Baroque in the artistic culture of the 17th century. The main directions of European artistic culture of the 17th century (Baroque, classicism, realism)

At the end of the 16th century there appeared a new style– Baroque. This is what will be discussed in this article.

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excess”, port. perola barroca - literally “pearl with a flaw”) is a style in art in general and architecture in particular.

Baroque era

Conventionally considered (like all historical periods), that the Baroque era lasted during the 16th-18th centuries. Interestingly, it all started with Italy, which by the 16th century began to noticeably weaken on the international stage, economically and politically.

The French and Spanish actively pursued their policies in Europe, although Italy still remained cultural center European society. And the strength of a culture, as we know, is determined by its ability to adapt to new realities.

So the Italian nobility, not having the money to build rich palaces demonstrating their power and greatness, turned to art in order to use it to create the appearance of wealth, strength and prosperity.

This is how the Baroque era began, which became an important stage in the development of world art.

It is important to emphasize that people's lives began to change fundamentally at this time. The Baroque era is characterized by a lot of free time. The townspeople prefer horse riding (“carousels”) and playing cards to knightly tournaments, walks in the park to pilgrimages, and theaters to mysteries.

Old traditions based on superstitions and prejudices are falling away. The outstanding mathematician and philosopher Descartes derives the formula: “I think, therefore I exist.” That is, society is being rebuilt to a different way of thinking, where what is sensible is not what some authority said, but what can be mathematically accurately explained to any intelligent being.

An interesting fact is that in the professional environment there are more disputes around the word “Baroque” than about the era as such. Barroco is translated from Spanish as pearl. irregular shape, but from Italian – baroco means a false logical conclusion.

This second option looks like the most plausible version of the origin of the controversial word, since it was in the Baroque era that some kind of brilliant absurdity, and even whimsicality, was observed in art, amazing with its pomp and grandeur.

Baroque style

The Baroque style is characterized by contrast, dynamism and tension, as well as a clear desire for pomp and external grandeur.

It is interesting that representatives of this direction extremely organically united different styles art. In short, the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus played a key role in laying the foundation of the Baroque style.

If for the Renaissance it was typical to perceive man as the measure of all things and the most intelligent of creatures, then Blaise Pascal already understands himself differently: “something in between everything and nothing.”

Baroque art

Baroque art is distinguished, first of all, by its extraordinary splendor of forms, originality of plots and dynamism. The art is dominated by catchy floridity. In painting, the most outstanding representatives of this style were Rubens and.

Looking at some Caravaggio paintings, you can’t help but be amazed at the dynamism of his plots. The play of light and shadow incredibly subtly emphasizes the various emotions and experiences of the characters. An interesting fact is that the influence of this artist on art was so great that a new style appeared - Caravaggism.

Some followers managed to adopt naturalism from their teacher in depicting people and events on canvas. Peter Rubens, studying in Italy, became a follower of Caravaggio and Carraci, mastering their technique and adopting their style.

The Flemish painter Van Dyck and the Dutchman Rembrandt were also prominent representatives of Baroque art. In Spain, this style was followed by the outstanding artist Diego Velazquez, and in France by Nicolas Poussin.

By the way, it was Poussin who began to lay the foundations of a new style in art - classicism.

Baroque in architecture

The architecture, made in the Baroque style, is distinguished by its spatial scope and complex, curvilinear forms. Numerous sculptures on the facades and in the interiors, various colonnades and a lot of bracing create a pomp and majestic appearance.

Architectural ensemble "Zwinger" in Dresden

Domes take on complex shapes and often have several tiers. An example is the dome in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, whose architect was.

Most significant works The palace and building of Versailles are considered Baroque in architecture French Academy in Paris. The world's largest Baroque ensembles include Versailles, Peterhof, Zwinger, Aranjuez and Schönbrunn.

In general, it must be said that the architecture of this style has spread to many European countries ah, including in, under the influence of Peter the Great.

Baroque music

When talking about the Baroque era, it is impossible to ignore music, since it also underwent significant changes during this period. Composers combined large-scale musical forms, while simultaneously trying to contrast the choral and solo singing, voices and instruments.

Various instrumental genres emerge. The most prominent representatives of Baroque music are Bach, Handel and Vivaldi.

To summarize, we can say with confidence that this era gave birth to geniuses of world significance who forever wrote their names in history. The works of many of them still decorate the best museums in different countries.

If you love Interesting Facts about everything in the world - we recommend subscribing to. It's always interesting with us!

XVII century is a transitional period full of contradictions and struggles that completed the history of European feudalism and opened up new capitalist relations.

Holland becomes the largest colonial and trading power in Europe. However, by the end of the 17th century. it cedes the championship to England and France. A deep economic and political crisis is engulfing Spain and Italy.

Artistic culture of the 17th century. characterized by the emergence and flourishing of national art schools of Italy, Flanders, Spain, France, Holland, which reflected the characteristics historical development, the nature of social life, local conditions. At the same time, the art of this time is characterized by the general artistic style of Baroque (baroque translated from Italian - strange, pretentious), which replaced the art of the Renaissance.

The Baroque style originated at the end of the 16th century. in Italy and spread to most European countries in architecture, painting, decorative and applied arts.

