A brief retelling of the culture of the early Renaissance in Italy. Early Renaissance culture in Italy
Introduction
At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. In Europe, namely in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to take shape, called the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance). The term "Renaissance" indicated a connection new culture with antiquity. At this time, Italian society begins to take an active interest in culture Ancient Greece and Rome, manuscripts of ancient writers are being sought; this is how the works of Cicero and Titus Livy were found. The Renaissance was characterized by many very significant changes in the mentality of people compared to the Middle Ages. Secular motives are strengthening in European culture; they are becoming more and more independent and independent from the church. various areas life of society - art, philosophy, literature, education, science. The focus of the Renaissance figures was on man, therefore the worldview of the bearers of this culture is designated by the term “humanistic” (from the Latin humanus - human).
Renaissance humanists believed that what is important about a person is not his origin or social status, A personal qualities, such as intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will, education. A strong, talented and comprehensively developed personality, a person who is the creator of himself and his destiny, was recognized as an “ideal person.” During the Renaissance, the human personality acquires an unprecedented value; individualism becomes the most important feature of the humanistic approach to life, which contributes to the spread of the ideas of liberalism and a general increase in the level of freedom of people in society. It is no coincidence that humanists, who in general do not oppose religion and do not challenge the basic tenets of Christianity, assigned God the role of a creator who set the world in motion and does not further interfere in people’s lives.
The ideal person, according to humanists, is a “universal person”, a person who is a creator, an encyclopedist. Renaissance humanists believed that the possibilities of human knowledge are limitless, for the human mind is similar to the divine mind, and man himself is, as it were, a mortal god, and in the end people will enter the territory heavenly bodies and there they will settle and become like gods. Educated and gifted people during this period were surrounded by an atmosphere of universal admiration and worship; they were honored, as saints in the Middle Ages. Enjoyment of earthly existence is an indispensable part of the culture of the Renaissance.
Early Renaissance culture
Revival has a special place in cultural progress. The point is not only that in the history of mankind there are not many eras marked by such an ebullient intensity of cultural, especially artistic, creativity, such an abundance of brilliant talents, such a wealth of magnificent achievements. Another thing is no less striking: five centuries have passed, life has changed beyond recognition, and the creations of the great masters of Renaissance art never cease to excite more and more generations of people.
What is the secret of this amazing vitality? No matter how the perfection of form fascinates us, it alone is not enough for such active longevity. The secret is in the deepest humanity of this art, in the humanism that permeates it. After a thousand years of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance was the first powerful attempt at the spiritual emancipation of man, liberation and comprehensive development, colossal hidden in it creative possibilities. The art born of this era carries immortal ethical values. It educates, develops humane feelings, it awakens the Human in a person.
The painting of Byzantium, from whose influence Italian artists began to free themselves only towards the end of the 13th century, created masterpieces that arouse our admiration, but it did not depict the real world.
The art of medieval artists does not give the viewer a sense of volume, depth, does not create the impression of space, and it does not strive for this.
Giving only a hint of reality, Byzantine masters sought, first of all, to convey those ideas, beliefs and concepts that constituted the spiritual content of their era. They created majestic and extremely spiritualized image-symbols, and in their paintings and mosaics, human figures remained as if incorporeal, conventional, as well as the landscape and the entire composition.
In order for both Gothic and Byzantine artistic system the new has triumphed, realistic art, a revolution in people’s perception of the world was needed, which can be called one of the greatest progressive revolutions in the history of mankind.
What is commonly called the Renaissance was the affirmation of the continuity of the great ancient culture, the affirmation of the ideals of humanism. This was the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning new era. The promoters of the new culture called themselves humanists, deriving this word from the Latin humanus - “humane”, “human”. True humanism proclaims the human right to freedom and happiness, recognizes the good of man as the basis of the social structure, and affirms the principles of equality, justice, and humanity in relations between people.
