What did Anna Pavlova die from? Anna Pavlova: biography of the famous ballerina

Socio-economic changes that began in Western European countries ah, they objectively determined the need to study the geography of the planet in more detail and thoroughly. their consequence was the Great geographical discoveries late XV - early XVII centuries, during which Europeans made a revolutionary breakthrough into other civilizations, which accelerated the formation of the integrity of world development.

By the end of the 15th century. Europe was a relatively closed region. The discovery of new lands expanded the civilizational horizons of Europeans. At the same time, the adaptation of the Western European world to the values ​​of European civilization began, although not always by civilizational methods.

Until a certain time, the problem of studying the geography of the planet and developing new lands remained unresolved both due to technical reasons - the imperfection of transport and navigation aids, and due to the prohibition of the church to study nature in depth, including the planet and space. It is clear that the emergence of capitalist relations increased interest in the study of the Earth, primarily by the needs of new markets, searches for sources of raw materials, and cheap labor. The capitalization of agriculture and the abolition of serfdom in the agricultural sector freed large masses of the population, and the economies of the states in the transition period were able to provide work. This “surplus” population required a lot of free land that could be resettled for permanent residence.

Scientific advances in the field of navigation also contributed to the search for new worlds. In particular, in the second half of the 15th century. Navigation instruments (compass, astrolabe, nautical charts) were significantly improved. They made it possible to more accurately determine the position of a ship at sea, lay out sea routes and organize safe navigation. New, quite reliable and advanced ships appeared - caravels. Thanks to their successful design and large tonnage, the vessels could move quite quickly against the wind (about 23 km per hour) and remain at sea for months.

The reasons given gave impetus to an intensive search for new lands, countries and continents, which was ultimately marked by the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Looking for new lands, Western Europeans until the 16th century. They had already perfectly mastered the overland trade routes to India and China, and by sea routes they had even reached Equatorial Africa. But with the capture of Constantinople by the Seljuk Turks and the liquidation of Byzantium as a state (mid-15th century), overland trade routes to the East were blocked, and Western European sailors began to look for, so to speak, bypass sea routes to East Asian countries.

In the middle of the 15th century. The most active searches in this direction were carried out by the Portuguese. By 1445 they had explored the West African coast almost to the equator. In 1471 they reached modern Guinea, and in 1486 Bartolomeu Dias (1450 - 1500) sailed to South Africa and discovered the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497, Vasco da Gama (1469-1524), having circled the African continent from the south, reached India in the Calcutta area. The opening of the sea route to India gave impetus to Western Europeans to begin actively exploring the vastness of the Atlantic Ocean in search of not only eastern, but also western routes to India. In 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus (1451 1506), based on the theory of the sphericity of the earth, sailed to India to the west and at the end of the same year discovered the Bahamas, and then Haiti and Cuba, near the American continent. During the third journey of 1498-1499. X. Columbus discovers the shores South America.

during 1498a-1499. Spanish navigators reached the shores of Brazil, and the Italian cosmographer Amerigo Vespucci (1452 - 1512), who took part in this expedition, described this land in detail, made a contour map of the coast, and since 1507, European cartographers have called this land "Amerigo's Land". later acquired common name"America".

With the discovery of a new continent, a struggle for overseas possessions began between Spain and Portugal. To avoid future military conflicts, in 1494 these countries concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas among themselves, according to which the territory to the west of the Cape Verde Islands belonged to the Spaniards, and to the east to the Portuguese. This treaty opened a wide path for Portuguese and Spanish sailors to search for new lands and colonize them. In 1513, the Spanish conquistador Balboa made a land crossing into the continent near Panama and discovered the “great sea,” which Magellan later called the Pacific Ocean. For a more detailed study of the American continent and the newly discovered ocean, in 1519 the Spaniards organized an expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521). He during 1519-1522. traveled around the world, during which he discovered Tierra del Fuego, South America, the Philippine Islands, etc., as well as the Indian Ocean. The new discoveries came at a high price: out of 265 members of the expedition and five ships, only 18 people returned to Spain on one ship.

Magellan's voyage finally proved to Europe that the earth is round, and gave the opportunity to subsequent navigators, in particular the Englishman Francis Drake in 1577-1580, to more thoroughly study new lands, seas and oceans, which was extremely important both scientifically and socially. economic significance.