The Baroque reflected new ideas about the unity, boundlessness and constant variability of the world, about its dramatic complexity. It is characterized by the opposition of earthly and heavenly, reality and fantasy, spiritual and physical, refined and rough, aristocratic and folk. From these oppositions are born stormy dynamics, exciting passions, picturesqueness, illusoryness, contrasts of light and shadow, scales, rhythms, materials and textures, monumentality, decorativeness, pomp, splendor.

Luxurious palaces, villas, churches of the 17th century. with an abundance of multi-colored architectural and sculptural decorations, with mirrored walls and vaulted ceilings, heavy majestic furniture made of ebony and mahogany, inlaid with silver and bronze, created a certain background for a person, forming a single whole with his appearance, costume, and demeanor.

This style most fully expressed the tastes of the aristocracy of that time. He was extremely formal, decorative, and prim.

The Baroque palace was like Olympus brought down to earth. The interiors were dominated by bright, major colors and gilding. Painted ceilings, light shiny floors that reflected crystal chandeliers, walls trimmed with marble or covered with tapestries, a huge number of stucco decorations - everything created the impression of extraordinary splendor.

The heavy furniture was richly decorated. It was made mainly of ebony and decorated with complex inlays of tortoiseshell plates, and sometimes of mother-of-pearl and gold. The impression of splendor of the interior, brilliance, and enchantment was complemented by a huge amount of silverware, flickering in the light of candles. Sometimes even furniture was made entirely of silver.

The costume of the Baroque era was entirely subordinated to the etiquette of the court and was distinguished by pomp, stiffness and a huge amount of decoration. The lush costumes of this time were in harmony with the bright, colorful Baroque interiors.

The Baroque era gave rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: promenades (walks in the park) and "carousels" (horse rides, card games, theater, masquerade balls. You can also add the appearance of swings and “fiery fun”. In the interiors, instead of icons, portraits and landscapes appeared, and music from spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.

The Baroque era rejects traditions and authorities as superstitions and prejudices. Everything that is “clearly and distinctly” thought or has a mathematical expression is true. Therefore, Baroque is also the century of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word “baroque” is sometimes raised to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco. In France, in Versailles, the first European park appears, where the idea of ​​a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn with a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. Uniformed Baroque armies for the first time great attention pay attention to the geometric correctness of formations on the parade ground - “drill”.

The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development artistic culture. It became not only a century of science, but also a century of art. True, taking into account the fact that the blossoming of science had only just begun, while art had already reached its apogee. Nevertheless, the sky above him is still clear and cloudless. His prestige in society is unusually high. In terms of the number of great artists of the 17th century, it apparently surpasses all others, including the Renaissance. Moreover, if during the Renaissance Italy has no equal in the field of art, then in the 17th century. art is on the rise in all European countries, and France now looks preferable.

Like other areas of culture, art has experienced the effects of differentiation. Its isolation becomes more and more prominent and distinct. Even the connection with religion is noticeably weakened. As a result, religious and mythological subjects get rid of excessive pathos and are filled with deep vitality and naturalness.

Another consequence of differentiation is that among artists the universal personalities characteristic of the era disappear. was not only a brilliant artist, but also a great scientist, thinker, and inventor. Although to a lesser extent, the same can be said about L. Alberti, F. Brunelleschi. Piero della Francesche, F. Rabelais and others. Now such large-scale figures are becoming rare. At the same time, there is an increase in the subjective principle in art. It manifests itself in an increasing number of bright individuals, in greater creative freedom and courage, and in a broader view of things.

Within art there is also a process of differentiation, changes existing genres and new ones arise. IN painting Landscape and portrait become completely independent genres, in which psychologism is enhanced. Still life and images of animals appear. The importance of originals is increasing compositional solutions, color, picturesqueness, flavor.

IN music opera is born. The creator of this genre is Italian composerC. Monteverdi (1567-1643), wrote the opera "Orpheus", which was staged in 1607 and became a real masterpiece of operatic art. For the first time, music in it not only complements the poetry, but is the main character, expressing the meaning of everything that happens on stage. In addition to opera, cantatas and oratorios also appear in music.

The main styles in the art of the 17th century. Baroque and classicism appear. Some art historians believe that at the same time realism emerged as a special style in art, but this point of view is disputed, although the existence of a realistic tendency is recognized.

Baroque

Baroque appears at the end of the 16th century. in Italy. The word “baroque” itself means “strange”, “bizarre”. The Baroque style is characterized by dynamic images, tension, brightness, elegance, contrast, the desire for grandeur, pomp and pomp, a synthesis of arts, a combination of reality and illusion, increased emotionality and sensuality. Baroque was the style of the aristocratic elite of the outgoing feudal society, the style of Catholic culture.

A prominent representative of the Italian Baroque is the Roman architect, sculptor and painter L. Bernini (1598-1680). His work embodied all the most characteristic features of the style - both strong and weak. Many of his works were concentrated in the main monument of Catholic Rome - the Cathedral of St. Petra. Under its dome, built by the great Michelangelo, rises a grandiose monumental and decorative structure - a thirty-meter canopy, and in the altar there is an equally majestic marble pulpit of Peter, decorated with gold and figures depicting angels and cupids, church fathers and saints.

