Drawing of a plaster head. Drawing a plaster head from an antique sample
Neck bones consist of seven cervical vertebrae, which include the upper part of the spine. Large muscles The muscles that influence the shape of the neck are the trapezius muscle in the back and the sternomastoid muscle in the front. They run from the back of the ear down to the inner ends of the collarbones.
Neck capable of movement in all directions: tilt your head forward and backward, to the side towards either shoulder, and rotate it from side to side 180 degrees.
Apart from the sound-conducting structures in the ears, only the jaw moves from the joints of the head. All other bones of the skull are rigidly interlocked and immovable.
Facial muscles can be divided into two types:
Proportions of the human head. Simple construction method
The face is, of course, the most expressive part of the body. Here simple construction method, which will help you see what simple shapes the head consists of. The average proportions of a human head are shown in the figure below. The height of the head is approximately the same as its width when viewed from the side, so in profile it fits into a square. When viewed from the front, the width of the head is much less than its height.
Start by drawing the head in profile. Draw a circle for the skull and then add two lines on the front of the face to indicate the jaw, as shown in the image above.
The most common rookie mistake when depicting the head is that head seems flat. Therefore, as soon as possible, try to draw three-quarter view of the head, trying to display the roundness and solidity of the forms. Use light reference lines to indicate the center line of the face and the position of the eyes. 
The picture shows a rather characterless face, but at this stage the main thing is to understand the basic forms. People's faces differ from the average pattern in many ways, how exactly will be discussed in detail in the following lessons. These drawings represent the first step. If you draw hundreds of these simplified heads, you will come to understand all the subtleties of the relief of the human face and will be able to imbue your drawings with life and character.
The most important thing to understand is that the face is not just a flat surface with details superimposed on it. To draw faces successfully, you must understand the three-dimensional shape of the surface - that's why we started with the featureless average face, which can belong to either a man or a woman. 
If you look at the hazy newspaper photograph of the crowd below, you'll see that each face differs from the others only in the way it displays light and shadow, not in the shape of its eyes or lips. If you can imagine face as a template, in this case you will avoid the common mistake of creating lifeless mechanisms of eyes, noses and mouths, indistinguishable from each other. 
That's why practice drawing a face template adding light and shadow until you fully understand its shape. 
The images above show several basic face and head shapes from different angles. Once again, it is important now that you understood the real shape of the surface, not just a plan.
The article used materials from the book “Figure Drawing without a model” by Ron Tiner.
Compose the image on the sheet. Knowing that the front part has many small details, it is necessary to create a larger background field in front of it. The image of the head moves slightly upward, since the lower part of the sheet should be more heavy. When outlining the general proportions, you need to pay attention to the ratio of the total width to the total height of the head, find out what proportions of the rectangle the plaster head fits into.
Having determined the tilt, rotation and plastic characteristics of the total volume, outline the general dimensions of the image and the outlines of the total mass of the head.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Second phase
Taking into account the perspective reductions, generalization, outline the average profile section. Mark a line passing through the middle of the eye section. This line will divide the head into two equal parts vertically. The main task at this stage is to correctly identify perspective abbreviations and express them when drawing these lines. This will help in further work. You will need to check yourself each time, relying on the directions previously specified in the drawing.
Often, when outlining a profile section, the draftsman is faced with the problem of determining the slope. The tilt of the head should be found based on an imaginary line connecting the bridge of the nose to the middle of the chin and the vertical. Determining the facial angle is also of great importance. By outlining two generalized lines of sections, the so-called cross, the drawer must firmly establish his horizon line.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Third stage
Based on anatomical points, highlight the general proportions of the facial part. Anatomical points should be primarily the temporal lines, the protrusions of the zygomatic bones and the angles of the lower jaw. It is necessary to determine the proportions of the front part by comparing it with the general shape.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Fourth stage
Study the profile of the head and strictly outline the profile longitudinal section. You need to start drawing the section from the midpoint of the nose bridge. Moving up to the back of the head, down to the chin and jugular cavity, examine the entire head. When outlining a profile section, you should check the proportionality of individual small parts of the head and correctly identify protruding points, comparing them with each other vertically.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Fifth stage
Outline the width of the large shapes of each part of the head, building from the profile section and taking into account the perspective cuts and pairing of shapes. Perform a three-dimensional constructive construction of the head shape.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Sixth stage
Draw small details, checking the construction using sections. Trace the turns of the form, conveying the complex plastic basis of the human head, and complete the linear constructive drawing.