With the discovery of new lands and countries, Europeans began their intensive colonization, which, as a rule, was carried out using cruel methods against the local population.

The foundation of the colonization process was laid by the Spaniard Fernando Cortes (1485-1547). He during 1519-1521. captured the huge country of Mexico, and made its population (Aztec tribes) colonially dependent on Spain. Second Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1532-1535. conquered the country of Beru (Peru), and in 1530-1540. The Spaniards captured Chile, New Granada (Colombia), Bolivia. These countries had rich reserves of gold, silver, and precious stones. Having begun their massive extraction, the Spaniards in a short historical period almost completely exterminated the local population in the mines and plantations and, in order to replenish the workforce, from the second half XVI V. The black population began to be imported from Africa to America. Until the middle of the 19th century. With African continent Tens of millions of slaves were exported. The slave trade both economically and demographically bled Africa dry and delayed the socio-economic and cultural development of peoples for many decades.

Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese colonialists did not seize land, but were mainly engaged in robbery, building trading posts in their overseas possessions and imposing high tribute on the local population. Thus, Spain and Portugal quickly became rich and for a certain historical period began to play a leading role in European politics.

The successes of Spain and Portugal in capturing and developing new lands encouraged other European countries to take an active colonial policy. During the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. The Dutch discovered the Solomon Islands (1567), part of South Polynesia (1595). In 1616, the Dutchman Schouten, where Horn, discovered the southernmost part of America - the cape, which was named after him. During 1642-1644. Horn's compatriot Abel Tasman explored the Australian coast and proved that Australia was a new continent.

during the XVI-XVII centuries. Great geographical discoveries were made in the Northern Hemisphere. Looking for a northwestern route to China, English navigators Martin Forbisher and John Davis in the 70-80s of the 16th century. made several expeditions to the shores of North America and discovered a number of islands and explored Greenland. Henry Hudson (1550-1610) penetrates deep into the continent, explores an unknown river and bay, later named after him. Dutch navigator William Barents (1550-1597) in 1590-1597. explored the sea, which was later named after him - the Barents Sea. In 1594-1597. he had already organized three expeditions to the western coast of Novaya Zemlya, during the last of which he died with his companions.

Russian geographical discoveries in the regions of the Arctic and Pacific oceans and the Far East were of great importance. Long before Western Europeans, Russians visited Novaya Zemlya, the island of Spitsbergen, the mouth of the Ob and Yenisei rivers, and the Taimyr Peninsula. Russian explorers and sailors already at the end of the 16th century. reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean and began to explore them.

During the 30-40s of the 17th century. The expeditions of Ivan Moskvitin, Vasily Poyarkov, Erofey Khabarov explored the Lower Amur, the islands of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and other areas of the Far East. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev discovered the strait between Asia and North America and made descriptions of Alaska and the adjacent islands. In the 1720s, Vitus Bering re-explored Alaska and the Aleutian Islands and compiled them detailed map. This study became one of the largest geographical discoveries of the 18th century.

What was the overall significance of the Great Geographical Discoveries for world civilization? In general terms, the answer can be: far-reaching and ambiguous.

Economically, geographical discoveries revolutionized European trade.

Its result was the expansion of the world market and an increase in the variety of circulating goods. The directions of trade routes changed, which gave rise to rivalry between European nations in an effort to seize Asian and American markets, products, treasures and others. material assets enslaved peoples.

Geographical discoveries led to the so-called price revolution.

The massive influx of gold and silver, mainly from America to Europe, created the conditions for the replacement of exchange in kind and cheap copper money with stable and expensive silver and gold money. This made it possible to accelerate the accumulation of capital for those categories of the population that owned this metal, and, conversely, to gain wealth for others who did not have it. From now on, the main measure of wealth and capital was gold, for which everything could be bought and sold. Gold strengthened the economic power of the bourgeoisie and categories of the population associated with the capitalist mode of production and the colonial system. At the same time, gold caused the massive ruin of small producers in the city and villages, who could not compete with large-scale industrial production.

The consequence of geographical discoveries was the beginning of the creation of the colonial system.

A small group of European countries that had previously taken the path of capitalist development used their economic and military advantage over the lands and peoples they colonized and began the brutal exploitation of hundreds of millions of people in America, Asia, and Africa, robbing their natural resources. Residents of the colonies, most of America and Africa, died en masse as a result of this policy, which led to the disappearance of entire tribes and peoples.

