Traditions of the peoples of Europe. Sexual traditions of the peoples of the world: how they loved in Eastern Europe

Christmas and New Year are ideal times to visit Europe. German Christmas markets, a speech from the Pope, grand New Year's parties, a visit to Santa's residence in Lapland - each of the European countries can make your Christmas special.

In European countries, Christmas Eve is given greater importance, which must be spent with family. Therefore, even on Christmas, many restaurants, bars, cafes and shops are open here. Often New Year's festivities begin with just the midnight bells, and then everyone has fun until dawn.

This itinerary is based solely on what you can see in different countries. You'll have to travel by plane to these wonderful destinations, but budget airlines usually offer fantastic discounts during the winter months. So, such a trip will not cost exorbitant amounts of money.

In late November and early December, head to Salzburg to attend the Advent singing festival. Christmas markets in Germany usually close on Christmas Eve. So hurry up to get your portion of spicy mulled wine. Paris and London are also great options for the Christmas holidays. Many illuminated signs are installed in these European capitals every year - come and see for yourself!

Visit Santa in Lapland, then head to Finland to admire the Northern Lights. On New Year's Eve, head to Scotland to take part in the traditional Hogmanay celebrations. At the beginning of January, visit Spain for the Day of the Three Kings or, as it is otherwise known, the Day of the Three Wise Men. It is on January 5 that a ship with three travelers arrives in the cities of Spain, and the streets are filled with artists, buffoons and circus performers.

And although December is very traditionally considered the low season, the Christmas holidays are an exception. Therefore, we recommend booking hotel rooms in advance.

Italy

What is it like to be in Italy for Christmas? To imagine, you should learn more about the Christmas traditions of this country.

You may be surprised that Italian children do not write letters to Santa Claus to ask for gifts. These touching messages contain declarations of love for parents. Christmas dinner here is called the "Feast of the Seven Fishes" because there are seven different seafood dishes on each table. It is not customary to serve meat at Christmas. You also need to wear red lingerie on New Year's Eve. This should bring good luck in the new year.

Germany

Many German Christmas traditions are now common throughout the world. It was here that they began to decorate Christmas trees and hang wreaths of pine branches on the doors. All over Germany there are festive markets until Christmas Eve. Here you can buy souvenirs, aromatic mulled wine, traditional baked goods: vanilla crescents with hazelnuts, cinnamon stars, macaroons and gingerbread. For dinner, it is customary to bake a goose, and serve dumplings and cabbage as a side dish.

In Austria, in the south of Bavaria, as well as in Munich, an unusual Krampus procession takes place on two Sundays in December. Krampus is the evil counterpart of Saint Nicholas. Instead of a bag of gifts, Krampus holds chains, a bundle of birch twigs and a bag in which he will carry naughty children to hell. In recent years, this interesting tradition has become increasingly popular. Germans and tourists dress up as Krampus, who looks like a goat, and go for a walk through the streets of the city.

If you are traveling with children, we recommend that you visit Christmas markets and watch performances by artists, jugglers and gymnasts. Be sure to try the German stollen. This is a traditional candied fruit cake that will captivate you with its magical taste!

Switzerland

What better place for Christmas than the Swiss Alps? Swiss Christmas markets are not as steeped in the spirit of the past as in Germany, but are nevertheless very popular.

Basel has the largest open-air Christmas market in all of Switzerland. Here you will find charming handicrafts and lots of sweets. There are four Christmas markets in Zurich each year. The largest indoor market in all of Switzerland begins its work on December 8th. And on December 17, the annual festival of floating lights will take place here.

In Bern, the largest Christmas market is located among houses built in the 15th-17th centuries. You can make pleasant shopping and admire the medieval architecture. The Bernese Christmas Market on Waisenhausplatz is open until December 29, which means it's open longer than most and can keep you warm with mulled wine almost until the New Year.

Portugal

In this country, the so-called Janeiras are a mandatory attribute of Christmas. These are small groups of people who go from house to house, singing traditional songs and sometimes accompanying themselves with musical instruments. It is more common for us to call this phenomenon “carols.” Usually in Portugal, groups of friends or neighbors carol.

The Portuguese attach great importance to nativity scenes. In the village of Penela, up to five different nativity scenes are installed annually, some even using 3D technology. There is also a Christmas train and an amazingly detailed model railway with 10 trains. Thematic master classes on making New Year's toys are held daily. The Christmas market will delight you with souvenirs and treats, and magicians, jugglers and clowns will not let you get bored.

Austria

One of the world's favorite Christmas songs originated in Austria. "Silent Night" or Stille Nacht is performed all over the world, although slightly differently than Franz Gruber's original version.

If you are lucky enough to be in Salzburg in early December, be sure to visit the Advent singing festival. In 2017, the Salzberg Advent Singing Festival will be held for the 70th anniversary. For the first time, performers from all over the world came here in 1946. Next year the festival will return to its roots, with the theme once again being the revival of the post-war world. Attend this touching event and you will never forget this encounter with art.

France

Did you know that since 1962, every child in France who sent a letter to Santa, or Noel as he is known here, received a response? As throughout Europe, December 25 is a non-working day, which all French people strive to spend with their families. And children find gifts under a festively decorated tree. House doors are traditionally decorated with pine wreaths. And in Alsace it is customary to richly decorate the house with garlands and luminous figures.

Young French people often spend New Year's Eve in clubs in Paris or other large cities. But France offers unique alternative options for celebrating the New Year. You can enjoy a romantic cruise on the River Seine, admire a torchlight procession or go on a tour of the city of Avignon, which will enchant you with its festive illuminations.

UK and Scotland

The main attribute of New Year's Eve in London is the fantastically beautiful fireworks display. Most clubs in London organize special parties on New Year's Eve. And restaurants organize a gala dinner with a show program on New Year's Eve. You can also take a cruise on the River Thames or attend a New Year's themed ball at the famous Torture Garden.

Nowhere does New Year's Eve have as much fun as the traditional Hogmanay celebration in Scotland. The Scots adopted this custom from the Varangians, who had fun on the shortest day of the year. Immediately after midnight, it is customary to go to friends and family to congratulate everyone, moving from house to house.

It is considered a good omen if an attractive brunette is the first to cross the threshold of the house in the new year, in his hands he should have coal, whiskey, shortbread cookies and a chocolate cupcake. In return, such a visitor receives a full glass of excellent whiskey, because the guest portends good luck, prosperity and prosperity. It is believed that this belief originated when blond Vikings raided the homes of the Scots. So it turns out that a brunette on the threshold of a house is a harbinger of happiness.

