no right to reject any source. It is only important to understand about what time the source under study can testify: about the time when it was compiled, or about the time about which he writes.

The same is true in literary criticism. Each work of art (if it is only artistic!) reflects the world of reality in its own creative perspectives. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. Studying the reflection of reality in a work of art, we should not limit ourselves to the question: "true or false" - and admire only fidelity, accuracy, correctness. The inner world of a work of art also has its own interconnected patterns, its own dimensions and its own meaning as a system.

Of course, and this is very important, the inner world of a work of art does not exist by itself and not for itself. He is not autonomous. It depends on reality, ʼʼreflectsʼʼ the world of reality, but that transformation of this world, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ allows for a work of art, has a holistic and purposeful character.
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The transformation of reality is connected with the idea of ​​the work, with the tasks that the artist sets for himself. The world of a work of art is the result of both a correct display and an active transformation of reality. In his work, the writer creates a certain space in which the action takes place. This space must be large, encompassing a series of strange travel novels or even extending beyond the terrestrial planet (in fantasy and romantic novels), but it can also be narrowed down to the narrow boundaries of a single room. The space created by the author in his work may have peculiar ʼʼgeographicʼʼ properties, be real (as in a chronicle or historical novel) or imaginary, as in a fairy tale. The writer in his work also creates the time in which the action of the work takes place. A work may span centuries or only hours. Time in a work can go quickly or slowly, intermittently or continuously, be intensely filled with events or flow lazily and remain “empty”, rarely “populated” with events.

Quite a few works are devoted to the issue of artistic time in the literature, although their authors often replace the study of the artistic time of a work with the study of the author's views on the problem of time and make simple selections of writers' statements about time, not noticing or not attaching importance to the fact that these statements may be contrary to that artistic time, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ the writer himself creates in his work 1.

1 For literature on artistic time and artistic space, see: D. S. Likhachev, Poetics of Old Russian Literature, ʼʼNaukaʼʼ, L. 1967, p.
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213-214 and 357. Additionally, I will indicate: Em. S t a i g s, Die Zeit als Einbil-dungskraft des Dichters. Untersuchungen zu Gedichton Von Brentano, Goethe und Kcllor, Ziirich, 1939, 1953, 1963; H. W e i n r i c h, Tempus. Besprochene und crzahltc Welt, Stuttgart, 1964.

The works should also have their own psychological world, not the psychology of individual characters, but the general laws of psychology, subjugating all the characters, creating a ʼʼpsychological environmentʼʼ, in which the plot unfolds. These laws are different from the laws of psychology that exist in reality, and it is useless to look for exact correspondences in psychology textbooks or psychiatry textbooks. So, the heroes of a fairy tale have their own psychology: people and animals, as well as fantastic creatures. They are characterized by a special type of reaction to external events, a special argumentation and special responses to the arguments of the antagonists. One psychology is characteristic of the heroes of Goncharov, the other - the characters of Proust, still another - Kafka, quite special - the characters of the annals or the lives of the saints. The psychology of the historical characters of Karamzin or the romantic heroes of Lermontov is also special. All these psychological worlds must be studied as a whole.

The same should be said about the social structure of the world of works of art, and this social structure of the artistic world of a work should be distinguished from the author's views on social issues and not confuse the study of this world with its scattered comparisons with the world of reality. The world of social relations in a work of art also requires study in its integrity and independence.