Italian humanists discovered the world of classical antiquity, searched for the works of ancient authors in forgotten repositories and painstakingly cleared them of distortions introduced by medieval monks. Their search was marked by fiery enthusiasm. Others dug up fragments of columns, statues, bas-reliefs, and coins. “I raise the dead,” said one of the Italian humanists who devoted himself to archeology. And in fact, the ancient ideal of beauty was resurrected under that sky and on that earth that had been eternally dear to it. And this ideal, earthly, deeply human and tangible, gave birth in people great love to the beauty of the world and the persistent will to know this world. Such a grandiose revolution in the worldview of people took place on Italian soil after Italy entered the new way in its economic and social development. Already in the XI-XII centuries. Anti-feudal revolutions take place in Italy with the establishment of a republican form of government in many cities.
Historically in Italy the main channel of the turbulent creative activity What became the Renaissance was not mental activity itself, or even fine literature, but art. Exactly at artistic creativity the new culture realized itself with the greatest expressiveness; it was in art that it was embodied in treasures over which time has no power. Perhaps, never before (at least since the times of classical antiquity) or after has humanity experienced an era when fine art played a role in the cultural, and even in public life, such an exceptional role. The very concept of “Renaissance culture” awakens in the mind, first of all, a boundless, enchanting string of soul-stirring creations of painting, sculpture, architecture - one more beautiful than the other. All this relates to the greatest extent to the highest stage of development of this culture, to its culminating period, which is not without reason called the High Renaissance. What was previously an attempt, only a breakthrough, here appears in the fullness of thought, the perfection of harmony, in the seething stream of the struggle of titanic forces. However, a long and difficult ascent led to the top. Without it, the climax cannot be understood.
Harmony and beauty will find an unshakable basis in the so-called golden ratio (this term was introduced by Leonardo da Vinci; subsequently another one was used: “ divine proportion"), known in antiquity, but interest in which arose precisely in the 15th century. in connection with its application, both in geometry and in art, especially in architecture. This is a harmonic division of a segment, in which most of is the average proportional between the entire segment and its smaller part, an example of which is the human body. So, human mind- How driving force art of construction. This was already the credo of the Quattrocento architects, and a hundred years later Michelangelo would say even more clearly:
"Architectural members depend on human body, and who was not or is not a good master figure, as well as anatomy, cannot comprehend this.”
In its structural and decorative-visual unity, Renaissance architecture transformed the appearance of the cathedral - its centric domed structure does not crush a person, but does not tear him away from the ground, but with its majestic rise, it seems to assert the supremacy of man over the world.
With every decade of the 15th century. secular construction is taking on an ever-increasing scope in Italy. Not a temple, not even a palace, but a public building had the high honor of being the firstborn of truly Renaissance architecture. This is the Florentine Foundling House, the construction of which Brunelleschi began in 1419.
Pure Renaissance lightness and grace distinguish this creation of the famous architect, who brought to the façade a wide-open arched gallery with thin columns and thus, as it were, connected the building with the square, the architecture - “part of life” - with the very part of the city. Lovely medallions made of glazed baked clay with images of swaddled newborns decorate small tympanums, colorfully enlivening the entire architectural composition.
Slenderly dissected in their mighty horizontal facades, without towers and arched rises, the Florentine palaces are stately, stately and picturesque: Palazzo Pitti, Palazzo Ricardi, Palazzo Rucellai, Palazzo Strozzi and the wonderful central domed temple of the Madonna delle Carceli in Prato. All this famous monuments architecture Early Renaissance.
Let’s add two more words about another painting genre that flourished in Florence in the 15th century. These are elegant chests or cassettes (cassones) in which favorite things, dresses, and in particular girls’ dowries were kept. Along with the carvings, they were covered with paintings, sometimes very elegant, giving a vivid idea of the fashions of that time, sometimes with scenes borrowed from classical mythology.
At the origins of the Renaissance (Early Renaissance) in Italy stood the great Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), the author of the Comedy, which descendants, expressing their admiration, called “ The Divine Comedy" Dante took a plot familiar to the Middle Ages and managed, with the power of his imagination, to guide the reader through all the circles of Hell, Purgatory and Paradise; some of his simple-minded contemporaries believed that Dante had actually visited the next world.
Dante, Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) - famous poets of the Renaissance, were the creators of Italian literary language. Their works, already during their lifetime, became widely known not only in Italy, but also far beyond its borders, and entered the treasury of world literature.
Petrarch's sonnets on the life and death of Madonna Laura gained worldwide fame.