Climate in Italy

Transport in Italy

What to bring from Italy

Many tourists, deciding to go on vacation to a new European country, are completely unaware that customs and traditions in Europe are fundamentally different from Russian standards. Each country, for example, has its own rules of etiquette and violating them can, at a minimum, make a tourist blush for his behavior, so it is better to get acquainted with the traditions of the peoples of Europe before going on a trip.

In this article I would like to dwell on etiquette in Europe, as well as on wedding and culinary traditions of the Old World.

The concept of etiquette came into widespread use in the 17th century. During the reign of the French king Louis XIV, before one of their receptions, all guests were given cards in which some rules of conduct at this very reception were written. It was etiquette, as a tradition of Western Europe, that quickly spread to other countries of the continent, and then throughout the world.

In Western European countries, etiquette developed under the great influence of traditional customs. Various layers of society, prejudices and superstitions, and religious rituals determined the development of etiquette in those days.

Currently, many believe that modern etiquette has inherited only the best of the customs and traditions of Europe, passed on from generation to generation. And if some norms of behavior have remained unchanged to this day, then there is probably no need to argue with folk wisdom.

However, we should not forget that some requirements regarding etiquette are quite conditional and directly depend on time, place and circumstances.

For example, we can remember that just a few centuries ago a man could carry a sword, dagger or saber on his left side, and if a woman walked next to him, then she naturally walked to his right so as not to touch the weapon. Now there are no such obstacles (except perhaps in families where the man is a military man), but the tradition has been preserved.

In modern Europe, over a long period of its development, the traditions and customs of countries have mixed with each other. This largely applies to the preparation and holding of wedding celebrations.

Some of the wedding traditions of Europe are well known to the residents of Russia, but others can become a real revelation for us.

For example, in Hungary, the bride must take off her shoes and place them in the middle of the room, and whoever wants to invite her to dance must throw coins into the shoes. The same custom is common at weddings in Portugal.

At weddings in Romania, the newlyweds are showered with millet, nuts or rose petals.

A bride in Slovakia must give her chosen one a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. And the groom, in return, must give her a silver ring, a fur hat, a rosary and a chastity belt.

In Norway, the bride and groom always plant two Christmas trees, and in Switzerland - a pine tree.

At German weddings, before the ceremony, friends and relatives of the bride break dishes near her house, and French newlyweds drink wine from a goblet as a sign of happiness and love.

A festive banquet in Holland is usually held before the wedding ceremony.

English brides pin a horseshoe or mace of happiness on their wedding dress.

The heads of brides in Finland must be decorated with a crown.

Before the wedding in Sweden, the bride puts two coins into her shoes that her parents gave her - her mother was gold, and her father was silver.

Each such wedding tradition in European countries is unique, and the best part is that even after many years they do not lose relevance and live in the memory of modern Europeans.

Europe's culinary traditions are not the oldest in the world, but the innate entrepreneurship and curiosity of its people have made the continent's cuisine extremely complex and varied.

The culinary traditions of the peoples of Europe are amazing recipes for national dishes from different countries. This is rather a collective concept, because each country can be proud of its own culinary characteristics and traditions.

In Central Europe, Polish and Hungarian dishes predominate. The signature recipes are the preparation of goulash, strudels, vegetable soup with dill, etc.

Eastern European dishes are extremely varied. The customs of cooking have been passed down to modern residents from the nomads who settled these lands many centuries ago.

In Western Europe, French cuisine is distinguished, whose chefs know a lot about vegetables and good wine. Neighbors of the French, the Germans, cannot imagine their life without potatoes, meat and beer.

The cuisine of Northern Europe is extremely diverse. From beer with chips or fish to creme brulee and chocolate fudge.

Particularly noteworthy are the recipes for duck in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.

A distinctive feature of Southern European cuisine is the addition of wine to many dishes, which is also required to be served on the table before the meal.

In conclusion, the article should be noted that, starting from the second half of the 20th century, the concept of mass culture arose in Europe - a characteristic phenomenon in the 20th century, which was caused by mass consumption and production.

Mass culture rapidly embraced different spheres of life, and was most fully manifested in the youth subculture (for example, rock music, etc.).

It has noticeably strengthened thanks to the media, increased literacy levels and the development of information technology.

Seminar 1.

Art and religion of the ancient world

(2 hours)

1. Art of the Creto-Mycenaean period.

2. Art of the Homeric period.

3. The art of classical Greece.

4. Hellenistic art.

5. Art of Ancient Rome. Republic and Empire.

Seminar 2.

Art of Medieval Western Civilization

(2 hours)

1. Early medieval art (V – X centuries).

2. Art of the Romanesque period (XI - first half of the XII centuries). Romanesque style (1050-1150); Rhenish-Romanesque style (1200-1250); late Rhenish-Romanesque style (1250-1300).

3. Gothic (second half of the 12th centuries - 15th centuries). Early Gothic (1223-1314); High Gothic (1314-1422); late (“flaming”) Gothic (1422-1453).

Seminar 3.

Culture and art of the East

(2 hours)

1. Ancient and medieval China. Culture, art, religion.

2. Ancient and medieval Japan. Culture, art, religion.

3. Ancient and medieval India. Culture, art, religion.

Seminar 4.

French Renaissance and Northern Renaissance

(2 hours)

1. Dutch Renaissance. Humbert and Jan van Eyck. Hugo van der Goes. Hans Mamling. Bosch. Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

2. German Renaissance. Albrecht Durer. Hans Holbein the Younger.

3. French Renaissance. Jean Fouquet. Jean and Francois Clouet. Jean Goujon. Germaine Pilon.

Seminar 5.

Music in the history of Western European civilization

(2 hours)

1. Musical art of Renaissance Europe and the church. Giovanni Pierluigi de Palestrina.

2. Music of the Baroque era. Girolamo Frescobaldi. Jean Baptiste Lully. Antonio Vivaldi. George Frideric Handel. Johann Sebastian Bach.

3. Classical music of Europe of the second half of the 18th century. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ludwig van Beethoven.

4. Classical music of Europe of the 19th century. Franz Liszt. Johann Strauss.

5. Opera art of Europe. Composers. Operas. Performers. Librettists. Gioachino Rossini. Richard Wagner. Georges Bizet. Giuseppe Verdi. Giacomo Puccini.

Seminar 6-7.

Theater and cinema in European culture of the 17th-20th centuries.

(4 hours)

1. European theater of the 17th-18th centuries: plays, authors, actors. Theatrical tradition and dramaturgy. Changes in the theater of Europe in the 19th century. Democratization of the theater.

2. The origin of cinema in Europe - from art to industry (1896-1918).

Brothers Auguste and Louis Lumières. The first film studios in France and Germany. Georges Méliès and innovation in cinema.