An even more magnificent creation of Bernini was the grandiose colonnade, consisting of 284 columns, placed in four rows and framing a huge square in front of the Cathedral of St. Petra. Bernini's most significant sculptural works are considered to be “Apollo and Daphne” and “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa."

The most famous figure of the European Baroque is Flemish artistP. Rubens (1577-1640). He can rightfully be called a universal personality, not inferior in scale to the titans of the Renaissance. He was close to humanists and was fond of the classics of Antiquity - Plutarch. Seneca, Horace, knew six languages, including Latin. Rubens was not a scientist or inventor, but he understood the problems of astronomy and archeology, showed interest in clocks without a mechanism, in the idea of ​​perpetual motion, followed new developments in philosophy, understood a lot about politics and actively participated in it. Most of all he loved human life itself.

Rubens embodied his commitment to humanism in his work. He became a great poet of a life filled with happiness, pleasure and lyricism. He remains an unsurpassed singer of human - male and especially female flesh, the sensual beauty of the human body. Only Rubens could, with such courage and love, convey the beauty of the flesh itself, its gentle warmth, soft pliability. He managed to show that flesh can be beautiful without having a beautiful form.

One of the central themes of his work is woman, love and the child as a natural and beautiful fruit of love. This side of his work can be seen and felt in such films as “Venus and Adonis”. "Juno and Argus", "Perseus and Andromeda", "Bathsheba".

While in Italy, Rubens had a good art school. However, his Flemish temperament did not take everything from the great Italians. It is known that Italian masters preferred balance, calm and harmony, which allowed them to create eternal beauty. Rubens breaks all this in favor of movement. The human figures he depicts often resemble a compressed spring, ready to instantly unfold. In this regard, he is closest to Michelangelo, whose sculptures are full of internal tension and movement. His works are also filled with vigorous dynamism. These, in particular, are the paintings “The Battle of the Amazons”, “The Kidnapping of the Daughters of Leucippus”, “Lion Hunt”, “Boar Hunt”.

In Rubens's works, color and picturesqueness prevail over drawing. Here Titian serves as his example. Rubens does not like too clear contours. It seems to separate matter from form, making it free, alive and carnal. As for color, the artist prefers bright, clean and rich tones, filled with healthy vitality. He strives not so much for their harmony as for orchestration, to create a color symphony. Rubens is rightly called the great composer of color.

Classicism

Homeland classicism became France. If Baroque gives preference to feelings, then classicism rests on reason. The highest standard and ideal model for him is antique art. Its main principles are clarity, orderliness, logical consistency, harmony and harmony.

According to classicism, the subject of art should be sublime and beautiful, heroic and noble. Art is supposed to express high moral ideals, glorify the beauty and spiritual wealth of man, glorify the triumph of conscious duty over the element of feelings. The judge of art is not only taste, but also reason.

Classicism shares the basic principles of rationalism and, above all, the idea of ​​a rational structure of the world. However, in understanding the relationship between man and nature, he differs from him, continuing the line of Renaissance humanism and believing that these relationships should be built on the principles of consent and harmony, and not domination and submission. This is especially true for art, one of the tasks of which is to glorify the harmony of man with beautiful nature.

The founder and main figure of classicism in painting is a French artist N. Poussin (1594-1665). In his work, he relies entirely on the rationalism of R. Descartes, believing that sensation is always partial and one-sided, and only reason can comprehend the subject comprehensively and in all its complexity. Therefore, reason must judge everything.

Poussin spent almost his entire life in Italy, but this did not stop him from becoming truly French artist, who created one of the eye trends in art that exists to this day. From Italian masters greatest influence Raphael influenced him. whose works are ideal examples of complete perfection, as well as Titian, from whom all subsequent artists take lessons in pure picturesqueness.

Although Poussin gives preference to reason, his art cannot be called dry, cold and rational. He himself notes that the purpose of art is pleasure, that all the efforts of the artist are aimed at delivering aesthetic pleasure to the viewer. His works already contain two main elements of art, when it becomes a completely independent and self-sufficient phenomenon.

One of them is associated with plasticity, created by purely artistic, pictorial means, a combination of lines and colors, which constitutes a source of special, aesthetic pleasure. The second is associated with expression, expressiveness, with the help of which the artist influences the viewer and evokes in him the state of mind that he himself experienced.

The presence of these two principles allows Poussin to combine intellect and feeling. The primacy of reason is combined with his love of the flesh and sensuality. This is evidenced by his paintings “Venus and Adonis”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Bacchanalia” and others, where we see a person perfect in body and spirit.

In the initial period of Poussin’s creativity, canvases on historical and religious-mythological themes predominated. Such works as “The Rape of the Sabine Women”, “The Capture of

Jerusalem", "Arcadian Shepherds". Then the theme of harmony between man and nature comes to the fore. It is represented in the paintings “The Triumph of Flora”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, “Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice”, etc. Nature is not just a place for a person to stay. A deep sensory agreement is established between them, a certain community of souls, they form a single whole. Poussin created real symphonies of man and nature.

In the last years of his life, the artist devoted all his attention to praising nature. He creates the poetry series "Seasons".