The Renaissance is characterized by the cult of beauty, especially human beauty. Italian painting, which for a time became the leading art form, depicts beautiful, perfect people. Early Renaissance painting is represented by the work of Botticelli (1445-1510), who created works on religious and mythological subjects, including the paintings "Spring" and "Birth of Venus", as well as Giotto (1266-1337), who liberated the Italian fresco painting from Byzantine influence.
Lesson 26. Culture of the early Renaissance in Italy.
Target: explain the significance of the ideas of humanism and the Renaissance for the development of European society.
Lesson type: discovery of new knowledge.
DURING THE CLASSES
Organizing time
Motivational-target stage
Everyone knows that Italy was the heart of the entire Renaissance period. Great masters of words, brushes and philosophical thought appeared in each of the periods of the Renaissance. The culture of the Early Renaissance in Italy demonstrates the emergence of traditions that would develop in subsequent centuries, this period became the starting point, the beginning great era development of creativity in Europe. Let's plunge into this era and get acquainted with ideological inspirers that time.
Updating knowledge
Let's remember:
What is culture?
What does the concept of culture include?
LESSON TOPIC: “The culture of the early Renaissance in Italy.”
Guess what questions we will consider in our lesson.
Lesson Plan
“Lovers of Wisdom” and the revival of the ancient heritage.
A new teaching about man and the education of a new man.
The first humanists in literature and art.
Work on the topic of the lesson
In the middleXIVcentury in Italy is born new era– Revival. The first century and a half is called the early Renaissance.
Today you will act as researchers. We will divide into groups, each of which will receive its own task.
1 group. Working with the text of paragraph 1 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
Who called themselves “lovers of wisdom”?
How did they relate to the Middle Ages?
What did they call their time?
2nd group. Working with the text of paragraph 2 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
What did the thinkers of the Middle Ages do?
What was the main thing in the writings of new scientists?
What did they call their classes?
Who are humanists?
What is humanism?
What is the essence of the teachings of humanists?
What is the ideal of humanists?
group. Working with the text of paragraph 3 of paragraph 29, answer the questions:
What did the humanists say?
What did humanists devote everything to? free time?
What did the humanists say about nobility?
Presentation of group work.
Already in the early Renaissance, art began to flourish in Europe. Painting, sculpture and architecture of the Renaissance are imbued with the ideas of humanism. Let's get acquainted with the first humanists of Europe.
Student reports:
Francesco Petrarca
Giovanni Boccaccio
Sandro Botticelli
Summing up the lesson
What new appeared during the Renaissance? What are character traits this era?
Student answers
Let's check how well you have mastered the material you have studied.
Survey using the site Plikers
A1. The Renaissance is considered to be the period
1) VIII-XI centuries.
2) XIV-XV centuries.
3) XIV-XVII centuries.
A2. Which country is the birthplace of the Renaissance?
France
2) Italy
3) Spain
A3. Why were “lovers of wisdom” also called humanists?
1) they called for mercy
2) they showed interest in man, his earthly life
3) they protected heretics from the Inquisition
A4. The first humanist is called
1) Francesca Petrarcu
2) Dante Alighieri
3) Giovanni Boccaccio
A5. Which of the listed figures of the Middle Ages was a painter?
1) Sandra Botticelli
2) Bernard of Clairvaux
3) Thomas Aquinas
VI . Reflection
What new did you learn in the lesson?
What skills and abilities did you practice?
What new terms did you become familiar with?
What did you like and what didn’t you like about the lesson?
Homework: paragraph 29, learn new words, dates, fill out the workbook
Everyone knows that Italy was the heart of the entire Renaissance period. Great masters of words, brushes and philosophical thought appeared in each of the Culture in Italy demonstrates the emergence of traditions that will develop in subsequent centuries, this period became the starting point, the beginning of a great era of development of creativity in Europe.
Briefly about the main thing
Early Renaissance art in Italy spans the period from approximately 1420 to 1500, preceding and culminating the Proto-Renaissance. As with any transitional period, these eighty years are characterized by both ideas that preceded them and new ones, which, nevertheless, were borrowed from the distant past, from the classics. Gradually, creators got rid of medieval concepts, turning their attention to ancient art.
However, despite the fact that for the most part they sought to return to the ideals of a forgotten art, both in general and in particular, ancient traditions were still intertwined with new ones, but to a much lesser extent.