The colonial system led to aggravation of relations among European states. An armed struggle began between them for colonies and spheres of influence in different parts of the planet. This resulted in a number of European wars that continued throughout the modern era: the Anglo-Spanish and Spanish-Dutch wars of the second half of the 16th-17th centuries, the Anglo-French CRF - the beginning of the 19th centuries. and etc.

One of the consequences of geographical discoveries was the emigration of the European population to the newly discovered lands.

On the one hand, this somewhat eased the demographic problem of overpopulation Western Europe and to a certain extent resolved the issue of land-poor peasants and other categories of the unemployed population. On the other hand, new states or state associations were created in the open lands with elements of the European state-political system, which was much more progressive compared to the local one, based mainly on primitive tribal relations.

The lands were mastered by Europeans, and with them the local indigenous peoples were gradually attracted to advanced European culture. But this process was long, painful and conflicting. And the implantation of European religious cults among the local population was often accompanied by bloody clashes, which even led to numerous exterminations of the ethnic population.

Great geographical discoveries gave Europeans the opportunity to develop significant economic and geographical expanses, accumulate initial capital for industrialization, and draw new regions into more accelerated socio-economic development and European civilization.

It is well known that Columbus sailed to China, but lost his way. On the new continent he discovered people who lived in the Stone Age. Columbus brought several natives to Europe as if they were zoo animals. In America he found neither gold nor silver. When meeting the locals, Columbus was fascinated by their friendliness and trustfulness. In response, the Europeans showed unprecedented cruelty. The world has never seen such bloodshed at the hands of “civilized” Europe. There was no rationality and common sense. Why kill so much labor that could have been used on the sugar plantations? The passion of the Spaniards and Portuguese for gold and silver led them to Peru and Mexico, and to the conquest of Africa. Thus began the great trade in “living” gold, which brought huge profits to the conquerors. At that time, the sale of such a product provided very high profits at minimal costs.
Portugal was shocked by the success of the Spaniards. In July 1497, Vasco da Gama set out on a journey to discover India two years later. At that time, the Muslims of India did not want to trade with the infidel Europeans. The expedition was not a commercial success, but Vasco da Gama brought home good news: firstly, the Europeans were stronger than the natives, and secondly, spices in India were unusually cheap, and their trade promised huge profits.
Unlike the Spaniards, the Portuguese ordered their ships to fill out unique questionnaires when meeting the natives in order to know what economic benefits could be obtained from trading with them. If in the 16th century. Arab world did not go through a period of political farce, if the people of India had not fought with each other and against the Chinese conquerors, the fate of India might have been different. Of course, it helped the Europeans foreign policy China, in which in the 16th century. It was practically forbidden to build multi-masted ships, even for trading purposes. The Chinese, unlike the Europeans, were not curious. They visited other countries to show themselves, not to learn something new. Sea voyages were not a private initiative and did not pursue the goal of making a profit. They were not funded by private individuals and royal courts to then benefit from the expeditions.
It would be wrong to say that the Spaniards destroyed the high culture of the Aztecs and Incas. In fact, these empires were real dictatorships in which the leaders engaged in sacrifices. At the time when Spain discovered America, these totalitarian states were greatly weakened and could not resist the conquerors, who successfully used the religious prejudices of local leaders and
people's hatred of power. The Aztec Emperor Montezuma did not know whether to consider the Spaniards as gods or people. The Spanish leader Cortes, resorting to cunning, soon acquired complete control over the gold-rich Inca Empire.
As soon as the conquistadors broke the resistance of the local population, they began to plunder new territories. They were not interested in agriculture and cattle breeding. They imported food from Europe and did not think about sunny lands can be used not only as a source of gold. As a result, others took up the sugar business, cattle breeding, and tobacco growing. The Spaniards' passion for gold turned out to be a huge mistake from a long-term perspective.
Another profitable business at that time was the slave trade. The Portuguese, Dutch, English and Spaniards were busy with it. Portuguese! distinguished themselves by actively using their dominance in South Asia. The British, not possessing such power as the Spaniards, made a living by plundering ships full of booty from America. They were called pirates of pirates. Holland quickly became the center of European trade. In 1500, Holland had only 1 million inhabitants. After 150 years there were already twice as many of them. Half the population lived in cities. In the 16th century Holland alone had 1,800 ships, 6 times more than Venice had during its heyday a century earlier.