Classicism in architecture found its ideal embodiment in the Palace of Versailles, built by the will of the French king Louis XIV. This grandiose ensemble includes three majestic palaces and a huge park with pools, fountains and sculptures. The ensemble is distinguished by its strict layout, geometric park alleys, majestic sculptures, trimmed trees and bushes.

Realism

realistic trend in the art of the 17th century. represents first of all Dutch artistRembrandt(1606-1669). The origins of this trend are in the work of the Italian painter Caravaggio (1573-1610), who big influence on many artists.

Rembrandt's art in some ways occupies a middle position between Baroque and Classicism. In his works one can find features of these two styles, but without the extremes inherent in each of them. In particular, his famous "Danae" looks very sensual and carnal, but not to the same extent as Rubens would have performed it. It's the same with classicism. Some of its features are present in Rembrandt's works, but there is no pure, idealized beauty in them, there is nothing majestic or heroic. no pathos, etc. In them everything seems to be closer to the ground, everything is much simpler, more natural, more truthful, more lifelike.

However, the main originality of Rembrandt’s art lies elsewhere. It lies in the fact that thanks to him a new direction arose in European painting - psychologism. Rembrandt was the first to seriously respond to the famous call of Socrates: “know yourself.” He turned his gaze inward, and a huge and unknown inner world, comparable with infinite universe. The subject of his art is the inexhaustible wealth of human spiritual life.

Rembrandt seems to be peering and listening to the endless shimmers psychological states, inexhaustible manifestations of individual human character. Hence the abundance of not only portraits, but also self-portraits, in which he depicts himself at different periods of his life - in youth and old age, in different states - full of vitality and after illness. In his works, portraiture not only becomes an independent genre, but also reaches unprecedented heights. All his work can be called art portrait.

This turn is largely explained by the fact that Rembrandt - unlike the Catholics Rubens and Poussin - was a Protestant. Before the advent of Protestantism, man did not consciously seek to separate himself from others. On the contrary, he did not think of himself outside the collective community. In Antiquity, such a community was supported by political and moral norms. In the Middle Ages, Christianity strengthened its previous foundations with a community of faith.

Protestantism violated this tradition, placing the main responsibility for a person’s fate on himself. Now the matter of salvation became, first of all, a personal matter for each individual. A profound shift occurred in the consciousness of Western man, and Rembrandt was the first to deeply feel the changes taking place and expressed them in his art.

Many works from the early period of Rembrandt’s work, and above all his self-portraits, speak of close attention to the secrets of one’s inner life, of the search for one’s own personal truth. This is also evidenced by his paintings such as “Apostle Paul in Prison”, “Christ in Emmaus”, etc., where psychological experiences and reflections on the meaning of life and existence come to the fore. In the mature period and especially after the famous "Night Watch" these trends are becoming even stronger. They appear especially vividly in the paintings “Portrait of an Old Man in Red” and “Portrait of an Old Lady.” The painting “The Syndics” becomes the pinnacle of the art of group portraiture.

IN last period Rembrandt's creativity is increasingly plunging into the depths human consciousness. He's invading a completely new place. European art problem - the problem of human loneliness. An example of this is his paintings “The Philosopher” and “The Return of the Prodigal Son”.

The emergence of the style is associated with Italy in the 16th century. During this crisis period, the country lost its economic and political significance, but remained the cultural center of Europe. The Church and the nobility, trying to demonstrate their power and consistency in tense financial conditions, turned to art. The desire for illusory luxury and wealth gave rise to the Baroque movement.

Baroque is radically opposed to rationalism and classicism. From characteristic features highlight:

• Dynamic images;
• Combination of real and illusory;
• Contrast;
• Affectation;
• Tension;
• Hyperbolized splendor and volume;
• Striving for greatness.

Baroque in painting

(Nicola Lancret "Dancing in the Pavilion")

Baroque painting was influenced by the popularity of the theatrical movement. Shakespeare's words: “All the world is a stage, and the people in it are actors” eloquently describe many famous works of that time. The clearest example is the paintings of P. P. Rubens “The Three Graces” and “Versavia”, in which realistic landscapes are complemented by velvet red curtains.

(Raphael "Portrait of Maddalena Doni")

Portrait becomes the predominant genre. All European monarchs are eager to immortalize their greatness on the canvases of famous masters. And every famous artist practices portrait painting, including Raphael, Holbein, Titian, Leonardo, Durer and others. The artist’s skill is judged by his portrait skills, and he is invited to serve as a portrait painter.

(Diego Velazquez "Las Meninas")

The work of Diego Velazquez fell on the golden age Spanish painting. While serving at the king's court, he painted a series of portraits of the royal family. Each new work is distinguished by the use of various techniques and technical complications. Velazquez's favorite part of the images is the mirror effect, which expands the boundaries of the canvas. It can be seen on the canvases “Las Meninas” and “Venus in front of the Mirror”.

Distinctive features of Spanish art in in a general sense They highlight the dualism of the ascetic and the physical, the sublime and the mundane, the idealistic and the real, as well as decorativeness, color saturation, and intricacy of forms.

Baroque in architecture

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome)

The basis of the Baroque ideology was the confrontation between different faiths against the backdrop of the split of the church (into Catholics and Protestants), and the opposition of feudal tendencies to bourgeois ones. The spiritual power of religion is weakening, leading to divisions secular society and religious. In the current dramatic circumstances, a new view of architecture is being formed. The style, the beginning of which expressed a protest against the oppression of force, radically changed its motives over time. Rich customers appreciated the wide variety of plastic forms. As a result, ideological forms expressed only compositional techniques.