You can also study the world of history in some literary works: in the annals, in the tragedy of classicism, in historical novels of realistic trends, etc. And in this area, not only exact or inaccurate reproductions of the events of real history will be found, but also their own laws, according to which historical events, its own system of causality or ʼʼcauselessnessʼʼ of events, - in a word, its own .. inner world of history. The task of studying this world of the history of the work is just as different from studying the writer's views on history, just as the study of artistic time is different from studying the artist's views on time. One can study Tolstoy's historical views as they are expressed in the well-known historical digressions of his novel War and Peace, but one can also study how events unfold in War and Peace. These are two different tasks, although they are related. However, I think that the last task is more important, and the first serves only as a guide (far from being paramount) for the second. If Leo Tolstoy had been a historian and not a novelist, these two tasks must have been reversed in their significance. Curious, by the way, is one regularity that emerges when studying the difference between the views of writers on history and its artistic depiction. As a historian (in his discussions on historical topics), the writer very often emphasizes the regularity of the historical process, but in his artistic practice he involuntarily emphasizes the role of chance in the fate of historical and simply characters in his work. Let me remind you of the role of the hare sheepskin coat in the fate of Grinev and Pugachev in Pushkin's The Captain's Daughter. Pushkin the historian hardly agreed with Pushkin the artist on this point.

The moral side of the world of a work of art is also very important and, like everything else in this world, has a direct ʼʼconstructiveʼʼ meaning. So, for example, the world of medieval works knows absolute good, but evil in it is relative. For this reason, a saint cannot only become a villain, but even commit an evil deed. If he had done this, then he would not have been a saint from a medieval point of view, then he would only pretend, be hypocritical, wait until the time, etc.
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etc.
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But any villain in the world of medieval works can change dramatically and become a saint. Hence a kind of asymmetry and ʼʼunidirectionalityʼʼ of the moral world of artistic works of the Middle Ages. This determines the originality of the action, the construction of plots (in particular, the lives of the saints), the interested expectation of the reader of medieval works, etc.
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(Psychology of reader's interest - reader's ʼʼwaitingʼʼ to continue).

The moral world of works of art is constantly changing with the development of literature. Attempts to justify evil, to find objective reasons in it, to consider evil as a social or religious protest are characteristic of the works of the romantic direction (Byron, Njegosh, Lermontov, etc.). In classicism, evil and good, as it were, stand above the world and acquire a peculiar historical coloring. In realism, moral problems permeate everyday life, appear in thousands of aspects, among which, as realism develops, social aspects steadily increase. Etc.

Building materials for building the inner world of a work of art are taken from the reality surrounding the artist, but he creates his own world in accordance with his ideas about how this world was, is or should be.

The world of a work of art reflects reality at the same time indirectly and directly: indirectly through the artist’s vision, through his artistic representations, and directly, directly in those cases when the artist unconsciously, without attaching artistic significance to this, transfers phenomena of reality or representations and concepts into the world he creates. of his era.

I will give an example from the field of artistic time created in a literary work. This time of a work of art, as I have already said, can flow very quickly, ʼʼjoltsʼʼ, ʼʼnervouslyʼʼ (in the novels of Dostoevsky) or flow slowly and evenly (by Goncharov or Turgenev), be associated with ʼʼeternityʼʼ (in ancient Russian chronicles), capture a larger or smaller range of phenomena . In all these cases, we are dealing with artistic time - time that indirectly reproduces real time, artistically transforming it. If the writer of the new time, like us, divides the day into 24 hours, and the chronicler - in accordance with church services - into 9, then this one has no artistic ʼʼtaskʼʼ and meaning. This is a direct reflection of the contemporary writer's time calculation, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ transferred from reality without changes. It is worth saying that, of course, the first, artistically transformed time is important for us.

It is it that gives the possibility of creativity, creates the ʼʼmaneuverabilityʼʼ necessary for the artist, allows you to create your own world, different from the world of another work, another writer, another literary movement, style, etc.

The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of ʼʼabbreviatedʼʼ, conditional version. The artist, building his world, cannot, of course, reproduce reality with the same degree of complexity inherent in reality. In the world of a literary work, there is not much of what is in the real world. This world is limited in its own way. Literature takes only certain phenomena of reality and then conventionally shortens or expands them, makes them more colorful or faded, organizes them stylistically, but at the same time, as already mentioned, creates its own system, an internally closed system with its own laws.

Literature ʼʼreplaysʼʼ reality. This ʼʼreplayingʼʼ occurs in connection with those ʼʼstyle-formingʼʼ tendencies that characterize the work of this or that author, this or that literary trend or ʼʼstyle of the epochʼʼ. These style-forming tendencies make the world of a work of art in some respects more diverse and richer than the world of reality, despite all its conditional brevity.