Architecture of Italy during the Early Renaissance
The main name in the architecture of this period is, of course, Filippo Brunelleschi. He became the personification of Renaissance architecture, organically embodying his ideas, he managed to turn projects into something fascinating, and, by the way, his masterpieces are still carefully protected for many generations. One of his main creative achievements It is considered to be buildings located in the very center of Florence, the most notable of which are the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore and the Pitti Palace, which became the starting point Italian architecture Early Renaissance.
To other important achievements Italian Renaissance also applies, which is located near the main square of Venice, palaces in Rome by Bernardo di Lorenzo and others. During this period, the architecture of Italy strives to organically combine the features of the Middle Ages and the Classics, striving for the logic of proportions. An excellent example of this statement is the basilica San Lorenzo, again the hands of Filippo Brunelleschi. In others European countries The early Renaissance did not leave equally striking examples.
Early Renaissance Artists
Results
Although the culture of the Early Renaissance in Italy strives for the same thing - to display the classics through the prism of naturalness, the creators go in different ways leaving their names in Renaissance culture. Many great names, brilliant masterpieces and a complete rethinking of not only artistic, but also philosophical culture- all this was brought to us by a period that foreshadowed other stages of the Renaissance, in which established ideals found their continuation.
In the middle of the 14th century, a new culture emerged in Italy - the culture of the Renaissance, which would then spread throughout Western Europe. The Renaissance, when this culture developed, will last until the middle of the 17th century. Its first century and a half is called the early Renaissance.
1. “Lovers of wisdom” and the revival of the ancient heritage. In the 14th century, people who called themselves “lovers of wisdom” appeared in the rich cities of Italy. They admired ancient culture and believed that antiquity was a “golden age” when science and art flourished, people were valiant and wise. And then, they thought, the barbarians (Goths) came, and ignorance and cruelty reigned. The barbarians forgot their beautiful Latin and began to speak in rough dialects. And now the time has come to revive the “golden age” and combine its ancient valor with the Christian faith. The “lovers of wisdom” called their time the Renaissance. This is how the idea of three stages of world history first appeared: Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and Modern Times. “Lovers of Wisdom” studied Latin and Greek, looked for ancient statues and manuscripts, copied and studied works ancient literature. Often they spent all their free time and money on this. In behavior and even in clothing, “lovers of wisdom” imitated heroes and philosophers Ancient Rome and Greece.
Among them were people of different classes and occupations. The pharmacist and the duke, the guild master and the university professor, the priest, the lawyer and the official, gathered together, enthusiastically discussed the recently discovered ancient manuscript. At first there were few “lovers of wisdom.” They supported each other, wrote letters to each other, and formed circles.
The “lovers of wisdom” considered the Middle Ages to be a “dark failure” in history. We know that this is not so: the books of Dante and the poems of the troubadours, the Gothic cathedrals, the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas are no less beautiful than the books of Homer, the temples of the Acropolis and the philosophy of the Greeks. They are not better or worse, they are different. But although for many “lovers of wisdom” there was one ideal of beauty and valor - antiquity, another direction of new thought developed, more connected with life and the immediate tasks of its time.
2. New doctrine about man. Medieval thinkers thought about God and the divine universe. They called their activities “knowledge of the divine.” “Lovers of wisdom” began to study not only the Bible, the works of the church fathers and the books of ancient writers. They became increasingly interested in the past and present of their people, their morals and customs, and current events. The main thing in the writings of new scientists is interest in man and his earthly life. They called their studies “studio humanitatis” - “knowledge of the human.” Hence the second name for “lovers of wisdom” - humanists. Their views began to be called humanism; the Renaissance is also the era of humanism.
Humanists created a new doctrine about man. Man, they believed, was the best and most important creation, the “crown of creation” of God, whom they often identified with nature. They believed that a person can and should achieve greatness already in earthly life. Through willpower and hard work, a person can reach the stars and defeat fate. The reward for man, as the humanists taught, was not bliss in heaven, but glory among his contemporaries and descendants. The Lord helps just such people, and their successes are evidence of God’s mercy to those who actively demonstrate their best capabilities.
The ideal of humanists is a “universal man,” that is, a person who has achieved perfection in everything: in physical strength and beauty, in philosophy and other sciences and arts, in military skill, etc.