3. Cinematography of Europe in the interwar and war periods (1918-1945).

4. Modern European cinema: genres, studios, actors, directors. Film festivals in Europe and their role in the film industry.

Watching a movie.

Seminar 8.

History of costume and its role in the history of European civilization (2 hours)

1. Changes in the costume of the aristocracy from the Middle Ages to modern times.

2. The appearance of the common people in the Middle Ages and modern times.

3. History of professional costume. Clergy, military, doctors, etc.

4. The history of European costume in the bourgeois era. XIX – early XX centuries. The influence of the Industrial Revolution on changes in the costume of Europeans.

5. History of fashion houses of the 19th – 20th centuries.

6. Changes in the external appearance of Europeans in the twentieth century.

Seminar 9.

National traditions and holidays of European peoples

(2 hours)

1. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of Western European countries: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (England, France, Germany, Spain, Italy).

2. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the countries of the East: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (India, China, Japan, etc.).

3. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the peoples of America (North American, Meso-American, South American - historical and modern).

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Suetonius Gaius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. – M., 1988.

Seneca. Oedipus // Seneca. Letters to Lucilius. Tragedies. – M., 1986.

Sidikhmenov V.Ya. China: Pages of the past. – Smolensk, 2000.

Snorri Sturluson. The saga of Olav Tryggvason // Reader on the history of the Middle Ages: In 3 volumes. T. 1. - M., 1961.

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Dictionary of Arts / Transl. from English – M., 1996.

Sorokin P.A. Human. Civilization. Society. – M., 1992.

Sima Qian. Historical notes (Shi ji). – M., 1972.

Temkin E.N., Erman V.G. – Myths of ancient India. – M., 1982.

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Tyazhelov V.N. Art of the Middle Ages in Western and Central Europe. – M., 1981.

Tyazhelov V.N., Sopotsinsky O.I. Art of the Middle Ages: Byzantium. Armenia and Georgia. Bulgaria and Serbia. Ancient Rus'. Ukraine and Belarus. – M., 1975.

Tommaso Campanella. City-Sun // Anthology of world philosophy. In 4 volumes. T. 2. – M., 1970.

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Thucydides. Story. – M., 1993.

Khayyam Omar Rubai. – Tashkent, 1982.

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Shakespeare W. Hamlet // Shakespeare W. Tragedies / Trans. from English - M. Lozinsky. – Yerevan, 1986.

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Sprenger J., G. Institoris. – Witches Hammer / Trans. from lat. N. Tsvetkova. – M., 1990.

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Reader on ancient literature / Comp. N.F. Deratani, N.A. Limofeeva. – M., 1965.

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Yu Dong, Zhong Fan, Lin Xiaolin. Chinese culture. – Beijing, 2004.

Music:

100 operas. History of creation. Plot. Music. 8th edition. L., 1987.

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Livanova T. History of Western European music. In 2 volumes. M., 1982.

Theater:

Anikst A.A. Theory of drama from Aristotle to Lessing. M.. 1967.

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Anikst A.A. Theory of drama in the West in the second half of the 19th century. M.. 1988.

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Coquelin Sr. The art of the actor. L., 1937.

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Show B. About drama and theater. M., 1963.

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Cinema:

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Director's Encyclopedia of European Cinema. – M.: Mainland, Research Institute of Cinematography, 2002.

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Everyday life:

Tutorials:

Chikalov R.A., Chikalova I.R. New history of European countries and the USA. 1815-1918 M., 2005.

Fiction:

Balzac O. de. Collected works.

Bronte S. Jane Eyre.

Hardy T. Works.

Goldoni K. Comedies.

Gautier T. Works.

Diderot D. Works.

Dickens Ch. Collected Works.

Dafoe D. The joys and sorrows of the famous Moll Flanders.

Zola E. Collected Works.

Calderon P. Works.

Conan Doyle A. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.

La Rochefoucauld S. Aphorisms.

Laclau, C. de. Dangerous ties.

Lesage A.-R. Lame demon. Gilles Blas.

Lope de Vega. Plays.

Mann T. Buddenbrooks. The story of the death of one family.

Moliere J.-B. Plays.

Montesquieu S.-L. Essays.

Maugham S. Theatre. Pies and beer. Essays.

Tirso de Molina. Plays.

Thackeray W. Vanity Fair.

Osten J. Collected Works.

Sand J. Collected Works.

Steel J. de. Essays.

Stendhal. Parma monastery. Red and black. Essays.

Wilde O. Portrait of Drian Gray.

Chamfort. Aphorisms and anecdotes.

Flaubert G. Works.

Elliot D. Works.

And others…

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Abrams L. Formation of the European woman of the new era. 1789-1918. M., 2011

Aizenshtat M. British Parliament and Society in the 30-40s. 19th century. M., 1998.

Aries F. Man in the face of death. M., 1992.

Aries F. Child and family life under the old order. Ekaterinburg, 1999

Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.

Badenter R. Free and equal: the emancipation of the Jews during the French Revolution. 1789-1791. M., 1997.

Bebel A. Woman and socialism. M., 1959.

Blaise A. History in costumes from pharaoh to dandy. M., 2001.

Beauvoir S. The Second Sex. M, 1997.

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Brion M. Everyday life in Vienna in the times of Mozart and Schubert. M., 2004.

Braudel F. What is France? T. 1-2. M., 1994.

Braudel F. Material civilization. M., 1989.

Brun R. History of costume: from antiquity to modern times. M., 1995.

Budur N. History of costume. M., 2002.

Vasilchenko A.V. Fashion and fascism. 1933-1945. M., 2009.

Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. M., 2000

Weiss G. History of civilization. Architecture. Armament. Cloth. Utvar M., 1998.

Glagoleva E.V. The daily life of European students from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. M., 2014.

Grigorieva T.S. Everyday culture. T. 2. Private life and morals from the Middle Ages to the present day. M., 2006.

Gordin Y. A. Duels and duelists. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Gordienko M.P., Smirnov P.M. From a cart to a car. Alma-Ata, 1990.

Gurevich E.L. History of foreign music. M., 2000.

Decroisette F. Everyday life in Venice during the time of Goldoni. M., 2004.

Defurno M. Everyday life in Spain during the golden age. M., 2004.

Dittrich T. Everyday life in Victorian England. M., 2004.

European art of the 19th century. M., 1975.

European monarchs past and present. M., 2001

Yodike Yu. History of modern architecture. M., 1972.

Ermilova D.Yu. History of fashion houses. M., 2003.

Woman in society: myths and realities. M., 2001.

Zabludovsky P.E. History of medicine. M., 1953.