The inner world of a work of art - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Inner world of a work of art" 2017, 2018.

§ 1. MEANING OF THE TERM

PRACTICAL LESSONS

P.A. Nikolaeva(any edition).

Questions highlighted in bold

Section 1.

Science literary criticism

Try to develop, illustrate the thoughts of M. Bakhtin in his publication “Answer to the question of the editors of Novy Mir” (1970).

Section 2

Philosophy of art

1. What is art and what significance does it have in human life?

2. What are the main types of art, what distinguishes them, what unites them?

3. What is the conceptual series (the definition of this series), in which the place of the concept of art?

5. What is the art world?

6. How do you understand the expression "The artist creates according to the laws of beauty"?

7. What is the primary element of literature?

8. What are the functions of literature?

9. What brings together the artist of the word and the scientist of the humanities, what distinguishes them?

V. Shklovsky in the article "Art as a technique" (1917) doubts the correctness of the judgment "Art is thinking in images." Give your understanding of the problem.

R. Yakobson in his article "On Artistic Realism" doubts the legitimacy of the term "realism" in its application to literature. Give your understanding of the problem.

Section 3

The language of fiction. trails

1. What is the originality of the language of fiction?

3. What is called a poetic figure? Give examples and explain the content of poetic figures: inversion, antithesis, parallelism, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question (address, statement, exclamation), gradation.

4. What is called poetic style? Give examples and explain the purposes of use: polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, oxymoron.

5. What is called poetic phonetics? Give examples and explain the purposes of use: assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia.

6. Is there a separate series called poetic vocabulary? What are: barbarisms, dialectisms, provincialisms, neologisms, prosaisms?

7. What is called poetism?

Structural analysis of the poetic text according to Yu.M. Lotman. Outline the main provisions of the "Introduction" and the first section "Problems and methods of structural analysis of a poetic text." Collection: Yu.M.Lotman "On Poets and Poetry: An Analysis of a Poetic Text" (1996).

Section 4

Link the answers to the following questions with examples from the literature.

1. Name three basic concepts related to the content of a literary work, give their definitions.

3. Name the concepts related to the form of a literary work, give their definitions.

3. What is the difference between the concepts of plot and plot?

4. What is the role of conflict in a work of art, what are the types of conflict?

4. Name the elements of the composition of a literary work .

6. Name the non-plot elements and their functions.

7. What is the role of a portrait in a literary work, what types of portrait stand out?

8. What is the role of the landscape in a literary work?

9. What is the role of artistic detail in a literary work?

10. What is the integrity of a work of art?

11. Expand the content and evaluate the article by B. Eikhenbaum "How Gogol's Overcoat" was made (1919). Give your understanding of the problem.

Section 5

literary subject

3. Explain the concept of a lyrical hero.

5. What is meant by role-playing lyrics, by lyrical "I" in role-playing lyrics?

Section 6

M. Bakhtin on the role of space-time representations in literary works: Bakhtin M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. Researches of different years. M., 1975.

Section 7

Literary genera and genres

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. Name the genera, genres of fiction, their characteristic features.

2. Name the "bikini" formations, their features.

3. What is included in the concept of literary type? What is "wider" type or genre?

What semantic meanings have the "derived" words acquired: epic, dramatic, lyric?

4. What are the features of drama as a literary genre?

5. What are the features of the lyric-epic work?

6. Prepare (orally or in writing) for reasoning on all the presented literary concepts:

Section 8

Poetry

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. What underlies the organization of poetic speech?

2. Name and describe the main systems of versification.

3. What evolution and why did the Russian system of versification go through?

4. What is called in poetry a foot, a size, a meter?

What are the classic poetic meters and their differences?