3. Raising a new person. Humanists argued that man must become the master of his own destiny. The Lord provides people with choice and help, and it depends only on man whether he will rise to an almost divine being or fall below the beasts.
Natural abilities are like a grain; they are inherent in us at birth. Only that person achieves greatness who, day after day, year after year, tirelessly grows this seed, works on himself, educates and tempers his spirit. Therefore, humanists (who were usually business people - they served under rulers, traded, etc.) devoted all their free time to “studio humanitatis” and the creation of their own new works on history, poetry, philosophy, and other sciences.
In feudal society, those who had noble ancestors were considered “noble”, that is, the best people. Humanists declared that nobility does not depend on origin. It doesn’t matter who you are by origin: the son of a prince or a shoemaker. Noble is he who has educated his soul by education and meditation on sublime subjects. Only such a person can achieve greatness and glory.
4. The first humanists. The Italian poet Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) is called the first humanist. Against his father's will, Petrarch devoted his life to poetry and philosophy. This story will repeat itself more than once: many humanists will go against the will of their conservative and more practical parents.
One day Petrarch saw a young woman in church. He fell in love with her immediately and loved her all his life. She died of the plague in 1348, without reciprocating the poet's feelings. Petrarch gave his beloved the name Laura and dedicated many poems to her, which became one of the peaks of European love lyrics. Petrarch depicted the tragic complexity of his feelings and was the first to suggest that the poet’s real experiences could be interesting to other people. Petrarch was the first to call an earthly woman Madonna.
The poet lived for 16 years in the small town of Vaucluse. Here he had a lot of free time, and he devoted it to the “studio humanitatis”. For Petrarch, ancient thinkers were not absolute authorities, but favorite teachers and interlocutors. He admires them, but often argues with them. He would never agree to give up the freedom to think and his own opinion.
In Vaucluse he wrote the poem “Africa” based on a plot from Roman history, the book “Life famous men"(about the heroes of the Roman Republic); In order for contemporary Italians to become Caesars and Scipios again, we must remind them who their ancestors were.
During the years of his life in Vaucluse, Petrarch acquired enormous fame and moral authority. His letters and books were read by all educated Europe. He was neither rich nor noble, but popes, emperors, and the most powerful sovereigns of Italy listened to Petrarch’s advice and even his severe reproaches. In 1341, at a ceremony in Rome, Petrarch was crowned with a laurel wreath and the title of King of Poets. Petrarch's student and follower was the writer and scientist Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). The best and the most famous work Boccaccio - "Decameron", a book consisting of one hundred short stories. The Decameron's short stories, humorous and serious, rough and sophisticated, vividly and captivatingly depict the world of Italy in the 19th century.
Thanks to Petrarch, Boccaccio and their followers, the authority of humanists increased enormously. Experts in ancient literature were invited to give lectures at universities and appointed to high positions in city administration. The humanist Tommaso Peretunelli, the son of a shoemaker, was elected pope.
In the 15th century, Florence, Milan, Venice, Naples, and Rome became centers of early Renaissance culture. From Italy, the ideas of humanists spread to other European countries.
In the Middle Ages, each person had to take his place depending on nobility, wealth, and occupation. Now the focus is on the personality of a person, his individual, unique properties.
5. Art of the early Renaissance. Already from the early Renaissance, art began to flourish in Europe. Painting, sculpture and architecture of the Renaissance are imbued with the ideals of humanism.
Artists became interested a real man in his earthly life. Picturesque and sculptural portrait- individual or family, where not gods, heroes and saints are depicted, but contemporaries from different classes. Thanks to such portraits, we know the real appearance of many famous people that time.
Using chiaroscuro, artists achieve a sense of volume in their depictions of figures and objects. Their attention is attracted by bright characters, depth and strength of human experiences.
The most remarkable painter of the early Renaissance is the Florentine Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). The most famous paintings masters - “Spring” and “Birth of Venus”, which are filled with naive serenity, captivating with tenderness and grace.
The architecture of Italian cities changed. The Gothic cathedral is elongated vertically, it is directed upward, towards God. The Renaissance city is “horizontal”. Architects are building new types of buildings: city palaces - palazzos, country villas, merchant mansions, universities, hospitals. These buildings are comfortable, created for human convenience.