Zbrozhek E.V. Victorianism in the context of everyday culture // News of the Ural State University. 2005, No. 35. P. 28.

Zeldin T. All about the French. XX century. M., 1989.

Zider R. Social history of the family in Western and Central Europe. M., 1997.

Zuikova E.M., Eruslanova R.I., Feminology and gender politics. M., 2007

Zyumtor M. Everyday life of the Netherlands under Rembrandt. M., 2003.

Ivanov A.Yu. Daily life of the French under Napoleon. M., 2013.

History of medicine. M., 1981.

History of foreign music. M., 1989.

Karpova E.S. Medicine in the Republic of St. Mark in the 18th century. Based on materials from the Venetian press // New and recent history. 2003. No. 1. P.210.

Kelly K. The Royal Family of England. T.1-2. M., 1999.

Kertman L.I. History of culture of European and American countries. 1870-1917. M., 1987.

Combo I. History of Paris. M., 2002.

Komissarzhevsky V.P. History of the costume. M., 1997.

Coty E. Women of Victorian England. M., 2013

Coty E. Bad old England. M., 2012.

Kuzmin M.K. History of medicine. M., 1978.

Clout H. History of London. M., 2002.

Koroleva T.V. Women's movement during the Great French Revolution. //Metamorphoses of history. Pskov, 1999.

Cawthorne N. The intimate lives of English kings and queens: a frank and impartial account of the facts and lives of monarchs from Henry VIII to the present day. M., 1999.

Craig G. The Germans. M., 1999.

Crespel J.-P. Everyday life of Montmartre during the time of Picasso. 1900-1910. M., 2000.

Crespel J. - P. Everyday life of Montparnasse in the great era. 1905 – 1930. M., 2000.

Labutina T.L. The upbringing and education of an Englishwoman in the 17th century. M., 2003.

Levik B.V. Musical literature of foreign countries. M., 1990.

Lenotre J. Everyday life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Le Nôtre J. Everyday life in Paris during the Great Revolution. M.. 2012.

Lieven D. Aristocracy in Europe 1815-1914. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Lyubart M.G. Family in French society of the 18th - early 20th centuries. M., 2005

Martin - Fugier A. Elegant life, or How “all Paris” came into being. 1815-1848. M., 1998.

Matveev V.A. Passion of power, power of passion: a historical narrative about the morals of the royal court of England in the 16th-20th centuries. M., 1997.

World Art. M., 2001.

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Michel D. Vatel and the birth of gastronomy. M., 2002.

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Nobility in the history of Old Europe. St. Petersburg, 2009.

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Ogger G. Tycoons. M., 1991.

Olivova V. People and games: at the origins of modern sports. M., 1984.

Pavlov N.V. History of modern Germany. M., 2003.

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Waller M. London. 1700. Smolensk, 2003.

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“Philosophy and Life”, No. 1, 4, 11. 1991.

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Hobsbawm E. Century of Revolutions. 1789-1848. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. The Age of Capital. 1848-1875. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. Century of Empire. 1875-1914. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Harold R. Costumes of the peoples of the world. M., 2002.

Show B. About music. M., 2000.

Chernov S. Baker Street and surrounding areas. M., 2013.

Chkhartishvili G. Cemetery stories. M., 2004.

Scherr I. Germany: History of civilization for 2000 years. Minsk, 2005.

Schiffer B. Women of Vienna in European culture (1750-1950). St. Petersburg, 1996.

Shonu P. Civilization of classical Europe. M., 2005.

Shonu P. Civilization of Enlightenment. M., 2008.

Elias N. Court society. Studies on the sociology of the king and the court aristocracy. M., 2002

Yanson H.V. Fundamentals of Art History. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Encyclopedias:

Encyclopedia of rituals and customs. St. Petersburg, 1997.

Encyclopedia of card games. M., 1995.

Encyclopedia of death. M., 1993.

For more than two thousand years, on one day a year, greetings have been heard: “Christ is Risen! Truly Risen!” Such exclamations are heard on Easter - the favorite and main Christian holiday, symbolizing victory over death, when light replaces darkness. It is celebrated in the spring, after the first flowers appear, which decorate homes and temples, rooms and festive tables. And each country has its own Easter traditions, which we will get acquainted with in more detail.

Easter traditions in Western and Central Europe

England. For many Britons, Easter is a more significant and vibrant religious holiday than Christmas, and even schools are closed for two weeks for spring break. Temples are decorated with decorated eggs, blooming daffodils and willow branches. Residents of Great Britain attend the Easter service in the evening, ending after midnight, and then rejoice at the end of Lent and congratulate others on the beginning of a new life. After visiting the temple, the British eat Easter cake with their families.

Germany. Easter is preceded by Good Friday, and most Germans eat fish on this day. On Friday and Saturday, residents of Germany do not have to work, and on Saturday evening in many German cities a grandiose Easter bonfire. This event is very popular, so many locals come to watch the bonfire. Fire symbolizes the end of winter, as well as the burning of all negative feelings. On Sunday morning, almost every family eats breakfast together. On Sunday afternoons they visit relatives and friends, chat and drink tea together.

The day before, parents hide baskets with all kinds of sweets, small gifts and Easter eggs, and then the children look for them in all rooms of the house. It is believed that sweets bring Easter Bunny, and such a character also has pagan roots. At that time, the Germans believed in various gods, including the goddess of spring and fertility, Eostra. In her honor, at the onset of spring, festive events were held, and the main events occurred on the day of the vernal equinox.
Rabbit was identified with Eostra due to fertility, so in the pre-Christian era it was also associated with the arrival of spring. In the 14th century, a legend spread in Germany about the mystical Easter bunny, who hid laid eggs in the garden.

The Germans later brought this legend to the USA, where the tradition of giving marzipan or chocolate sweet bunnies to children subsequently arose, and it subsequently merged with the religious holiday of Easter. Nowadays, in almost all European countries, children are given both colored eggs and sweet rabbits or bunnies.

Another legend is associated with the biblical story of Noah's Ark. So, during the Great Flood, the ark collided with its bottom on the top of Mount Ararat, and a gap appeared in the ship. And the hare closed the hole with his short tail and prevented the ark from sinking in deep waters. This legend about a brave coward is very common among German children, and they are sure that a bunny in a magical clearing in an impenetrable forest is cooking magic herbs in a pot with firefly pollen. And with these herbs he hand-paints each Easter egg.

Belgium. For kids in Belgian cities, competitions are held to find eggs, but the kids don’t have to run to the chicken coop or store with a basket. Parents hide Easter eggs in the yard or garden near the house in advance, and the one who manages to collect the largest “harvest” wins. The Belgians tell children that the church bells will remain silent until the holiday, because they have left for Rome, and will return at Easter with eggs and a rabbit. The main sweets for children on this day are chocolate eggs and rabbits.