Great discoveries. Consequences for openers and openers

Columbus's discovery of America marked the beginning of the colonial era. Almost simultaneously, the Portuguese began colonizing Africa. The Spaniards, Portuguese, and then the British, French and Dutch rushed to new lands. At the same time, they considered the indigenous population of these lands as an annoying obstacle to the acquisition of territories or as free labor.

Colonization of America: A Promising Beginning

Already during Columbus's first voyage, the Spaniards “set the tone” for future relations between Europeans and Indians. Columbus wrote in his diary: “The Indians were so simple-minded, and the Spaniards were so greedy and insatiable, that they were not satisfied when the Indians exchanged a piece of glass, a shard broken cup or other insignificant things gave them everything they wanted. But even without giving anything, the Spaniards sought to take and capture everything.”

The proud name “conquistadors” was used by those who came to America after Columbus and established the power of Spain and Portugal in new territories with fire and sword. A hundred years after the discoveries of the Genoese, the American lands, where the Portuguese and Spaniards ruled, changed beyond recognition compared to the pre-Columbian era. The states of the Mayans, Incas, and Aztecs collapsed, and less organized and more peace-loving tribes were enslaved even faster. Indigenous people America fell into the hands of the most brutal slave owners that history has ever known. The Indians were deprived of all rights. They were subject to exorbitant taxes, forced to work in the fields - which henceforth belonged not to them, but to the conquistadors - in mines, and on road construction. Naturally, there was no talk of any introduction of the Indians to civilization. The only thing the Europeans gave their new slaves was Christianity. But the Christianization of the local population was often carried out quite formally: the missionaries did not explain the rules to the Indians

Monument to Christopher Columbus.

Communication of cultures is an inevitable historical process. Great geographical discoveries led to the rise of empires and to their destruction. Much happened with good intentions, others for selfish purposes. Today it is difficult to name who is right and who is wrong, but you can take a short excursion and see how it was. Figuring out which discoveries are considered great and which are not is quite difficult. Therefore, for the sake of fairness, the most significant moments in world history were taken for this article. Discovery of America, Australia and China. In these cases there were bright moments and not so good ones. So…

How Columbus discovered India

The thirst for gold blinded the Europeans. And satisfying it led to catastrophic consequences.

Why did the Aborigines eat Cook?

Contrary to popular belief, Cook was eaten (if eaten at all) not in Australia, but in the southeastern Hawaiian Islands.

Tea and gunpowder - halaso, white man - not very

Before the arrival of Europeans, gunpowder in China was used for fireworks, festivals and even as medicine. And only a small part is for military purposes.

Textbook: chapters 4, 8::: History of the Middle Ages: Early modern times

Chapter 4.

Great geographical discoveries of the mid-15th - mid-17th centuries. were associated with the process of primitive capital accumulation in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the robbery of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process and marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism and the formation of the world market.

The pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries began in the 15th century. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having conquered in the 13th century. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs in North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.

The first stage of Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions in which not only nobles, but also merchants participated. Back in the 20-30s of the 15th century. The Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, and advanced far to the south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462 - Sierra Leone. In 1471, they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold deposits. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1486 by Bartolomeo Dias created a real opportunity to prepare an expedition to India.

Long sea voyages became possible in the second half of the 15th century. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. Until the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they acquired during their travels gave sailors from many countries new valuable information about sea currents, ebbs and flows, and the direction of winds. Mapping new lands pushed the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. In many countries, reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished. Portuguese cartographers worked in many countries from Europe. At the beginning of the 16th century. The first maps appeared on which the lines of the tropics and the equator and the latitude scale were plotted.

Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli drew up a map of the world on which the shores of Asia were marked on the western coast of the Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India, an experience west of the shores of Europe. The Italian scientist incorrectly imagined the extent of the Earth along the equator, making an error of 12 thousand km. Subsequently they said that this was a great mistake that led to a great discovery.

By the end of the 15th century. Navigation instruments (compass and astrolabe) were significantly improved, making it possible to more accurately determine the position of a ship on the open sea than before. Appeared new type The vessel was a caravel, which, thanks to the sail system, could sail both with and against the wind, reaching a speed of 22 km per hour. The ship had a small crew (1/10 of the crew of a rowing galley) and could take on board enough food and fresh water for long-distance voyages.