During the Renaissance, artists and architects began to be highly respected.
Honor of invitation Italian artists The popes, kings and rulers of the cities of Italy contested their court.
Related information.
Preconditions of the Renaissance. In Italy in the XIV-XV centuries. Cities developed rapidly, industry flourished, and capitalist manufacturing arose. Many cities were large shopping centers, connecting Italy with the countries of Europe and the East. There were banks in the cities that conducted credit operations international importance. Precisely because early capitalist relations first arose in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to form in this country, called the culture of the Renaissance.
For the early bourgeoisie and a wide range of populace, the medieval ideal of asceticism, the idea of human sinfulness, and the idea of passive submission to fate were unacceptable. In this social environment, new ideas and values were formed that saturated the culture and gave it a secular, humanistic character.
The nature of Renaissance culture. The term “Renaissance” (French - “Renaissance”) indicates the connection of the new culture with antiquity. Italian society has developed a deep interest in ancient culture with her joyful perception of the world around her and the harmonious combination of a person’s mental and physical abilities. Hence the attempt to resurrect a bygone culture worthy of eternal imitation. The Renaissance figures tried in their works to revive the style of the Latin writers of the “golden age” of Roman literature, especially Cicero. This was associated with the revival of classical Latin, which was subject to distortion and barbarization during the Middle Ages. Humanists searched for ancient manuscripts of ancient writers. This is how the works of Cicero, Titus Livy and others were found. Interest in Greek literature and Greek language. Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444), chancellor of the Florentine Republic, translated the works of Greek writers and philosophers - Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch and others - into Latin. At this time, many Greek manuscripts were exported to Florence from Byzantium. Giovanni Boccaccio was the first Italian humanist who could read Homer in Greek.
But the culture of the Renaissance is not a simple copying of antiquity. Humanists processed and creatively assimilated the ancient heritage. The Italian Renaissance culture created its own distinctive style.
Soviet historiography considers the culture of the Renaissance as an early bourgeois culture that arose on the basis of a new, capitalist structure that was taking shape in the depths of the feudal formation. Wide social circles took part in the creation of this culture, from the emerging bourgeoisie to the leading part of the nobility. All this gave it a broad universal character. The nascent bourgeoisie itself was then an advanced class, therefore, in the fight against the feudal worldview, it acted as a representative of “... the rest of society... not of any particular class, but of all suffering humanity." The worldview of the figures of the new culture, which was expressed in their philosophical, political, scientific and literary views, are usually designated by the term “humanism" (from humanus - “human”). The Renaissance figures placed the focus on man, not deity. Man was now seen as the smith of his own happiness, the creator of all values, moving forward in defiance of fate and achieving success with the power of his mind, fortitude, activity, optimism. A person should enjoy nature, love, art, science, he stands at the center of the universe, humanists believed. Representatives of the new ideology were alien to the idea of the sinfulness of man, in particular his body; on the contrary, harmony becomes recognized human soul and bodies.
Humanists did not oppose religion. But they sharply criticized and ridiculed the vices and ignorance of the clergy. They assigned God the role of a creator who set the world in motion, but did not interfere in people's lives. The rejection of the church-religious and ascetic worldview, criticism of the Catholic clergy undermined the foundations of religious morality and ethics;
humanistic culture was a secular culture. One of the humanists, Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457), in his treatise “On the Forgery of the Donation of Constantine,” refuted the legend that Emperor Constantine transferred secular power to the pope in Rome and throughout the west of the empire. He proved that the letter was fabricated in the papal office in the 8th century. This undermined the pope's theocratic claims.
One of the most important features of the new ideology was individualism. Humanists argued that not birth, not noble birth, and personal qualities individual Person, his intelligence, dexterity, courage, enterprise and energy ensure success in life. In his treatise “On Nobility,” Poggio Bracciolini writes: “Nobility is, as it were, a radiance emanating from virtue; it gives shine to its owners, no matter what their origin... Glory and nobility are measured not by others, but by one’s own merits...”
I Dante Alighieri. A galaxy of outstanding poets, writers took part in this new great intellectual [movement]
Tsyaei, scientists and figures in various fields of art. The largest figure who stood on the verge of the Middle Ages and the time of humanism was the Florentine Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). His “Divine Comedy”, like no other work of that time, reflected the worldview of the transition period from the Middle Ages
|; to the Renaissance. The Divine Comedy was written in Italian(Tuscan dialect) and was an encyclopedia of medieval knowledge. It clearly reflects the life of modern Dante Florence.