Netherlands. Most Dutch people follow the tradition of celebrating Easter, and the main symbols are colored eggs and the Easter bunny. You can often see funny figures of bunnies in the windows of houses, and without such an element it is impossible to imagine decorating a holiday table, since the Dutch do not bake Easter cakes. Residents of Holland buy colored eggs in stores, and chocolate eggs with various fillings, as well as hollow chocolate figures of a rooster or hare, are very popular.

On Sunday, the Dutch attend church services, where they kiss three times when meeting friends, and festive events are organized for the children. At a children's party, colored eggs are hidden in bushes or grass, and children are very happy when they find them. Families spend Easter days together, going on picnics, or going on bike rides and walks in nature.

Easter traditions in Eastern Europe

Poland. Easter is celebrated here for two days, and all generations of a large family gather at one table. Believing Poles first pray and then sit down to a festive meal, and on the tables you can see sausage and meat, horseradish and eggs, and lighted pasta. The holiday is followed by Wet Monday, when people douse each other with water, symbolizing household profit, good luck and health.

Russia. Orthodox Easter in Russia is characterized by numerous customs that are not directly related to religious legends. These are entertainments and folk games, but the custom of beating eggs, in which several people are involved, is especially notable. So, they hit the eggs twice with their nose, and whoever’s egg hasn’t cracked after that continues the game. Egg rolling is another Easter game. Since children were forbidden to play almost all games during Lent, after a long break, rolling eggs became the first fun for children.

They set up a tray at a certain angle, along which Easter eggs were rolled onto a blanket, and to win, they had to hit another egg. And the girls played “heaps”, hiding the paint under a layer of sand, and the rest of the participants had to guess where it was. Believers attend church services on Easter and bless Easter cakes, Easter cottage cheese and eggs.

Ukraine. In Ukraine, Easter has merged with family traditions and folk customs over the centuries. After the 40-day fast preceding Easter, the festive table is decorated with flowers, and the main place on it is occupied by colored eggs and Easter cake laid on greenery, and the housewives prepare traditional dishes loved by the family. A special place is occupied by colored decorated eggs, painted with a “pysanka” pattern, as well as “scrobanks” - eggs on which the pattern is scratched with a sharp instrument.

Bulgaria. At Easter, according to the Bulgarian tradition, a lot of colored eggs are laid out around the Easter bread, which are painted only on Thursday, while the sun has not yet risen. On Thursday or Friday, Easter cake decorated with a cross is baked. Like other Orthodox Slavs, Bulgarians clink eggs until one of them cracks, wishing those around them good luck. And the one whose colored egg remains intact the longest is considered the luckiest.

Easter traditions in Scandinavia

Denmark. Danes celebrate Easter widely, but on a smaller scale than Christmas. As in Germany, the main holiday symbol is the Easter bunny, who brings treats to children, and popular characters also include a lamb and a chicken. Their figures will be made of caramel, sugar or white chocolate. It is customary for the Danes to brew a special type of beer and set the meat table. Some beer makers even display Easter symbols on their cans to create a festive atmosphere. The Danes are preparing for the religious holiday starting on Thursday, and only by Tuesday are they ready to return to work.

Sweden. Easter in Sweden is a less colorful and popular religious holiday than Christmas, but schools celebrate it for more than a week. Teachers and children remember the life of Jesus, his death to atone for sins, and his subsequent resurrection from the dead. For the holiday, Swedes decorate their homes with Easter flower beds in white, green and yellow shades, and the festive table contains the same food as on Christmas days. However, this time more attention is paid to candies and various sweets. All Easter eggs are made of cardboard, and inside such packaging there is candy.

Easter traditions in Southern Europe

Italy. On Easter Sunday, Italians flock to the main square of Rome and wait for the Pope to read a sermon and congratulate them on the bright religious holiday. The main dish on the Italian table is lamb served with fried artichokes, a salad of tomatoes, olives and sweet peppers, as well as a savory pie with cheese and eggs. It is impossible to imagine a festive table without colomba - this is a dish similar to Easter cake, distinguished by a lemon aroma, and it is often covered with almond glaze or almonds. On the second day, temperamental Italians with friends and neighbors flock to picnics.

Greece. Since Orthodoxy is the official religion in Greece, Easter remains the most long-awaited and vibrant holiday, and local residents paint eggs themselves. Greeks come to evening mass with white burning candles, which should be extinguished at midnight. Burning candles in Greece are associated with the resurrection of Christ and life, and light is transmitted from one candle to another. The traditional dish for the Easter meal is magiritsu soup, made from lamb offal, and this dish is usually prepared on Saturday. During the meal, the Greeks uncork retsina - this is wine from last year's harvest.

Picnics and large feasts are usually held outdoors, where the meat of young lambs is roasted over fires. In Thessaloniki, citizens and guests are treated to free refreshments, and sweet churek, bright red Easter eggs, meat and wine are displayed on the tables. Greek dances and songs do not stop until the morning, and schoolchildren's vacation lasts 15 days.

Spain. An integral part of the holiday for the Spaniards is the Easter procession, during which the boys carry ordinary palm branches, and the girls carry branches decorated with sweets, and the priest must bless them. The most interesting is the Easter procession in Seville, and in front of the cathedral in Palma de Mallorca, it is customary to play the Passion of Christ for the holiday. The most terrible action takes place in Girona: townspeople dress in terrifying costumes, scaring passers-by, and guests can see skeletons dancing. The entire week before Easter is non-working, since absolutely everyone is preparing for the religious holiday. Every year, Spanish families compete to make the best palm branch, and each branch has intricate weaves, and religious processions take place on the streets of Spanish cities.

South of France. The main Easter entertainment in France is picnics, and friendly groups and families gather near houses in the garden and prepare a variety of omelettes. The French give each other red eggs, and the children play various games with them. From Good Friday until the Resurrection of Christ, all the temple bells are silent, as if mourning the crucifixion of Jesus. The symbol of joy is not at all painted eggs, but ringing bells, and in villages, parents make peculiar nests in trees, from where children must get chocolate eggs. It is also customary to give chocolate coins to adults and children so that the coming year will pass comfortably.

3.1. Basic rituals, customs and traditions of the peoples of Europe

Back in the second half of the 19th century. Many peoples of foreign Europe had families of the patriarchal type, but by the middle of the 20th century. A simple monogamous family began to exist almost everywhere. Although the husband is usually still considered the head of the family, patriarchal principles have weakened greatly.