At the end of the 15th century. The Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus's life. He was born in Genoa into a weaver's family, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, and knew astronomy and geography well. Columbus proposed his project, approved by Toscanelli, to the Spanish monarchs - to reach the shores of India, sailing west across the Atlantic. Previously, Columbus had in vain proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. By this time, the Portuguese were already close to opening the route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. France and England at that time did not have a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.

In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the reconquest of Granada in 1492 and completion last war With the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had free land to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgos) were left without a means of subsistence. Brought up by centuries of the Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire to quickly get rich, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new campaigns of conquest. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, overseas, into unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical location and long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in the 15th century. found itself cut off from Mediterranean trade, which was controlled Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made trade with the East even more difficult for Europe. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since advancement in this direction meant a clash with Portugal.

All these circumstances turned out to be decisive for the Spanish court to accept Columbus's project. The idea of ​​overseas expansion was supported by the top of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (capitulation) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to 1/10 of the income from the newly discovered possessions and 1/8 of the profits from trade.

On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Palos (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwest direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which was covered with algae, which created the illusion of proximity to land. The flotilla found itself in the trade wind zone and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the seaweed, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, and a mutiny was brewing on the ships. In early October, after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored its northern shore.

Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his most big ship and was forced to leave part of the crew on Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having strengthened it with cannons from the lost ship and leaving supplies of food and gunpowder for the garrison, Columbus began to prepare for the return voyage. The fortress on Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - became the first Spanish settlement in the New World.

The open lands, their nature, appearance and occupations of their inhabitants did not in any way resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin color, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.

Columbus's discoveries worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tordesillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.

Columbus made three more voyages to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and the coast of Central America. Until the end of his days, Columbus believed that he had found the western route to India, hence the name of the lands “Western Indies,” which was preserved in official documents until the end of the 16th century. However, even on subsequent trips they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals, income from new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many expressed doubts that these lands were India, and the number of Columbus's enemies grew. The discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World was especially great, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance of the famous navigator in Spain in chains and under arrest aroused the indignation of many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Columbus was soon rehabilitated and all his titles were returned to him.

During his last voyage, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba and explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea over a distance of 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.

While sailing along the coast of Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes: they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew metal smelting. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus's ship was caught in a strong storm, and Columbus with great difficulty reached the coast of Spain. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, Columbus's patron, died, and he lost all support at court. He received no response to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from the newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.

Opening of the sea route to India, colonial conquests of the Portuguese.

The tragic fate of Columbus is largely explained by the successes of the Portuguese. In 1497, Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and discovered the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Calicut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having purchased a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved; enormous opportunities opened up for the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Soon, thanks to their superiority in weapons and naval technology, they managed to oust Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and take control of all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiters of the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. The Portuguese demanded that the Indian princes cease all trade relations with the Arabs and expel the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, and brutally exterminated their crews. Albuquerque, who was first the commander of the squadron and then became the Viceroy of India, was particularly ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should strengthen themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron destroyed defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, causing horror with its atrocities. Arab attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (northern coast of India) was defeated.

In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajahs. The colonialists entered into alliances with some of them, built fortresses on their territory and stationed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took control of all trade relations between individual regions of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade brought huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the spice trade, which were brought here from the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose on the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% profit. The government artificially kept prices high. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the vast colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to maintain high prices, they were destroyed.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese persistently sought a western route to this rich country. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second voyage, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new continent, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps,

Opening of the western route to India. First trip around the world.

Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result trip around the world Magellan (1519-1522).

Ferdinand Magellan (Maguillayans) was a descendant of the Portuguese nobility. IN early youth he took part in naval expeditions while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Having no idea, he considered it possible to reach them by moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At this time it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the “South Sea,” as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive much income from the newly discovered lands, was interested in Magellan’s project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American continent and open the western route to India. They complained to him about the titles of ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth part of all income that would go to the treasury.

On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American continent and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. At the end of November 1520, the flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, the voyage along which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, the wind was blowing, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it could be stormy and formidable. During the entire journey, as Magellan’s companion Pigafetta wrote in his diary, the squadron encountered only two deserted islands. The ship's crews suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy. During the voyage, most of the crew died. Only on March 6, 1521 did the sailors reach three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey to the west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and there he soon died in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d'Elcano reached the Moluccas and, having captured a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived at the Spanish port of San Lucar on September 6, 1522. Of the crew of 253 people, only 18 returned.