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Palace of the Conservatives in Rome)

The origins of the style were the painter and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti. The greatest master of plastic art brought to life the design of the Medici Chapel, while simultaneously working on the vestibule of the Laurentian Library (1520-1534). These works are recognized as the first works of Baroque architecture.

The most famous baroque masters of the 17th century are L. Bernini and F. Borromini. Their creative views differed. Borromini inherited the architectural spirit of Michelangelo with its dynamic tension, massiveness of space, expression, and emphasized contrasts. The main direction of Bernini's work is a frank expression of majesty and undisguised luxury.

In addition to the differences, the works of these masters show similar features inherent in most representatives of the style:

• Effectiveness achieved by fullness of space;
• Splendor of forms;
• Exaggerated pathos;
• Plastic fractures, deflections;
• Complexity, not always fully justified.

Baroque spaces have complex constructions. Unlike the Renaissance, where preference is given to regular geometric shapes (square, circle), in Baroque the favorite figure is an oval, giving uncertainty and fantasy to the overall volume. But this form is often complemented by characteristic curves of lines; the walls have convex and concave sections. The configuration of the plan is complicated by adjacent volumes, the boundaries between which are barely perceptible; adjacent elements are perceived as one whole. The dynamics of space are emphasized by the distribution of light and shade. Dark areas contrast with brightly lit accents. One of the most frequently used techniques is a sheaf of light from half-opened openings, which precisely cuts the air environment.

(Zwinger, Dresden 1719)

Religious construction found a second wind during the Baroque period. Huge value on religious world was the end of the protracted construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Main catholic church It was a centric volume with a grandiose dome at its head. Most Michelangelo carried out work on the building, and after revising the layout, Bernini completed the work. He framed the cathedral square with a group of majestic columns.

(Big Catherine Palace in Russia in the Baroque style)

Baroque architecture, so popular in Italy, was not to the taste of countries with Protestant views, such as Scotland, England, northern Germany, Scandinavia. But in the 17th century, the Austrians, after consolidating imperial power, often invited Italian craftsmen to work on palaces.

(The Winter Palace was also built in the Baroque style)

By the beginning of the 18th century, Baroque architecture had undergone some changes. Straight lines were replaced by broken and winding ones. Stucco molding, sculpture, large mirrors, and flowerpots were widely used. At this time, large-scale projects were developed and implemented, and ensemble construction techniques were used for the first time.

Conclusion

Baroque as a style direction began to develop at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. - XVIII century The historical course of that time suggested the emergence of a culture of contradiction between the church and the secular. At the intersection of the tastes of two significant components of society, the deliberate luxury and richness of the Baroque arose. The limitless flow of imagination of the masters imbued this style with solemnity, magnificent forms, impulsiveness, variety and excess of decorative elements. The art of this style, despite obvious signs, is developing and becoming saturated with new techniques to this day.

Story

In the 17th century Italy, the first link in the art of the Renaissance, lost its economic and political power. Foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - are beginning to rule the territory of Italy, they dictate the terms of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural positions - it remains the cultural center of Europe. The center of the Catholic world is Rome, it is rich in spiritual forces.

Power in culture was manifested by adaptation to new conditions - the nobility and the church need everyone to see their strength and wealth, but since there was no money to build a palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate becomes popular, and this is how Baroque emerged in Italy in the 16th century.

Origin of the term

Origin of the word baroque causes more controversy than the names of all other styles. There are several versions of the origin. Portuguese barroco- an irregularly shaped pearl that does not have an axis of rotation; such pearls were popular in the 17th century. In Italian baroco- false syllogism, Asian form of logic, sophistry based on metaphor. Like irregularly shaped pearls, baroque syllogisms, the falsity of which was hidden by their metaphorical nature.

The use of the term by critics and art historians dates back to the 2nd half of the XVIII and applies, at first, to figurative art and, subsequently, also to literature. At first, Baroque acquired a negative meaning and only in late XIX century there was a revaluation of the Baroque, thanks to the European cultural context from Impressionism to Symbolism, which highlights connections with the Baroque era.

One controversial theory suggests that all these European words come from Latin bis-roca, twisted stone. Another theory - from Latin verruca, steep high place, defect in the gemstone.

In different contexts, the word baroque could mean “pretentiousness”, “unnaturalness”, “insincerity”, “eliteness”, “deformation”, “exaggerated emotionality”. All these connotations of the word baroque in most cases were not perceived as negative.

Finally, another theory suggests that this word in all the languages ​​mentioned is linguistically parodic, and its word formation can be explained by its meaning: unusual, unnatural, ambiguous and deceptive.

The ambiguity of the Baroque style is explained by its origin. According to some researchers, it was borrowed from the architecture of the Seljuk Turks.

Baroque features

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, religious music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that occurred in the 16th century. Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. Man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing,” as Pascal put it, “someone who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

Baroque era

The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - “carousels” (horse rides) and card games; instead of mystery plays there is a theater and a masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of swings and “fire fun” (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound.