It should be noted that in recent years, women have increasingly demanded the establishment of complete equality in all spheres of life and have practically achieved serious results in this long-term struggle: little remains of the oppressed position in which they were previously.

The Christian religion in its original dogmas was characterized by great asceticism; she not only allowed, but also welcomed celibacy as the most worthy way of serving God. That is why almost immediately after the advent of Christianity, monastic orders appeared, celibacy among Catholic clergy, etc.

The Church was quite harsh on divorces, not allowing them even in the case of the physical impossibility of one of the spouses to have children. It is obvious that in many ways it was the church that determined the development of the European family for many years. At the same time, the emergence of Protestantism eased the situation for the family: peoples (or parts of peoples) that converted to Protestantism began to allow civil marriage, allow divorces, be more tolerant of extramarital relationships, etc.

In Catholic countries, the influence of the church is still felt; Marriages, as a rule, are concluded in the church; divorces are very difficult and are often replaced by obtaining church permission only for the spouses to live separately (with the possibility of them entering into an informal marriage relationship).

The most significant family ritual, which has high social significance, is the wedding. This is the process of connecting two different surnames, different families, through which the foundations of a new cell of natural and socio-cultural reproduction are laid.

Most peoples maintain the tradition of getting married after the end of spring and autumn field work, before and after major religious fasts; among Germans, the maximum number of marriages occurs in November, the second maximum in May; Among the English and some other peoples, May is considered an unlucky month for marriages, and the happiest month is June.

Before entering into a marriage, an engagement is announced, which plays a very important role, since it, as it were, binds the bride and groom and can be dissolved without losing the respect of friends and neighbors only in exceptional cases. The engagement period is not only a time to test feelings and marital intentions, but also a kind of social control over marriage; For this purpose, it is customary to post an announcement about the upcoming wedding or announce it several times at Sunday services in church.

In Europe, the age for marriage is usually determined by the civil age of majority (usually 21 years), but there may be exceptions: in Italy it is 14 years for women and 16 years for men.

In some countries, only church marriage is considered valid (Spain, Portugal and Greece), in other countries both church and civil marriage (Great Britain, Sweden, Norway and Denmark), in third countries (Italy, France, Germany, etc.) ) civil marriage is required, although even here, after marriage in the municipality or town hall, the newlyweds often go to church.

In rural settlements, not only relatives and neighbors were usually invited to the wedding, but also all fellow villagers, who gave gifts of goods or money to the newlyweds.

It was customary for most peoples to decorate the wedding house with fresh flowers and greenery, if the time of year permitted; The bride and groom rode to church or town hall in a decorated carriage.

Among the Italians and some other peoples, until recently, a custom was preserved according to which the guys, holding hands, blocked the newlyweds from leaving the church and let them in only for a small ransom. However, some customs associated with the baptism of a newborn have been preserved. Thus, the Celtic peoples of Britain adopted a system of taking their father’s name as a surname with the prefix “son” (in Scotland - “poppy”, in Ireland - “o”).

There is a widespread attitude when the first child in a family is named after one of the father’s parents, the second - the mother’s parents, so that there may be children in the family with the same names.

Baptism, especially among Catholics and Orthodox Christians, is preceded by a careful choice of godfather and godmother, who then play a significant role in the life of the godson or goddaughter, in their family celebrations, etc.; Catholics often chose from 3 to 6 godfathers and mothers.

Despite the fact that the religiosity of the inhabitants of Western and South-Eastern Europe has decreased almost everywhere, the solemn events and holidays of the Christian calendar have become so strongly integrated into life that they are still preserved even among people who have almost moved away from churches and, say, those who prefer to celebrate a birthday rather than a name day.

One of these main holidays is the Nativity of Christ, celebrated by Catholics and Protestants on December 25, i.e. before the New Year, and for the Orthodox - 13 days later.

An important attribute of Christmas is the Christmas tree, decorated with bright toys, and in recent decades, with garlands of light bulbs; It is customary to light candles on the Christmas tree only on Christmas evening.

In Italy and some other countries, they begin to prepare for Christmas from the beginning of December; along city streets they put up Christmas trees in tubs with sand, hang garlands of light bulbs, and in churches they prepare models and figures for Christmas performances (moving figures of Mary, Joseph, the Magi, mock-ups of nurseries, etc.).

It is customary to clean houses and apartments with greenery; in Britain, mistletoe, which was considered sacred by the Celts, is often used for this purpose. At midnight, church bells ring and candles are lit on the Christmas trees.

Christmas is widely considered a family holiday, celebrated in a relatively small circle. Children are especially happy about it, expecting gifts that are placed in their shoes under their beds or given by Santa Claus. It is customary to spend the New Year in a less intimate setting, for example in a cafe, restaurant, or just on the street, organizing noisy processions. In Austria, processions of mummers with brooms are organized, “sweeping away” the remnants of the Old Year. Such New Year's processions are often accompanied by firecrackers, fireworks, rocket launches and special orchestras. In Italy, on New Year's Day, it is customary to throw unnecessary dishes, old furniture and other rubbish into the street as a sign of liberation from everything old.

Important spring holidays everywhere are Maslenitsa and Easter. In the Mediterranean and neighboring countries, where winter passes quickly, it is Maslenitsa, held after mid-February, before Lent, that is considered the holiday of the onset of spring.

An indispensable component of the carnival are processions in various masks and costumes accompanied by orchestras and usually led by the king and queen (prince and princess) of the carnival chosen for this occasion, riding in a car decorated with flowers (and previously on a carriage).

In Southern France and especially in the Netherlands, where floriculture is highly developed, figures made of flowers are carried in carnival processions, “flower battles” are organized, etc. Preparations for such magnificent, costumed carnivals usually begin 2-3 months in advance.

In the Protestant countries located to the north, Maslenitsa is celebrated more modestly. In England, for example, according to tradition, only one day is allotted for it, when at 11 o’clock, at the sound of the bell, the housewives begin baking pancakes; In some villages, it was customary for women to race with frying pans, on which they hold hot pancakes, sometimes throwing them up.

The Easter holiday, compared to Maslenitsa, is usually celebrated outwardly less brightly, mainly in the family and church. In Spain, Portugal and Italy, it is customary to organize church processions in which scenes of the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ are played out.

In more northern countries, the most fun on this holiday is for children who collect colored eggs hidden for them in different places by their parents or given to them by neighbors, relatives and acquaintances.

The bright summer holiday of St. John, coinciding with the Slavic Ivan Kupala (June 24), unlike Maslenitsa, is most popular in the northern countries - Scandinavia and Finland.