New discoveries led to an exacerbation of previous contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time Experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained rights to the Philippine Islands, which were named after the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip II. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat Magellan’s journey, and the path across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.

Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. Conquest of Mexico and Peru.

In 1500-1510 expeditions led by participants in Columbus's voyages explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By this time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became an outpost of Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which was called the “key to the New World.” Fortresses and settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, and plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices arose. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the costs of sea expeditions, the Spaniards began economic development of this area. Enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic decline in population. To replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to import Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged; they were given plots of land, they were exempt from taxes for 20 years, and they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, there was not enough labor, and from the middle of the 16th century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.

Since 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). This stage began with the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic “land of gold” - Eldorado. Going out to the Pacific coast, he planted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. Here, detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading into the interior of the mainland.

In 1517-1518 The detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the coast of Yucatan in search of slaves, encountered the most ancient of pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. The shocked conquistadors saw magnificent cities surrounded by fortified walls, rows of pyramids, stone temples, richly decorated with carvings of gods and religious animals. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards discovered a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, and chased gold disks with scenes of battles and scenes of sacrifice. The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by the fineness of work and richness of colors.

The Indians, who had never seen horses, were frightened by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Particularly fearful firearms, which they could oppose only with a bow, arrows and cotton shells.

By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided between several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. City rulers collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs, foreign policy, they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the remaining land was used jointly. Basic labor force there were free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, and hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy; debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were enslaved. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the community labor service to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.

The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America that had writing. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles writing Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Mayan books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of “paper” made from plant fibers and then placed in cases. There were significant libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses.

Not only superior weaponry, but also internal struggles between city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. From local residents The Spaniards learned that precious metals were being brought from the Aztec country, lying north of Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment headed by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set out to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His detachment consisted of 400 infantry soldiers, 16 horsemen and 200 Indians, and had 10 heavy cannons and 3 light guns.

The Aztec state, which Cortes set out to conquer, stretched from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes lived on its territory, conquered by the Aztecs. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. A large agricultural population lived here; with the work of many generations, a perfect artificial irrigation system was created, and high yields of cotton, corn, and vegetables were grown. The Aztecs, like other peoples of America, did not domesticate domestic animals, did not know wheeled traction, or metal tools. The social system of the Aztecs was in many ways reminiscent of the Mayan state. The main economic unit was neighborhood community. There was a system of labor service for the population in favor of the state for the construction of palaces, temples, etc. Crafts among the Aztecs had not yet been separated from agriculture; both farmers and artisans lived in the community; there was a stratum of representatives of the nobility and leaders - caciques, who had large tracts of land and used the labor of slaves. Unlike the Mayans, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, and the transition to the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually carried out. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors made it easier for the Spaniards to win this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes went over to their side and participated in the fight against the Aztec rulers. Thus, during the last siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians took part in the battle. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico spanned more than two decades. The last Mayan stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion of Yucatan. Mexico lived up to the hopes of its conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the 16th century. The development of silver mines began. The merciless exploitation of Indians in mines and construction, and massive epidemics led to a rapid decline in population. Over 50 years it has decreased from 4.5 million to 1 million people.

Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado on the coast of South America. In 1524, the conquest of the territory of present-day Colombia began, where the port of Santa Marta was founded. From here, the Spanish conquistador Jimenez Quesada, moving up the Magdalena River, reached the possessions of the Chibcha-Muisca tribes living on the Bogotá plateau. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving production, and processing of copper, gold and silver were developed here. The Chibcha were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold discs served as their equivalent in trade with other regions. Having conquered the largest Chibcha-Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded the city of Santa Fe de Bogota in 1536.

The second stream of colonization came from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Rich Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in preparing expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by the semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura, Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his fellow countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the west coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Fertile, densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, raising herds of llamas, which were used as pack animals. The meat and milk of llamas was used for food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - leader of a detachment of conquistadors. His two brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura joined the expedition. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. The path opened before him to conquer the Inca state - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which was experiencing a period of greatest growth at the time of the Spanish invasion. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru has been inhabited by Quechua Indians. In the XIV century. one of the Quechuan tribes - the Incas - was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. By the beginning of the 16th century. The Inca state included part of the territory of Chile and Argentina. From the tribe of conquerors a military nobility was formed, and the word “Inca” acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Incan power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, implanted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Like the Mayans and Aztecs, the basic unit of Inca society was the neighboring community. Along with family plots, there were “Inca fields” and “Sun fields”, which were cultivated together and the harvest from them went to support the rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already allocated, which were the property and were passed on by inheritance. The ruler of Tahuantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.