The Baroque era rejects traditions and authorities as superstitions and prejudices. Everything that is “clearly and distinctly” thought or has a mathematical expression is true, says the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, Baroque is also the century of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word “baroque” is sometimes raised to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco. The first European park appears in Versailles, where the idea of ​​a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn with a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. For the first time, the uniformed armies of the Baroque era paid great attention to “drill” - the geometric correctness of formations on the parade ground.

Baroque Man

Madame de Montespan, Baroque woman

Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, unceremoniousness, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that would become a virtue in the era of romanticism. The Baroque woman values ​​her pale skin and wears an unnatural, elaborate hairstyle, a corset and an artificially widened skirt with a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.

And the gentleman becomes the ideal man in the Baroque era - from English. gentle: “soft”, “gentle”, “calm”. Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and wear powdered wigs. What is the use of force if now one kills by pressing the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature state of nature) is a state that is characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.

Anthony van Dyck. Portrait of James Stewart, c. 1637

Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​ennobling nature on the basis of reason. Not to endure need, but “to offer it gracefully in pleasant and courteous words” (Honest Mirror of Youth, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives no longer constitute the content of sin, but “the very essence of man.” Therefore, appetite is formalized in refined table etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in opposite sex- in polite flirtation, quarrels - in a sophisticated duel.

The Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​a sleeping God - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just as a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in any way in the affairs of the Universe. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true guardians of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1689), and Carl Linnaeus systematizes biology in “The System of Nature” (1735). Everywhere in European capitals Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are established.

The diversity of perception increases the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz. Galileo first points a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailing ships plow the expanses of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers became the literary symbols of the era: Captain Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.

Baroque in painting

Caravaggio. The Calling of the Apostle Matthew

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy floridity and dynamism; shining example- works of Rubens and Caravaggio.

Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio after his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, written in religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author’s contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly outlining their characteristics. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who were initially called Caravaggists, and the movement itself Caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) at the beginning of the 17th century. studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing a course of study in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, scholarship and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved international recognition. With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was taken up by Frans Hals (1580/85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) worked in the manner of Caravaggio, and in France - Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new movement in his work - classicism.

Baroque in architecture

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Church of Souls in Purgatory in Ragusa, an example of Sicilian Baroque

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Often there are large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on the facades and in the interiors, volutes, big number braces, arched facades with bracing in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes take on complex shapes, often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic Baroque details - telamon (Atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

IN Italian architecture The most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the façade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to approximately 1620. Bernini was also an architect. He is responsible for the design of the square of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new late Baroque style appeared - Sicilian Baroque.

The quintessence of Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is considered the Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style became widespread in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or locally Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most elaborate version, and they call it ultra-baroque.

In France, the Baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and Baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. The term "baroque classicism" is sometimes used in relation to French and English versions baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles along with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works are considered to be French Baroque. They do have some classicist features. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening, an example of which is the Park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century. The French developed their own style, a variety of Baroque - Rococo. It did not manifest itself in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and paintings. The style was widespread throughout Europe and Russia.

In Belgium outstanding monument Baroque is the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels. Rubens' house in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features.

In Russia, baroque appeared in the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine baroque” (more restrained) began to develop in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, and reached its peak during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

In Germany, the outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sans Souci (authors: I. G. Bühring, H. L. Manter) and Summer Palace in the same place (G.W. von Knobelsdorff).

The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Sarmatian Baroque and Vilna Baroque styles became widespread, largest representative- Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Baroque in sculpture

Trier. Baroque Sphinx at the Elector's Palace.

Pope Innocent XII. St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome.

Baroque gnomes in the Hofgarten of Augsburg

Baroque in literature

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), richness in rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, a summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedicism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a desire to study existence in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life as a dream (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Calderon's play “Life is a Dream” is famous. Genres such as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudéry, M. de Scudéry) and the everyday and satirical novel (Furetière, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and directions are born: Marinism, Gongorism (Culteranism), Conceptism (Italy, Spain), the metaphysical school and euphuism (England) (See Precision Literature).

The action of the novels is often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, “Astraea”). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Common forms include sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), and madrigals.

In the West, an outstanding representative in the field of the novel is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel “Simplicissimus”), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). In poetry, V. Voiture (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous. In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky and F. Prokopovich. In France during this period, “precious literature” flourished. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons in Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque movement in literature was called “Gongorism” after the name of its most prominent representative (see above).

In German literature, the traditions of the Baroque style are still maintained by members of the Blumenorden literary community. They gather in the summer literary holidays in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg. The society was organized in 1646 by the poet Philipp Harsdörfer with the goal of restoring and maintaining the German language, which was badly damaged during the Thirty Years' War

Baroque music

Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of the Classical era.

Baroque fashion

The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. This is the time of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonies reigned at court. The costume was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when a general fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics faded into the background or were preserved in folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were also worn by some aristocrats in Russia, although not everywhere.

Nicolas de Largier. Portrait of Louis XIV with his family

The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, and an abundance of decorations. The ideal man was Louis XIV, the “Sun King,” a skilled horseman, dancer, and marksman. He was short, so he wore high heels.