By remembering the canons that have come to us from time immemorial, and comparing them with what is in nature, students more accurately determine the nature of the shape and proportions of a particular head. In the sculptural images of heads made by ancient sculptors, some general patterns can be traced.
The front part of the head can be divided into three equal parts. The line delimiting the upper third of the middle part runs at eye level. The height of the ear is equal to the height of the middle third of the face. It is necessary to begin construction based on knowledge about the features of the structural structure of the plastic shape of the head, obtained while working on the trimming pattern.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Seventh stage
Considering the direction of the light, outline the main volume of the head and the main details in a light tone. Strictly trace the light separations in the drawing. Show illumination.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Eighth stage
Introduce halftones, moving on to more detailed identification of form, while maintaining a constructive, proportional and perspective basis of construction. Analyze the form according to tonal gradations, subordinating them to the tonal scale. Subordinate all the elements of chiaroscuro to their relationships, achieving the integrity of the drawing.
Drawing of a human head (plaster anatomical head). Ninth stage
Define more precise light and shadow gradations by accumulating details and subordinating them to the overall form. Taking into account the tone, at the same time clarify the structural basis of the plastic form. Summarize and complete the drawing of the anatomical head.
Similar to the drawing of a plaster anatomical head, the drawing of any other life is carried out.
Study drawing of a plaster head of Gattamelata
Let's look at the stages of drawing a plaster head.
As a natural model, let’s take a plaster cast of the head of the monument to Erasmo de Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata.
This head is extremely useful for educational drawing, thanks to the pronounced architectonics of the form. In simpler terms, the plans (planes) on this head are clearly defined and detailed.
In a certain sense, the antique female heads can be considered the opposite of this head, where all plans are smoothed out and studied with difficulty.
Nowadays, the situation is aggravated by the fact that plaster heads sold in popular stores look as if they were also sanded, not to mention distorted castings. For example, the head of Gattamelata, which can be found in showrooms, no longer resembles the prototype.
In this case, we take a casting from Soviet times.
We place the light from above so that the volume works, but so that the shadows from the brow ridges and nose are not too large, if possible.
We begin to draw with light lines, without pressing on the pencil. It should be borne in mind that the drawings presented here, especially the first stages, in reality are much lighter in tone.
First, we mark the composition on the sheet. The composition must immediately be in proportions and in character, otherwise in the process of changes and clarifications of proportions, tilt, etc. it can change a lot...
In any case, if you immediately determine what is important for you in the composition of the sheet, where the “center” is, then even with small changes it will never lose.
The composition of such educational drawings is usually extremely simple, the question arises, why bother bothering yourself with this at all?
And then, that all the principles we are considering work in drawing and creativity in general, and not just in this particular case. Developing the right attitudes and habits is beneficial for the future. It’s unlikely that you are preparing yourself to be a plaster head painter...
We start with light lines, do not put pressure on the pencil for two reasons: 1) a drawing that is light in tone is easily erased i.e. it is easy to edit 2) when pressing on the pencil, the hand tenses and the consciousness micro-strains, goes into the hand, which means at this very second it does not observe nature.
We place the main details and fractures of the shape, but do not forget that now we are NOT DRAWING DETAILS, but DRAWING THE WHOLE WITH DETAILS.
In practice, this means that we constantly look at the whole nature and at the drawing as a whole, trying to more accurately take the general proportions of the head as a whole, the rotation, tilt and nature of the form.
But we cannot take all these basic things abstractly, therefore, we immediately grasp all the most characteristic moments, but without hanging on them, but as if rushing past.
It is better to immediately outline elements that are closer to us with a little more contrast than parts that are further away. Due to this, volume and space begin to appear at the beginning of the drawing.
At the same time, until you find out that all the details and dimensions are taken correctly, the overall tonality of the drawing should remain light so that it is easy for you to edit.
After you have outlined the main characteristic relationships by eye, it will not be superfluous to try on, starting with the largest sizes.
Also, pointing the pencil vertically and horizontally at the nature and drawing, check whether the slope is correct.
Why is it better to first outline everything by eye and only then start measuring? Because by doing this, each time you give your eye a small chance, as if you feed it. Gradually he begins to justify your trust.
Gradually you should understand the architectonics of the head shape. You can add light shadow to immediately create volume.
This should be done in accordance with the plans (planes) and fractures (rotations) of the head shape that you see. To do this, it is useful to come closer and look carefully from different angles.
In order to have a good understanding of the location of plans and shape fractures, you need to be very interested in this issue and notice them on all the plaster and living heads that you see in front of you.