5. What caused deviations from the given scheme of poetic size in the texts of poems?

6. What is a pyrrhic, spondei, truncated verse?

7. Explain what rhyme is and name the main types of rhymes. What is a tercene? Monorhyme?

8. What is a stanza? Name the stanzas of Russian versification and their synonyms. What do you know about the Onegin stanza? About a sonnet?

9. Explain verse organizations called white verse, free verse, free verse.

Section 9

Art style

Link your answers with examples from the literature.

1. What evolution of content has the word, the concept of style experienced?

2. What is an art style?

3. Name five main known styles.

4. What is an indicator of integrity, unity of style?

5. Name the known patterns, style dominants.

6. What are the features of styles: descriptive, plot, psychological, lifelike, fantastic, nominative, rhetorical, monologue, heterogeneous.

7. Name (three) forms of rhythmic order in artistic speech.

8. Give a description of a simple and complex composition.

Section 10

Section 11

School of Literature.

PRACTICAL LESSONS

Textbook: "Introduction to Literary Studies" ed. L.M. Krupchanova (any edition).

Reader: "Theory of Literature" ed. P.A. Nikolaeva(any edition).

Questions highlighted in bold(they are in custody) you can cook according to the reader ...

Section 1.

Science literary criticism

Outline the main provisions of D. Likhachev's article "The inner world of a work of art."

The inner world of a work of art

Source // Questions of Literature, No. 8, 1968. - P. 74-87.

The inner world of a work of verbal art (literary or folklore) has a certain artistic integrity. Separate elements of reflected reality are connected with each other in this inner world in a certain system, artistic unity.

Studying the reflection of the world of reality in the world of a work of art, literary critics are limited for the most part to paying attention to whether individual phenomena of reality are depicted correctly or incorrectly in the work. Literary critics enlist the help of historians in order to ascertain the accuracy of the depiction of historical events, psychologists and even psychiatrists in order to ascertain the correctness of the depiction of the mental life of the characters. When studying ancient Russian literature, besides historians, we often turn to the help of geographers, zoologists, astronomers, etc. And all this, of course, is quite correct, but, alas, not enough. We usually do not study the inner world of a work of art as a whole, limiting ourselves to searching for "prototypes": prototypes of this or that character, character, landscape, even "prototypes", events and prototypes of the types themselves. Everything is "retail", everything is in parts! Therefore, the world of a work of art appears in our studies in bulk, and its relation to reality is fragmented and devoid of integrity.

At the same time, the mistake of literary critics, who note various “fidelities” or “infidelities” in the artist’s depiction of reality, lies in the fact that, by splitting up the whole reality and the integral world of a work of art, they make both incommensurable: they measure the apartment area in light years.

True, it has already become stereotyped to point out the difference between a real fact and an artistic fact. We can come across such statements when studying War and Peace or Russian epics and historical songs. The difference between the world of reality and the world of a work of art is already realized with sufficient acuteness. But the point is not to "be aware" of something, but to define this "something" as an object of study.

In fact, it is necessary not only to state the very fact of differences, but also to study what these differences consist of, what causes them and how they organize the inner world of the work. We should not simply establish differences between reality and the world of a work of art, and only in these differences should we see the specifics of a work of art. The specificity of a work of art by individual authors or literary movements can sometimes be just the opposite, that is, that there will be too few of these differences in certain parts of the inner world, and there will be too much imitation and accurate reproduction of reality.

In historical source studies, once the study of a historical source was limited to the question: true or false? After the works of A. Shakhmatov on the history of chronicle writing, such a study of the source was recognized as insufficient. A. Shakhmatov studied a historical source as an integral monument from the point of view of how this monument transforms reality: the purposefulness of the source, the worldview and political views of the author. Thanks to this, it became possible to use even a distorted, transformed image of reality as historical evidence. This transformation itself has become an important testament to the history of ideology and social thought. The historical concepts of the chronicler, no matter how they distort reality (and there are no concepts that do not distort reality in the chronicle), are always interesting for the historian, testifying to the historical ideas of the chronicler, about his ideas and views on the world. The concept of the chronicler has itself become historical evidence. A. Shakhmatov made all the sources to some extent important and interesting for the modern historian, and we have no right to reject any source. It is only important to understand about what time the source under study can testify: about the time when it was compiled, or about the time about which he writes.