First, when he was still a child (he was crowned at the age of 5), short jackets called brassiere, richly decorated with lace. Then pants came into fashion, rengraves, similar to a skirt, wide, also richly decorated with lace, which lasted a long time. Later appeared justocor(from French this can be translated: “accurately according to the body”). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned up, with a belt worn over it. Under the caftan they wore a sleeveless camisole. The caftan and camisole can be compared with the later jacket and vest, which they would turn into 200 years later. The collar of the justocor was initially turned-down, with semicircular ends extended downwards. Later it was replaced by a frill. In addition to lace, there were a lot of bows on the clothes, a whole series of bows on the shoulders, sleeves and pants. In the previous era, under Louis XIII, boots were popular ( boots). This is a field type of shoe; they were usually worn by the military class. But at that time there were frequent wars, and boots were worn everywhere, even at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only for their intended purpose - in the field, on military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came first. Until 1670, they were decorated with buckles, then buckles were replaced by bows. Elaborately decorated buckles were called agraph.

The women's dress, unlike the dress of the previous period, was not framed, but lined with whalebone. It gradually expanded towards the bottom, and a train was worn at the back. Full woman suit consisted of two skirts, the lower ( freepon) and top ( modest). The first is light, the second is darker. The underskirt was visible, the upper skirt diverged to the sides from the bottom of the bodice. The sides of the skirt were decorated with draperies. There were also drapes along the edge of the neckline. The neckline was wide and exposed the shoulders. The waist was narrow; a corset was worn under the dress. If under Louis XIII women wore men's hats (they then borrowed many elements of costume from men), now hairstyles, light scarves or caps have come into fashion. Hairstyles were fashionable in the 1660s mancini And Sevigne, named after the niece of Cardinal Mazarin, with whom the king was in love in his youth, and after the famous writer. Later the hairstyle came into fashion fontange(not to be confused with the fontange cap), named after one of the king's mistresses. This updo, from many curls. In the history of costume, hairstyle is also called coiffure.

Men wore fluffy wigs that stuck up high and flowed low over their shoulders. Wigs came into use during the reign of Louis XIII, who was bald. Now they have become much more magnificent. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with a high crown. At the end of the century they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the next 18th century.

Umbrellas also came into fashion, and for women - muffs and fans. Cosmetics were used without measure. Front sights appeared, faces and wigs were powdered for whiteness, and a black front sight created contrast. The wigs were so heavily powdered that hats were often carried in the hands. Both men and women carried canes. Sling ( banduliera), on which swords were worn, came into fashion in the previous era. Even earlier, swords were worn on a sword belt, a thin strap fastened to the waist belt. The sling was previously made of leather, but now it was also made of moire. Materials of that time: wool, velvet, satin, brocade, taffeta, moire, camelot, cotton.

Baroque in the interior

The Baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.

Painting has always been popular, and in the Baroque style it became simply necessary, since interiors required a lot of color and large, richly decorated details. The ceiling decorated with frescoes, walls made of painted marble and gilding were more popular than ever. Often used in the interior contrasting colors: one could often find a marble floor reminiscent of chessboard. Gold was everywhere, and everything that could be gilded was gilded. No corner of the house was left unattended when decorating.

The furniture was a real piece of art, and seemed to be intended only for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly colored fabric. Huge four-poster beds with flowing bedspreads and giant wardrobes were common. The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture materials.

The Baroque style is not suitable for small rooms, since massive furniture and decorations take up a lot of space, and in order for the room not to look like a museum, there must be a lot of free space. Even in a small room you can recreate the spirit of this style, limiting yourself to stylization using some Baroque details, such as:

• figurines and vases with floral ornament;
• tapestries on the walls;
• mirror in a gilded frame with stucco;
• chairs with carved backs, etc.

It is important that the parts used are combined with each other, otherwise the interior will look tacky and tasteless.

Culture of the Enlightenment

Age of Enlightenment(fr. Siècle des lumières, German Aufklärung) - one of the key eras in history European culture related to the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking. Starting in England, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and covered other European countries. The French enlighteners were especially influential, becoming “masters of thought.” Enlightenment principles formed the basis of the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The intellectual and philosophical movement of this era had a great influence on subsequent changes in the ethics and social life of Europe and America, the struggle for national independence of the American colonies of European countries, the abolition of slavery, and the formation of human rights. In addition, it shook the authority of the aristocracy and the influence of the church on social, intellectual and cultural life.

Descartes' Discourse on Method

Actually the term education came to the Russian language, as well as to English ( The Enlightenment) and German ( Zeitalter der Aufklärung) from French ( Siècle des lumières) and primarily refers to the philosophical movement of the 18th century. At the same time, it is not the name of a certain philosophical school, since the views of Enlightenment philosophers often differed significantly from each other and contradicted each other. Therefore, enlightenment is considered not so much a complex of ideas, but rather a specific direction philosophical thought. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was based on a critique of the traditional institutions, customs and morals that existed at the time.

There is no consensus regarding the dating of this direction. Some historians attribute the beginning of this era to the end of the 17th century, others - to mid-18th century V. . In the 17th century The foundations of rationalism were laid by Descartes in his work “Discourse on Method” (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) or with the beginning Napoleonic Wars(1800-1815). At the same time, there is an opinion about linking the boundaries of the Enlightenment era to two revolutions: the “Glorious Revolution” in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789)

There are many contradictions in the views of thinkers of this era. The American historian Henry F. May identified four phases in the development of philosophy of this period, each of which to some extent denied the previous one.