In honor of this holiday, large bonfires are lit, houses are decorated with greenery, high poles with a crossbar are erected, where garlands of greenery and flowers, yellow and blue ribbons are hung, round dances are performed around, songs are sung, people jump over the fire, etc.; young people swim in lakes and rivers and wonder about their fate. In southern countries, bonfires are often replaced with fireworks, especially in cities.

In addition to the mentioned holidays, there are others associated with the saints' days established by the Christian church calendar. It is customary everywhere to celebrate All Saints' Day (November 1), which is considered the day of remembrance of the departed and those killed in wars; On this day, the graves of relatives are visited, and in large cities processions are organized to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

In some carnival (spring) processions of masks and costumes, adult participants increasingly began to give way to children, preferring dance floors and costume balls. Their main feature is that truly folk holidays and celebrations have acquired the character of stylized performances, organized not so much for oneself, but to attract tourists.

And since tourism is a prominent source of income in all countries of Western Europe, carnival performances have spread almost everywhere, and their organizers try to ensure that they do not coincide in time and are unique.

In the nature of leisure and entertainment of European peoples there are some specific features that distinguish them to one degree or another from each other and from the peoples of other countries of the world. In terms of daily time structure, Spain, Portugal and Southern France stand out here, where the hottest hours of the day are reserved for lunch and afternoon rest (siesta).

The Romanesque and especially Mediterranean peoples are also characterized by a greater openness of life and leisure time, the residents (especially men) spend time outside the home - on the streets and squares, where the tables of cafes, snack bars and restaurants are taken out; women go out mainly in the evening to walk along the main street of a city or village.

In this ethnogeographical zone, ancient folk spectacles and performances have been preserved, the most striking of which is bullfighting in Spain (bullfighting); There is a similar spectacle in Portugal, but in a less cruel form - the bull is not killed here.

Many sports games themselves originated in England, which is still one of the most sporting countries in the world. Among these games, the most popular are football, tennis, cricket, golf, horse racing, cycling and yachting competitions.

In addition to these sports, which have spread in many European countries, we can name speed skating, skiing, and ice hockey (mainly in Northern European countries). Along with various sports, folk national games are still loved in many European countries, for example, pushing logs, competitions for the speed of sawing wood (Finland, Norway), playing with metal balls (France) and wooden balls (Italy), playing cards. In conclusion, it should be noted that the culture of European peoples, their main rituals, customs and traditions are fundamentally regulated by Christian ideology. This religion, quite ascetic in its initial attitudes, turned out to be popular not only among the lower classes, who were promised a heavenly paradise in the afterlife for their suffering, but also for the ruling groups, to which the completely earthly attitude of “Caesar's and Caesar's” is applicable. Christianity, as a world religion, includes Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Monophysitism, Protestantism and Nestorianism, which are discussed in detail in the course on the fundamentals of religious studies.

Questions for seminar session 1

The main customs and traditions of Western European peoples: the British, French, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, etc.

Christianity as the basis of the way of life, customs and traditions of Western European peoples.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a German.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Spaniard.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Frenchman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Englishman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Italian.

Questions for Seminar Lesson 2

Diversity and unity of cultural customs and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe.

Features of etiquette in England.

French etiquette: history and modernity.

Features of business communication with Germans.

Features of business communication with the French.

Features of business communication with Italians.

Analyze the relationship between the traditions of the peoples of the United States and European countries.

FEATURES OF CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS OF PEOPLES

JAPAN AND CHINA

There is no people in the world who are more scrupulous about their own honor than the Japanese. They do not tolerate not only the slightest insult, but even a rude word spoken. They never bother others with complaints or listing their own troubles. From childhood they learn not to reveal their feelings, considering it stupid. For the Japanese, the law is not a norm, but a framework for discussion. A good Japanese judge is someone who can settle most cases before trial based on compromises.

The Japanese always tries to be officially recommended to the person or company with which he wants to do business; strives to give business relationships a personal character. He should never violate external harmony (this is more important than proving he is right or getting benefits), or put his fellow citizens in a position that would force them to “lose face” (that is, admit a mistake or incompetence in their field). He does not appeal to logic - after all, emotional considerations are more important for him. The Japanese do not show increased interest in the monetary side of things, because the concept of “time is money” is not in circulation in their country. They tend to express themselves vaguely - while avoiding independent steps, since their ideal is an anonymous general opinion.

The Japanese have a favorable attitude toward everything that Christian morality calls human weaknesses. Temperance, strict taste, and the ability to be content with little do not at all mean that the Japanese are characterized by asceticism. They are weighed down by a heavy burden of moral responsibilities. Japanese morality only emphasizes that physical pleasures, carnal pleasures should be given a proper, secondary place. They do not deserve condemnation and do not constitute sin. But in certain cases, a person is forced to abandon them for the sake of something more important. Life is divided into a circle of responsibilities and a circle of pleasures, into a main area and a secondary area.

Japanese children never cry. The education system strives to avoid this. Children in Japan are incredibly pampered. You could say they are simply trying not to give them a reason to cry. They, especially boys, are almost never prohibited from doing anything. Until school years, the child does whatever he pleases. During the school years, children's nature learns the first limitations and prudence is cultivated.

The Japanese are the mystery of our century; they are the most incomprehensible, the most paradoxical of peoples.

The face of Tokyo is not streets or buildings, it is, first of all, people. Tokyo excites, amazes and depresses, like a gigantic accumulation of human beings. It is home to eleven million inhabitants. Moreover, nine million of them live on an area of ​​570 square meters. kilometers. It's like moving all of Hungary to Budapest. The population density on this piece of land is growing from a statistical concept into a tangible one.

Music. Japanese folk music is rich and varied. It developed under the significant influence of Chinese musical culture. In the Kabuki theater, instrumental music is used to accompany singing, dance and pantomime scenes.

Theater and cinema. The origins of Japanese theater go back to the most ancient folk games - taasobi, which reproduced the agricultural process. The theatrical art of Japan is saturated with the religious ideas of Shinto, mythological plots predominate in it, and the spectacular side of theatrical performances comes to the fore.

Puppet theater is very popular in Japan, which has developed original puppetry techniques and various types of puppets, and created dramaturgy based on the folk epic tale - jeruri. The text of the jeruri was performed by the storyteller gidayu, to the accompaniment of the musical instrument oyamisen. The Kabuki repertoire included jeruri plays, the actors imitated the movements of the puppets, repeating the manner of performance of the gidayu in a declamatory speech-tative; Sometimes I myself was introduced into the performance. Ballet panto mimes (se-sagoto) were also widespread in Kabuki.

Movie. Since 1896, mainly French films have been shown in Japan. In 1906, domestic film production emerged.