The same is true in literary criticism. Each work of art (if it is only artistic!) reflects the world of reality in its own creative perspectives. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. Studying the reflection of reality in a work of art, we should not limit ourselves to the question: "true or false" - and admire only fidelity, accuracy, correctness. The inner world of a work of art also has its own interconnected patterns, its own dimensions and its own meaning as a system.

Of course, and this is very important, the inner world of a work of art does not exist by itself and not for itself. He is not autonomous. It depends on reality, "reflects" the world of reality, but the transformation of this world, which allows a work of art, has a holistic and purposeful character. The transformation of reality is connected with the idea of ​​the work, with the tasks that the artist sets for himself. The world of a work of art is the result of both a correct display and an active transformation of reality. In his work, the writer creates a certain space in which the action takes place. This space may be large, spanning a series of strange travel novels, or even extending beyond the terrestrial planet (in fantasy and romantic novels), but it may also shrink to the narrow confines of a single room. The space created by the author in his work may have peculiar "geographical" properties, be real (as in a chronicle or historical novel) or imaginary, as in a fairy tale. The writer in his work also creates the time in which the action of the work takes place. A work may span centuries or only hours. Time in a work can go quickly or slowly, intermittently or continuously, be intensely filled with events or flow lazily and remain “empty”, rarely “populated” with events.

Quite a lot of works are devoted to the issue of artistic time in the literature, although their authors often replace the study of the artistic time of a work with the study of the author's views on the problem of time and make simple selections of writers' statements about time, not noticing or not attaching importance to the fact that these statements may be in conflict. with the artistic time that the writer himself creates in his work 1.

1 For literature on artistic time and artistic space, see: D. S. Likhachev, Poetics of Old Russian Literature, "Nauka", L. 1967, pp. 213-214 and 357. Additionally, I will indicate: Em. S t a i g s, Die Zeit als Einbil-dungskraft des Dichters. Untersuchungen zu Gedichton Von Brentano, Goethe und Kcllor, Ziirich, 1939, 1953, 1963; H. W e i n r i c h, Tempus. Besprochene und crzahltc Welt, Stuttgart, 1964.

Works can also have their own psychological world, not the psychology of individual characters, but the general laws of psychology that subjugate all characters, creating a “psychological environment” in which the plot unfolds. These laws may be different from the laws of psychology that exist in reality, and it is useless to look for exact matches in psychology textbooks or psychiatry textbooks. So, the heroes of a fairy tale have their own psychology: people and animals, as well as fantastic creatures. They are characterized by a special type of reaction to external events, a special argumentation and special responses to the arguments of the antagonists. One psychology is characteristic of the heroes of Goncharov, another - of the characters of Proust, another - of Kafka, a very special one - of the characters of the annals or the lives of the saints. The psychology of the historical characters of Karamzin or the romantic heroes of Lermontov is also special. All these psychological worlds must be studied as a whole.

The same should be said about the social structure of the world of works of art, and this social structure of the artistic world of a work should be distinguished from the author's views on social issues and not confuse the study of this world with its scattered comparisons with the world of reality. The world of social relations in a work of art also requires study in its integrity and independence.