Training “cutting” heads should be drawn many times in different turns and angles. At the same time, many long-term sketches of 20-30 minutes of small size (8-12 cm) from different points provide much more benefits than just two full-size three-quarter drawings on the left and right, as is the case in some educational institutions.
In addition, from the point from which you draw, not the entire shape of the head can be perceived adequately.
Therefore, you should not be shy to approach and inspect (sometimes feel) the form from all sides.
As you manage to correctly find both the general proportions of the head and its details, you can slowly add more tonality - we make more active what is closer. Due to this, volume and space appear. By space we mean that the more active (done in the picture with more contrast) parts appear to be located closer than the parts decided more softly. Accordingly, it is worth making more contrasting those parts that are actually closer to us, in this case, this is the nose, the near cheekbone, the brow ridge, the near edge of the mouth, etc.
This whole transfer of space as a whole gives a feeling of overall volume, the overall shape of the head - more or less reminiscent of an egg.
At the same time, we use the transition of the drawing from linear to tonal in order to compare everything even more accurately.
The more realistic the tonality is, the easier it will be to compare, because in life we see everything in spots, not in pencil lines.
Therefore, you need to continue comparing until the end of the drawing.
As you can see, details are added gradually.
At the same time, the more confident we are that the main thing is taken correctly, the more confidently we arrange the details. The more specific each place becomes, the easier it is for us to compare the whole again. The easier it is for us to compare the whole, the easier it is for us to adjust the arrangement of small parts. The more specifically we worked on the details in the foreground, the more volume and greater relationships are felt, and so on ad infinitum.
Thus, our consciousness constantly looks at the overall impression of the head as a whole.
At the same time, the more tonal the drawing becomes (the more we gain the real tonality of dark and light places),
it is all the more important for us to remember to often look with an unfocused gaze. What is it about?
In ordinary life, if we look at an object, we see it clearly, specifically, all the details in turn.
For this reason, our gaze often rushes from detail to detail, examines them, but at this very time does not see the whole - it is impossible to see absolutely clearly many places at once. But this is not particularly necessary. But to see as a whole (in a literal, not figurative sense) is necessary.
If you just look at the entire object you are drawing at the same time, it will be a little unclear. This is the look we need - the one that needs to be added in addition to the usual “jumping” look. You can also glance around without focusing - all this usually happens when a person is thinking, “looking absent-mindedly.”
There is a famous saying by Chistyakov: “When you draw an ear, look at the heel!” You can interpret it in different ways, but the fact is that the details are better placed in their places when you look at the entire object with a slightly defocused look.
When working in tone, we need to see the overall tonal picture and clearly visible details usually greatly interfere with this.
Moreover, the more unfocused we look, the more details disappear, the better we see the overall picture, the basic relationships.
This vision of the basic tonal relationships allows us to correctly set the tone of the drawing.
It is important not to forget to constantly compare linear relationships - the proportions of the head as a whole, the location of small and large parts, etc.
The ability to look out of focus does not mean that you do not need to move away from the drawing and compare from a distance. On the contrary, doing this from a distance is even more convenient and efficient.
Constructive drawing - This is a section of the discipline of academic drawing - drawing the external contours of objects, both visible and invisible, made using construction lines. You create a “skeleton” of the object you are going to draw. And in order to create such a frame, you need to analyze the depicted object. Constructive drawing begins with analysis.
Take a closer look, think about what the object consists of? From which geometric solids? What are the simplest geometric bodies? These are cube, ball, cylinder, cone, prism, etc. If you learn to see geometric bodies in the objects around you, then you can easily create a frame, or, more precisely, a constructive drawing.
For example, let's take an ordinary bottle. It contains a cylinder, perhaps a cone (truncated), and also, perhaps, a truncated ball or torus. Or, for example, a cabinet or table - consists of a tetrahedral prism or, perhaps, of cubes and parallelepipeds.
Therefore, the first step is to learn to find geometric bodies in everything that surrounds us. This will help develop three-dimensional thinking.
The second step is the image of the “frame”. You need to learn how to correctly place the geometric bodies that make up the depicted object in space. This requires knowledge of linear perspective.
That is, you need to know what the horizon line is, vanishing points and how to use this knowledge. For example, when we draw an ordinary cube, we draw lines of parallel faces of the cube so that they converge at one point or two points on the horizon line.
The second point is the center line.
It helps to create the design correctly. For example, we need to draw two cylinders of different thickness, that is, different diameters. And one cylinder is located above the other. We make, for example, the design of a bottle. For this we need a centerline. If the bottle is standing, then this line will be vertical.