In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards embarked on a campaign into the interior of Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast, conquered by the Incas, supported the conquerors. Almost without encountering resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the high mountainous region of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler Tahuantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the prisoner of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cuzco, which was conquered after a difficult struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of Peru lasted more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. A new Indian state arose in inaccessible mountainous areas, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572.

Simultaneously with Pizarro’s campaign in Peru in 1535-1537. Adelantado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to return to Cuzco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, in which F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d'Almagro died. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucanian tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in the end of the 17th century. The colonization of La Plata began in 1515, lands along the La Plata and Paraguay rivers were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization merged here.

If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru) the systematic exploitation of the richest mines began. Rich deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle of the 16th century. The mines of Potosi provided 1/2 of the world's silver production.

Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors abandon the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for gold and silver from the New World.

Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was to enrich themselves. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that gold and silver in America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or was spent on supporting Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.

Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of the country (see Chapter 8), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the conquered lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, and the labor service of the population in favor of the state. Important role In the economy, along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, slave labor of Muslim prisoners played a role. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.

The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population and they used various forms of community labor service in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards preserved the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and the tax system. Harvests from the “fields of the Inca” were now used to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the “fields of the Sun” - to church tithes.

The former elders (caciques, curacs) remained at the head of the communities; their families were exempt from taxes and duties, but had to ensure timely payment of taxes and labor for the mines. The local call was brought into the service of the Spanish king, who merged with the Spanish conquerors. The descendants of many of them were then sent to Spain.

All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning in 1512, laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle developed between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians and for ownership of the land. During this struggle in the late 20s of the 16th century. arose special shape exploitation of the Indians - encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner, the encomendero, received the right to exploit the Indian communities living on the territory of the encomienda.

The encomendero was entrusted with the responsibility of promoting the Christianization of the population, monitoring the timely payment of the "tributo" and the fulfillment of labor duties in mines, construction, and agricultural work. With the creation of the encomienda, the Indian community was included in the Spanish colonial system. The community's lands were declared its inalienable property. The formation of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by the creation of a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting against the separatist tendencies of the conquistadors.

In the first half of the 16th century. In general terms, a system of governing the Spanish colonies in America was formed. Two viceroyalties were created: New Spain(Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean islands) and the Viceroyalty of Peru, which covered almost the rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil. Viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility, they were sent to the colonies for three years, did not have the right to take their family with them, buy land and real estate there, or engage in business. The activities of the viceroys were controlled by the "Council of the Indies", whose decisions had the force of law.

Colonial trade was brought under the control of the Seville Chamber of Commerce (1503): it carried out customs inspection of all cargo, collected duties, and kept emigration processes under supervision. All other cities in Spain were deprived of the right to trade with America bypassing Seville. The main economic sector in the Spanish colonies was mining. In this regard, the viceroys were responsible for providing the royal mines with labor, timely receipt of income to the treasury, including the poll tax from the Indians. The viceroys also had full military and judicial powers.

The one-sided economic development in the Spanish colonies had a disastrous effect on the fate of the indigenous population and the future development of the continent. Until the middle of the 17th century. There was a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population. In many areas by 1650 it had decreased by 10-15 times compared to the end of the 16th century, primarily due to the diversion of the working-age male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This led to decline traditional forms agriculture, reducing the birth rate. An important reason was frequent famines and epidemics that devastated entire regions. Since the middle of the 16th century. The Spaniards began to resettle Indians in new villages closer to the mines, introducing a communal system into them. Residents of these villages, in addition to government work, had to cultivate the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". Severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. In the middle and second half of the 16th century. Mostly Spanish nobles moved to the colonies; peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. Thus, in Potosí in 1572 there were 120 thousand inhabitants, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish immigrants emerged in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no connections with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and constituted special group, called Creoles.