The first was the moderate or rational Enlightenment phase, associated with the influence of Newton and Locke. It is characterized by religious compromise and the perception of the Universe as an orderly and balanced structure. This phase of the Enlightenment is natural continuation humanism of the XIV-XV centuries as purely secular cultural direction, characterized, moreover, by individualism and a critical attitude towards traditions. But the Age of Enlightenment is separated from the Age of Humanism by the period of religious reformation and Catholic reaction, when theological and ecclesiastical principles again took precedence in the life of Western Europe. The Enlightenment is a continuation of the traditions not only of humanism, but also of advanced Protestantism and rationalistic sectarianism of the 16th and 17th centuries, from which it inherited the ideas of political freedom and freedom of conscience. Like humanism and Protestantism, the Enlightenment different countries acquired a local and national character. The transition from the ideas of the Reformation era to the ideas of the Enlightenment era is most conveniently observed in England at the end of the 17th and early XVIII centuries, when deism developed, which was to a certain extent the completion of the religious evolution of the Reformation era and the beginning of the so-called “natural religion”, which was preached by the enlighteners of the 18th century. There was a perception of God as the Great Architect who rested from his labors on the seventh day. He gave people two books - the Bible and the book of nature. Thus, along with the caste of priests, a caste of scientists comes forward.

Parallelism of spiritual and secular culture in France gradually led to the discreditation of the first for bigotry and fanaticism. This phase of the Enlightenment is called skeptical and is associated with the names of Voltaire, Holbach and Hume. For them the only source our knowledge is an unprejudiced mind. In connection with this term there are others, such as: enlighteners, enlightenment literature, enlightened (or enlightenment) absolutism. The expression “philosophy of the 18th century” is used as a synonym for this phase of the Enlightenment.

The skeptical phase was followed by a revolutionary phase, associated in France with the name of Rousseau, and in America with Paine and Jefferson. Characteristic representatives of the last phase of the Enlightenment, which became widespread in the 19th century, are philosophers such as Thomas Reed and Francis Hutcheson, who returned to moderate views, respect for morality, law and order. This phase is called didactic.

Historical meaning

Portrait of Voltaire from the palace of the Prussian king Frederick the Great Sansoussi. Engraving by P. Baku

Pan-European significance in the 18th century. received French educational literature in the person of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot and other writers. Their common feature is the dominance of rationalism, which directed its criticism in France to issues of a political and social nature, while the German enlighteners of this era were more concerned with resolving religious and moral issues.

The main aspiration of enlightenment was to find through activity human mind natural principles human life(natural religion, natural law, natural order of economic life of physiocrats, etc.). From the point of view of such reasonable and natural principles, all historically established and actually existing forms and relations (positive religion, positive law, etc.) were criticized. Under the influence of the ideas of enlightenment, reforms were undertaken that were supposed to rebuild the entire social life(enlightened absolutism and the French revolution). At the beginning of the 19th century. Enlightenment provoked a reaction against itself, which, on the one hand, was a return to the old theological worldview, on the other, an appeal to the study of historical activity, which was greatly neglected by the ideologists of the 18th century. Already in the 18th century. Attempts were made to determine the basic nature of education. Of these attempts, the most remarkable belongs to Kant (“Beantwortung der Frage: was ist Aufklärung?”, 1784). Enlightenment is not the replacement of some dogmatic ideas with other dogmatic ideas, but independent thinking. In this sense, Kant opposed enlightenment enlightenment and stated that it was simply the freedom to use one's own intellect.

Modern European philosophical and political thought, such as liberalism, largely derives from the Enlightenment. Philosophers of our day consider the main virtues of the Enlightenment to be a strict geometric order of thinking, reductionism and rationalism, contrasting them with emotionality and irrationalism. In this respect, liberalism owes its philosophical basis and critical attitude towards intolerance and prejudice to the Enlightenment. Famous philosophers who hold similar views include Berlin and Habermas.

Coin with a nominal value of 3 rubles from the series “The Age of Enlightenment. XVIII century"

The ideas of the Enlightenment also underlie political freedoms and democracy as the basic values ​​of modern society, as well as the organization of the state as a self-governing republic, religious tolerance, market mechanisms, capitalism, and the scientific method. Since the Enlightenment, thinkers have insisted on their right to seek the truth, whatever it may be and whatever it may threaten social foundations, without being threatened with being punished “for the Truth.”

After World War II, with the birth of postmodernism, certain features of modern philosophy and science came to be seen as shortcomings: excessive specialization, inattention to tradition, unpredictability and the danger of unintended consequences, and an unrealistic assessment and romanticization of Enlightenment figures. Philosophers such as Michel Foucault object to the demonization of opponents of rationalism. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno even believe that the Enlightenment indirectly gave rise to totalitarianism. Avram Chomsky sees in the philosophy of the Enlightenment the foundations not only for liberalism, but also for anarchism and socialism. The connection between the Enlightenment and these relatively later movements can be traced in the works of Humboldt, Kropotkin, and Bakunin.

The most important representatives.