Dante had exceptional power of representation, and his poem, especially its first part (Hell), makes a stunning impression. The poet descends into hell and goes through all its nine circles, guided by Virgil, whom Dante calls his teacher, although he is a pagan. In hell, Dante observes the torment of sinners. In the first circle there is no torment - there are philosophers and scientists of antiquity; They are pagans and cannot go to heaven, but they do not deserve punishment. In the second circle, those who have experienced criminal love suffer, but Dante sympathizes with them. In the third circle, the torment of merchants and moneylenders; Dante, as a true Catholic, placed heretics in the fourth circle; in the ninth - the traitors Brutus, Cassius, Judas. Fiery pits are prepared for clerics who bought their positions with money, including popes.
Political passions boil in hell just as they do on the streets of Florence. Dante gave a truthful and profound portrayal human destinies, experiences and aspirations. A stunning impression is made by the story about Dante’s political opponent, Ghibelline Farinato degli Uberti, who saved Florence from destruction, and although Dante placed him in hell, he nevertheless depicted him in hell as proud, strong and courageous man. Dante's hero is Ulysses (Odysseus), suffering from hellish torments, who has always strived for “novelty and truth.”
Dante wrote a treatise "On Monarchy", where he advocated the unification of Italy, which was to become the center of the revived Roman Empire.
Francesco Petrarca. Italy's first humanist was Petrarch (1304-1374). He was born in Arezzo (Central Italy), in his youth he lived for some time in Avignon, where he was engaged in poetic creativity in complete solitude, then he moved to Italy. Together with Boccaccio, Petrarch was the creator of the Italian literary language. In this language, he wrote world-recognized sonnets about his beloved Laura, in which a deep and beautiful feeling for the woman he loves sounds. Petrarch's sonnets have not lost their significance even today.
Petrarch had a sharply negative attitude towards the Roman Curia, calling it “the center of ignorance”: “A stream of sorrows, an abode of wild malice, a temple of heresies and a school of errors.” He, like Dante, was worried about the fragmentation of Italy, because of which it was subjected to violence from powerful neighbors. Grief for his plight beautiful homeland sounds in the canzone “My Italy”.
As a philosopher and thinker, Petrarch opposed medieval scholasticism to the science of man, of the knowledge of him inner world. Above all, he valued the personal qualities of a person, regardless of his origin. All people, he said, have the same red blood. But this first humanist was still characterized by mental turmoil, discord between traditional and new system views. Petrarch during his lifetime achieved greatest recognition and glory. The Roman Senate crowned him with a laurel wreath; The Venetian Senate recognized him the greatest poet of its time.
Giovanni Boccaccio. A contemporary of Petrarch was Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), a staunch republican, cheerful, emotional person. His humanistic worldview is reflected in “The Decameron,” a collection of 100 short stories written in Italian, which emphasize the human right to happiness, to sensual joys, to love that knows no social barriers. A common thread runs through the idea that true nobility is determined not by nobility, but by valor. He took the plots of his short stories, written realistically and with humor, from the city life of Florence. Boccaccio ridiculed and even denounced the vices of the Catholic clergy, priests and monks, showing their ignorance and hypocrisy.
The Church persecuted Boccaccio more than other humanists for his sharp satire. His works were included in the "list of prohibited books." Boccaccio wrote the works “On Glorious Women” and “The Biography of Dante.” Works Bok-366
Caccio reflect the democratic, popular current in the early Italian Renaissance. The works of Petrarch and Boccaccio received wide recognition not only in Italy; translations of their works appeared in all countries of Western Europe.
History, and in particular the history of their people, aroused great interest among humanists. They gave a new periodization of history. Flavio Biondo (XV century) wrote a great work:
"History from the Decline of the Roman Empire", where he gave periodization world history: antiquity, middle ages, modern times. The humanists of Florence paid a lot of attention to the history of their city, its rise and transformation into a republic. Leonardo Bruni wrote the History of Florence in 12 books. Driving force historical process he considered the man himself.