Under conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, the displacement of their languages ​​by Spanish. This was greatly facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different regions into settlements near the mines. Representatives of various tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, and the number of mestizos quickly increased. Already by the middle of the 17th century. in many areas a large mulatto population appears from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical for the Caribbean coast, Cuba, and Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, and blacks existed as closed racial-ethnic groups, very different in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was consolidated by Spanish legislation. A person's position in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles had relatively full rights. Mestizos were prohibited from living in communities, owning land, carrying weapons, and engaging in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were freed from labor duties, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.

On the Caribbean coast and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the black and mulatto population predominated.

Portuguese colonies.

The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of a tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The lack of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the uniqueness of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of trading capital. Organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530, and it took the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captaincys, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony proceeded slowly. The absence of peasant migrants and the small number of indigenous people made the development of feudal forms of economy impossible. The areas where the plantation system, based on the exploitation of black slaves from Africa, developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the 16th century. at a fast pace The importation of African slaves is increasing. In 1583, there were 25 thousand white settlers and millions of slaves throughout the colony. White settlers lived mainly in the coastal zone in rather closed groups. Here, miscegenation did not take off on a large scale; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant; a unique language of communication between the Indians and the Portuguese arose - “lengua geral”, which was based on one of the local dialects and basic grammatical and lexical forms Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil over the next two centuries.

Colonization and the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church played a major role in the colonization of America, which, both in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus and the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the purpose of which was to be the Christianization of the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, direct missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly became the largest land owner. The conquistadors were well aware that Christianization would play a big role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who acquired big influence on La Plata and Brazil, Groups of monks followed the conquistador troops, creating their own villages - missions; the centers of the missions were churches and houses that served as dwellings for the monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built to house a Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both outposts of Christianization and border points of the Spanish possessions.

In the first decades of the Conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, and historical memory people. However, Catholic priests soon began to act in other ways. Carrying out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and Spanish, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die; it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. A new culture gradually emerged based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.

Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, and used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. Thus, not far from the city of Mexico, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for Indians. The Church claimed that a miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many icons and special rituals were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a “dark Madonna,” and in her cult itself echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.

Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean.

In the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from the territory of Peru, during which the Solomon Islands (1567), Southern Polynesia (1595) and Melanesia (1605) were discovered. Even during Magellan’s journey, the idea arose about the existence of a “Southern Continent”, of which they were again open islands South-East Asia. These assumptions were expressed in geographical works of the early 17th century; the mythical continent was mapped under the name "Terra incognita Australia" (unknown southern land). In 1605, a Spanish expedition set off from Peru, consisting of three ships. During the voyage to the coast of Southeast Asia, islands were discovered, one of which A. Quiros, who was at the head of the squadron, mistook for the coast of the southern mainland. Abandoning his companions to the mercy of fate, Quiros hastened to return to Peru, and then went to Spain to report his discovery and secure the rights to manage new lands and generate income. The captain of one of the two ships abandoned by Quiros - the Portuguese Torres - continued sailing and soon found out that Quiros was mistaken and discovered not a new continent, but a group of islands (New Hebrides). To the south of them stretched an unknown land - true Australia. Sailing further west, Torres passed through the strait between the coast of New Guinea and Australia, which was later named after him. Having reached the Philippine Islands, which were the possession of Spain, Torres informed the Spanish governor about his discovery, this news was transmitted to Madrid. However, Spain at that time did not have the strength and means to develop new lands. Therefore, the Spanish government kept secret all information about the discovery of Torres for a whole century, fearing the rivalry of other powers.

In the middle of the 17th century. The Dutch began exploring the coast of Australia. In 1642, A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, rounded Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island called Tasmania.

Only 150 years after Torres's journey, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about Torres' discovery were discovered in the archives. In 1768 English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania, rediscovered the Torres Strait and the eastern coast of Australia; Subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized as Torres.

Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that much earlier Europeans visited the coast of America and made trips to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus marked the beginning of constant and varied connections between Europe and America and opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of “geographical discovery” includes the establishment of a direct connection between newly discovered lands and centers of culture of the Old World.

The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the world and destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.

Extension scientific knowledge gave impetus rapid development industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of financial systems, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the “price revolution,” which gave new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe and accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy.

However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by the monstrous exploitation of conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.

The text is printed according to the edition: History of the Middle Ages: In 2 vols. T. 2: Early modern times: I90 Textbook / Ed. SP. Karpova. - M: Publishing house of Moscow State University: INFRA-M, 2000. - 432 p.