You can also study the world of history in some literary works: in the annals, in the tragedy of classicism, in historical novels of realistic trends, etc. And in this area, not only exact or inaccurate reproductions of the events of real history will be found, but also their own laws, according to which historical events, its own system of causality or "causelessness" of events - in a word, its own .. inner world of history. The task of studying this world of the history of the work is just as different from studying the writer's views on history, just as the study of artistic time is different from studying the artist's views on time. One can study Tolstoy's historical views as expressed in the well-known historical digressions of his novel War and Peace, but one can also study how the events in War and Peace unfold. These are two different tasks, although they are related. However, I think that the last task is more important, and the first serves only as a guide (far from being paramount) for the second. If Leo Tolstoy had been a historian and not a novelist, perhaps these two tasks would have been reversed in their significance. Curious, by the way, is one regularity that emerges when studying the difference between writers' views on history and its artistic depiction. As a historian (in his discussions on historical topics), the writer very often emphasizes the regularity of the historical process, but in his artistic practice he involuntarily emphasizes the role of chance in the fate of historical and simply characters in his work. Let me remind you of the role of the hare sheepskin coat in the fate of Grinev and Pugachev in Pushkin's The Captain's Daughter. Pushkin the historian hardly agreed with Pushkin the artist on this.

The moral side of the world of a work of art is also very important and, like everything else in this world, has a direct “constructive” meaning. So, for example, the world of medieval works knows absolute good, but evil in it is relative. Therefore, a saint cannot not only become a villain, but even commit an evil deed. If he did this, then he would not be a saint from a medieval point of view, then he would only pretend, be hypocritical, wait until the time, etc., etc. But any villain in the world of medieval works can change dramatically and become a saint. Hence a kind of asymmetry and "one-pointedness" of the moral world of the artistic works of the Middle Ages. This determines the originality of the action, the construction of plots (in particular, the lives of saints), the interested expectation of the reader of medieval works, etc. (the psychology of reader interest - the reader's "expectation" of continuation).

The moral world of works of art is constantly changing with the development of literature. Attempts to justify evil, to find objective reasons in it, to consider evil as a social or religious protest are characteristic of the works of the romantic direction (Byron, Njegosh, Lermontov, etc.). In classicism, evil and good, as it were, stand above the world and acquire a peculiar historical coloring. In realism, moral problems permeate everyday life, appear in thousands of aspects, among which, as realism develops, social aspects steadily increase. Etc.

Building materials for building the inner world of a work of art are taken from the reality surrounding the artist, but he creates his own world in accordance with his ideas about how this world was, is or should be.

The world of a work of art reflects reality at the same time indirectly and directly: indirectly through the artist’s vision, through his artistic representations, and directly, directly in those cases when the artist unconsciously, without attaching artistic significance to this, transfers phenomena of reality or representations and concepts into the world he creates. of his era.

I will give an example from the field of artistic time created in a literary work. This time of a work of art, as I have already said, can flow very quickly, “in jerks”, “nervously” (in Dostoevsky’s novels) or flow slowly and evenly (in Goncharov’s or Turgenev’s), mate with “eternity” (in ancient Russian chronicles), capture a larger or smaller range of phenomena. In all these cases, we are dealing with artistic time - time that indirectly reproduces real time, artistically transforming it. If, like us, the writer of modern times divides the day into 24 hours, and the chronicler - in accordance with church services - into 9, then there is no artistic "task" and meaning in this. This is a direct reflection of the contemporary writer's time reckoning, which is transferred from reality without changes. For us, of course, the first, artistically transformed time is important.

It is this that gives the possibility of creativity, creates the “maneuverability” necessary for the artist, allows you to create your own world, different from the world of another work, another writer, another literary movement, style, etc.

The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "reduced", conditional version. The artist, building his world, cannot, of course, reproduce reality with the same degree of complexity inherent in reality. In the world of a literary work, there is not much of what is in the real world. This world is limited in its own way. Literature takes only certain phenomena of reality and then conventionally shortens or expands them, makes them more colorful or faded, organizes them stylistically, but at the same time, as already mentioned, creates its own system, an internally closed system with its own laws.

Literature "replays" reality. This “replaying” occurs in connection with those “style-forming” tendencies that characterize the work of this or that author, this or that literary trend or “style of the era”. These style-forming tendencies make the world of a work of art in some respects more diverse and richer than the world of reality, despite all its conditional brevity.

End of work -

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Practical lesson. Prepare a brief biographical note about D.S. Likhachev

The inner world of a work of art .. according to d s Likhachev .. prepare a brief biographical note about d s Likhachev ..

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