Humanists attached great educational importance to history. This is what the Italian humanist Marsilio Ficino wrote about the meaning of history: “... through the study of history, what is mortal in itself becomes immortal, what is absent becomes apparent.”
Ethical teachings of Italian humanists. Basic principles of the ethical teachings of Italian humanists of the 15th century. are closely related to a new understanding of science not only as the embodiment of knowledge, but as a means of educating the human personality. From their point of view, this applied only to the humanities: rhetoric, philosophy, especially ethics, history, literature.
Coluccio Salutati (humanist and chancellor of the Florentine Republic) (1331-1406) called for an active fight against evil and vices in order to create a kingdom of goodness, mercy and happiness on earth. He emphasized the importance of free will.
The theory of “civic humanism” is associated with the name of another chancellor of Florence, Leonardo Bruni. In his works, he argued that democracy and freedom are a natural form of human community (meaning Popolanian democracy). He considered service to society, homeland, and republic to be the most important moral duty of a person and argued that the highest happiness is activity for the benefit of the society in which a person lives. Leonardo Bruni was a bright exponent of the ideas of civil humanism, but, in addition, he was a theorist of humanistic pedagogy, a supporter female education, propagandist of ancient philosophy.
Verdgerio developed the pedagogical ideas of the humanists in his works. He emphasized the great educational role of history and philosophy, as well as grammar, poetics, music, arithmetic and geometry, natural science, medicine, law and theology. The goal of education is to create a person who is well-rounded, creatively active and virtuous.
Art of the Early Renaissance. Early Art Italian Renaissance was presented new painting, sculpture and architecture.
The first major masters of painting were Giotto (1266-1337) and Masaccio (1401-1428) - Florentine artists. They painted on church-religious subjects (fresco painting - painting of walls inside churches), but gave their images realistic features. Giotto was the first artist to liberate Italian painting from the influence of Byzantine icon painting. In Giotto's frescoes, living people appear, moving, gesticulating, sometimes joyful, sometimes sad. Masaccio's frescoes commemorate further development painting of a new type. He applied those discovered in the 15th century. laws of perspective, which made it possible to make the depicted figures three-dimensional and place them in three-dimensional space.
A major sculptor of this period was Donatello (1386-1466). He thoroughly studied classical antique samples sculptures, trying to understand the principles of their creation. He owns portrait-type sculptures (he was a portrait artist), such as equestrian statue condottiere of Gattemalata; The realistic figure is the statue of David killing Goliath, and for the first time the statue features a naked body.
The largest architect of the Early Renaissance was Brunel Leschi (1377-1445). Combining elements ancient roman architecture with the Romanesque and Gothic tradition, he created his own independent architectural style. With the help of precise calculations, Brunelleschi solved the difficult problem of erecting a dome on the famous Cathedral of Florence (Maria del Fiore). His architectural structures are characterized by lightness, harmony and proportionality of parts (Pazzi Chapel in Florence). Brunelleschi built not only churches and chapels, but also civil buildings, such as an orphanage in Florence, striking in its grace and harmony; Palazzo Pitti - new type palace instead of medieval castles. Brunelleschi also, like other architects, built fortifications and dams. Alberti, another major architect of the Renaissance, wrote “Ten Books on Architecture,” where he outlined the scientific theory of new architecture, which he created under the influence of the study of ancient monuments. In his other work, “On Painting,” he formulated a theory of the art of painting, also relying on the heritage of ancient artists.
The humanistic movement and its centers. In the 15th century The humanist movement spread throughout Italy. Its main center remained Florence, but, in addition to Florence, humanist circles appeared in Rome, Naples, Venice and Milan. The rulers of Florence decorated their city with beautiful buildings, and they collected rare books and manuscripts in libraries. The reign was distinguished by the greatest brilliance Lorenzo Medici, nicknamed the Magnificent. He collected paintings, statues, and books in the Medici Gardens; attracted writers, poets, artists, architects, sculptors, and scientists to his court. Humanists were held in high esteem in Italy; they were invited by popes, magistrates and sovereigns of Italian city-states to work as chancellors, secretaries, envoys, and were given orders for paintings and statues. Great glory used by humanist writers. No wonder Boccaccio said: “It is not the names of great commanders that give glory to writers, on the contrary, the names of kings are passed down to posterity only thanks to writers.”