Draw a vertical line. Draw a rectangle (the main part of the bottle) so that this line runs through the middle. Draw another smaller rectangle (neck) so that the center line runs in the middle. Now you need to draw (construct) 4 ellipses - below and above each of the rectangles.
It's already becoming something more like a bottle. Or here's another design option for you. If you draw a bottle in perspective, look at it from the side and a little from above. How then do we create a constructive drawing? First, we draw not two rectangles, but two tetrahedral prisms, from which we will then get two cylinders.
It’s clear, first there is one prism - the main one. Next, we draw diagonals on the lower and upper planes of this prism, obtaining two points. We connect these points - we get the middle axis. This axis will help us build another prism correctly, from which we will create a cylinder for the bottle neck.
By placing one prism on top of another, we build two cylinders. After that, we round the corners, giving this design the plausibility of a bottle. You can create not only designs for simple objects such as dishes and furniture, but also animals and even humans.
Despite the complexity of the structure of a person or animal, we can find simple geometric bodies in them - cylinders, prisms, cubes, balls, etc. Simply, in order to master a constructive drawing, you need to see, as if right through, what makes up what we let's draw.
Start developing three-dimensional thinking with an ordinary cube. Draw it on a piece of paper, this is, whatever one may say, the basis. This is where the constructive drawing begins. The cube presents us with three dimensions of space - width, height and depth.
The latter, that is, depth, is an illusion, since we cannot have depth on the plane of the sheet. Here are some examples of constructive construction.
This is how the frame or wrapping surface for the future object is created. This is constructive construction.
Now let's look at examples of constructive step-by-step drawings from simple geometric shapes to the human figure:
Step by step drawing methodology...
Constructive analysis of the shape of everyday objects.
Studying perspective using cubes of various sizes as an example.
Still life of geometric bodies.
Object still life at the stage of shaping.
Completed object still life.
Simple table still life.
Drawing of a complex object.
Drawing of a plaster palette.
Drawing of a column capital of the Ionic order.
Drapery drawing.
Perspective drawing of the interior.
Constructive analysis of the skull shape with shading.
Drawing of a human head being chopped off.
Drawing of a human head.
The drawing of David's eye is an exercise in understanding the shape of the parts of the human head.
Constructive construction of the human head (front part).
Constructive analysis of a human head with faint shading.
Drawing of the plaster head of the Condaier Gattamelata.
Analysis of the shape of the plaster head of Apollo Belvedere from several angles.
Drawing of the head of Zeus in two angles.
Drawing of the head of Emperor Hadrian's favorite, Antinous.
So, a prerequisite for drawing is a consistent planned course of work on the drawing. It is completely wrong to work in parts, drawing first, for example, then, etc., or “jumping” from detail to detail. As a result of this method, there will be no complete image.
The integrity of the vision of the model and the integrity of its image is one of the main tasks of the drawing and this task must be set at all stages of the work, starting from the first sketch.
Therefore, it is first necessary, without paying attention to details, to concentrate on the large shape of the head and find out its characteristic features.
Thus, at this stage, the general shape of the head is clarified and the main details are outlined, but always in relation to the whole and to each other. Therefore, you need to look at the entire volume as a whole and, outlining one detail, “keep in mind” and the rest, especially paired ones, are symmetrical. The entire volume at this stage is outlined by several main surfaces.
Third stage (Fig. 3). Further, more in-depth analysis of the form continues. More precisely, the shape of the brain skull is constructed, its main surfaces are demarcated. The same is done with the rest of the head: zygomatic arches, orbital sockets, etc.
You should not draw any detail more carefully than others. The drawing at any stage must be equally worked out in all parts. If only the main surfaces that form the shape of the skull are outlined, then the nose at this stage should be clarified only in relation to the general dimensions and main surfaces; let its shape be somewhat geometric for now, but it should already have an individual character.
Now timely determine the height of the hump and the width of the nose at the base and tip, the size of the wings. The main directions of the surfaces (including thickness) of the lips are also outlined; As for the eye, the shape of the orbital socket is now more accurately constructed, and the thickness and position of the eyelids are outlined. At the lower jaw, the main turns of the shape are determined and constructed... The main attention should be paid to the construction of the edge of the jaw with its angles and the chin prominence.
When constructing a volume, it is advisable to divide its surface into main directions close to planes. This helps well in understanding the constructive form. Having understood the direction of these surfaces, it will be easier to determine which of them is darker, which is lighter, which is more turned towards the light source, which is smaller.
This should also be guided by when laying out light and shade - not just copy the lightening and darkening observed in nature, but be consistent with the direction of the surface of each section of the volume; only in this case the process of sculpting the form using chiaroscuro will be conscious.