Major Japanese film companies produce many feature films, imitating Hollywood standards. At the same time, progressive directors, overcoming reactionary influences, reflect in their films the ideas of the world and the true interests of the working people. The work of director Akira Kurosawa especially stands out.

The words of Confucius are more relevant to us than ever: “Respect virtue, protect the people” and “He who rules with the help of virtue is like the North Star, which takes its place, and all the other stars surround it.” A truly cultured people will never allow a rapist to take the place of the North Star; in the fire of their culture, any authoritarian power will certainly burn, no matter what democratic clothes it dresses up in.

4.1. Features of the mentality, customs and traditions of the Chinese

The Chinese ethnic group has created a special type of culture. A sane Chinese never thought about the mysteries of existence and the problems of life and death, but he always saw before him the standard of the highest virtue and considered it his sacred duty to imitate it. The greatest prophets here were considered those who teach to live with dignity, in accordance with the accepted norm, to live for the sake of life, and not for the sake of bliss in the next world or salvation from suffering.

In the Chinese tradition, religion turned into ethics; the individual in it, as it were, overshadowed the gods. The people were declared the herald of the will of Heaven. The universal feeling of the people was perceived by the ancient Chinese as the most accurate manifestation of the supreme justice of heaven. And at the same time, cosmically sanctioned collectivism, according to the Chinese, completely excludes from the culture individualism and the personal principle, which in Western European culture constitute the cornerstone of the spiritual life of a European.

The world is initially perfect, harmony is inherent in it, therefore it does not need to be remade. On the contrary, you need to withdraw yourself, become like nature, so as not to interfere with the implementation of harmony. Initially, nature has five perfections: humanity (zhen), a sense of duty (i); decency (li), sincerity (xin) and wisdom (zhi).

From the point of view of Confucius, personality receives its content directly from nature. Thus, the harmony of society and nature was based on the idea of ​​a socio-ethical-political order sanctioned by the great Heaven. Taoism called for an organic fusion with nature. Lao Tzu is considered the creator of Taoism, who said that Confucius makes too much noise about himself and is completely wasting his energy on social projects and reforms. Lao Tzu believed that it is necessary to follow the Tao (literally, “the way”). Tao is something all-encompassing that fills all space, it stands above everything and reigns in everything. Listening Tao. does not have the habit of seeing only one side of a thing; he does not have a linear perception, but a three-dimensional one, recording changes.

As we see, Tao is the basis of everything in the Universe, the source of all things and phenomena, the individual manifestation of Tao - “de”, i.e. the form of manifestation of Tao in an individual. It reveals the moral perfection of an individual who has achieved absolute harmony with the environment worlds.Lao Tse expressed these thoughts in his book “On the Path to Virtue.”

Confucius gives a detailed image of a noble husband, contrasting him with a commoner, or “low man” - “xiao zhen”.

He formulated the basic principles of the social order that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be a father, the son a son, the sovereign a sovereign, an official an official,” everyone will know their rights and do what they are supposed to do. The criterion for dividing society into upper and lower classes was not supposed to be nobility of origin and, especially, not wealth, but knowledge and virtue, or more precisely, the degree of closeness to the ideal of Jun Tzu.

Since ancient times, in China there have been several methods for selecting officials, both common to the entire East and specifically Chinese. The first included appointments to positions by personal decree of the emperor. It was necessary to earn a recommendation as a wise and fair official and pass a competitive examination. Those who passed the exams three times received the highest academic degree and could hope for a prestigious position, the lowest of which was the position of district chief. Chinese dignitaries believed that a solid knowledge of the letter of Confucianism and the ability to stand up for its canons in an open dispute with an opponent is the best proof of an official’s suitability to manage the affairs of the country in accordance with traditions. That is why education was a huge incentive for the Chinese to realize their ambition and loyalty.

Confucius declared the interests of the people to be the ultimate and highest goal of government. Of the three most important elements of the state, the people are in first place, the deities in second, and the sovereign in third. However, the same Confucians believed that their own interests were incomprehensible and inaccessible to the people themselves, and that they could not manage without the constant paternal tutelage of educated rulers. An important basis of social order is strict obedience to elders.

In China, there is an ancient cult of ancestors - both dead and living. Confucius developed the doctrine of "xiao" - filial piety. "Xiao", as Confucius believed, is the basis of humanity. Following Confucian traditions, the Chinese consider it their duty to honor their parents and are ready to sacrifice personal interests in the name of the interests of the family and clan. They have an unusually developed sense of responsibility: the father is responsible for all family members, the guilt of the parents extends to the children, the boss is responsible for the activities of all his subordinates.

Since a Chinese must constantly remember that his actions must support the dignity of his family and clan, he always tries to “have a good face,” that is, to look like a worthy, respected person in the eyes of others. He will be deeply offended if any violation of traditional ceremonial occurs (say, when welcoming guests, in a festive ritual, or in official relations) and he does not receive the honor due to him. There is no greater misfortune for a Chinese than to “lose face.” According to ancient custom in China, the highest sign of honor and respect for a boss is to present him with an umbrella. For this purpose, a special umbrella is made - large, made of red silk, with inscriptions and the names of the donors. It is called the “umbrella of a thousand faces.” The Chinese take great care to strictly observe the ceremonies that, “according to the behests of their ancestors,” should accompany various life events.

The Institute of Sociology of Beijing People's University conducted a study in which residents of 13 provinces and cities in China were surveyed. They were asked to express their attitude towards various personality traits on a 9-point scale from “+5” (“very much approve”) to “-5” (“very disapprove”). The average ratings were as follows.

This study shows that Confucian virtues - “humanity”, “filial piety”, “hard work and frugality”, etc. - still occupy a dominant position in the minds of the Chinese. 70-80% of respondents consider them to be the main values ​​in life, and only 6-15% do not consider it necessary to adhere to them. It is worthy of attention that the Chinese people themselves are very disapproving of the deceit that McGowan talks about.

Thus, despite the profound social changes that occurred in China in the 20th century, the traditions of Confucianism have not lost their defining place in the culture of Chinese society.

China is one of the most original countries in the world, but traveling there is associated with great psychological stress. You are always the center of attention of hundreds, and sometimes thousands of people. The Chinese are very cheerful, sincere and smart people, but their ideas about the rules of good manners in many ways do not coincide with ours.

China attaches great importance to establishing informal relationships with foreign partners. You may be asked about your age, marital status, children - do not be offended: this is a sincere interest in you.

During business meetings, Chinese negotiators are very attentive to two things: gathering information about the subject being discussed and the negotiating partners; formation of the “spirit of friendship”. Moreover, the “spirit of friendship” in negotiations is generally very important for them, which is largely due to Chinese cultural traditions and values.

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