World artistic culture and what to think about it. Introduction

The concept of “culture” has so many meanings that there is still no single definition. We are speaking " Greek culture", "work culture", " art culture" To better understand the meaning of this word, let's look at its origin.

Originally Latin word « culture » meant “cultivation of the land” and was contrasted with the meaning of “natura”, i.e. nature. The term “culture” can be used in other similar meanings: education, development, improvement.

Thus, the concept of “culture” means everything that is created by human labor as a result of the transformation of nature in the desire to achieve perfection. This is both the result and the very process of people’s creative activity to transform nature, based on highly conscious activity. That's why culture does not exist outside of man and his activities. The history of human society is the history of world artistic culture.

Culture is a historically determined level of development of society and man, expressed in the types and forms of organization of people’s lives and activities.

Culture is a set of genetically non-inherited information in the field of human behavior.

Culture is the total volume of human creativity.

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​produced by humanity throughout history.

Rice. 1. Conditional division of culture by type.

National culture – This is a set of symbols, beliefs, values, norms and patterns of behavior that characterize the spiritual life of the human community in a particular country or state.

World culture is a synthesis of the best achievements of all national cultures various peoples, from ancient civilizations to the present day.

Spiritual culture– the totality of all human knowledge and methods of activity to create spiritual values. The main types of spiritual creation are science, religion, and art.

Material culture- this is a culture, the objects of which are tools of labor, means of production, clothing, everyday life, housing, means of communication - everything that is the process and result of human material activity.

Folk culture is a culture of broad masses, which is formed from the moment of formation nation state passed down from generation to generation in the process of direct interaction. Folk culture is created by the people themselves, often by unknown authors. It includes: fairy tales, songs, folklore, myths, traditions, customs.

Elite culture is a culture of privileged groups of society, characterized by closedness, aristocracy and self-sufficiency.

Culture is an integral aspect of the life of society, it is inseparable from man as a social being: culture is a process active work human, aimed at mastering, knowing and transforming the world. The degree of development of culture always depends on the specific historical stage of society. the main role culture in the life of society is that culture acts as a means of storing and transmitting human experience.

Hence the main functions of culture:

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In addition to the presented types of culture (Fig. 1), artistic culture is distinguished separately.

Art culture- one of the types of culture, problem solver intellectual and sensory reflection of existence in artistic images.

This position of artistic culture is based on the ability for artistic creativity inherent only in man, which distinguishes him from other living beings. Artistic culture cannot be reduced only to art or identified with cultural activity in general.

Rice. 2 Example work of art primitive man. Cave painting of a bull from the Altamira cave (Spain).

Art occupies a central place in artistic culture. Art is a type of artistic exploration of reality by a person, with the goal of forming and developing his ability to creatively transform the world and himself according to the laws of beauty.

We consider art to be: literature, painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, art photography, decorative and applied arts, theater, circus, cinema, etc. In each of them, works of art are created - books, paintings, sculptures, performances, films, etc.

Each nation has its own culture, and together all the peoples of the world have created a world culture.

World Art- not a simple sum of cultures of equal peoples. This is a constant interaction of cultures. Each nation “speaks” to other nations, to people separated from it by centuries, in the language of its culture. And this universal language of culture should be understandable to you and me, like the language of mathematics or physics, like foreign language, knowledge of which makes a person especially educated. Of course, we must learn to understand the language of culture.

Review questions:

1. Think about how culture influences a person?
2. Think about how a person influences culture?
3. What types of art do you know?
4. Using additional sources, find out what relation physical culture has to culture?

Lectures on the course "World Art Culture". Leskova I.A.

Volgograd: VSPU; 2009 - 147 p.

A course of lectures is presented in which, through world art, the fundamental principles of the development of artistic culture in Europe, Russia and the countries of the East are revealed. For students, undergraduates, graduate students of art specialties.

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CONTENT
Lecture 1. World artistic culture as a subject of study 3
Lecture 2. Basic concepts of world artistic culture 7
Lecture 3. The archetypal basis of Western artistic culture 18
Lecture 4. Archetypal basis of the artistic culture of the East 30
Lecture 5. Categories of space and time in artistic culture 42
Lecture 6 Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of antiquity and the Middle Ages 47
Lecture 7. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the Renaissance 54
Lecture 8. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of the New Age 64
Lecture 9. Categories of space and time in the artistic culture of modern times 88
Lecture 10. Artistic culture of Russia 108

The history of world artistic culture goes back thousands of years, but it became an independent object of scientific analysis only in the 18th century. The study process was based on the idea that this area of ​​spiritual activity of society is a simple collection of art forms. Philosophy, aesthetics, historical sciences, art criticism, literary criticism studied artistic culture mainly from an internal artistic perspective: they analyzed ideological aspects of art, identified the artistic merits of works, the professional skills of their authors, and paid attention to the psychology of creativity and perception. From this perspective, world artistic culture was defined as the totality of artistic cultures of the peoples of the world that have developed in various regions over the course of historical development human civilization.
Many discoveries made along this path led to the formation of an idea of ​​world artistic culture as an integral process with its own dynamics and patterns. This idea began to take shape by the beginning of the 20th century. and fully manifested itself already in the first half of the last century in the studies of O. Benes, A. Hildebrand, G. Wölfflin, K. Voll, M. Dvorak and others. There was an understanding that there is a common spiritual-sensual basis expressed languages ​​of various types of art, and world artistic culture began to be viewed as a way of intellectual and sensory reflection of existence in artistic images.

Hagiography(from Greek - saint and I write) - literature about the life and deeds of saints.

Agon, agonistic(from Greek - struggle) - a characteristic feature ancient greek culture, permeated all spheres of life. It was associated with the idea that the achievement and identification of beauty, measure and harmony (the ideals of ancient Greek culture) is impossible without comparison, comparison, which usually took place in the form of competitions. Outstanding speakers fought for recognition by the people, authors of tragedies and comedies, as well as their performers, fought for success with the audience. It is no coincidence that the sport also adopted its classical form of competition in Greece, beginning with the Olympic Games.

Academicism- an artistic movement based on dogmatic adherence to classical models as ideal and unsurpassed. He was associated with the activities of official art institutions, where training was focused on the achievements of the great masters of previous eras. In the fine arts, this trend, which developed in the art academies of the 16th – 19th centuries, followed the external forms of classical art of antiquity and the Renaissance, implanted conventional, idealized images, subjects far from life, and abstract norms of beauty.

Watercolor– water paints and painting with them.

Acropolis(from Greek - upper city) is a well-fortified fortified city, usually built on a high hill from huge stone slabs.

Axiology(Greek) - a philosophical doctrine about the nature of values, about the connections of various values ​​among themselves, with social and cultural factors and the structure of personality.

Altar– 1) altar; 2) the eastern part of the Christian church, separated by an altar barrier, and from the 15th century by an iconostasis.

Amon-Ra- supreme deity Ancient Egypt. Amon is the main god of the city of Thebes, the god of the Sun. When Thebes became the capital of Egypt, Amun began to be considered the king of all gods. The Sun God Ra was worshiped in Heliopolis. Subsequently, the cults of Amun and Ra were united.

Empire style(from French - imperial) - an artistic style created in France at the beginning of the 19th century. It also spread to other countries. It was focused on Roman antiquity and became the art of the Napoleonic era. Massive, emphatically monumental forms and rich decor, based on the artistic heritage of antiquity, served to embody the ideas of state power and military force.

Animism(from Latin - soul, spirit) - one of the forms of primitive religiosity (along with magic, fetishism, totemism). Animism presupposes: 1) the belief that souls individuals continue to exist after death; 2) spirituality of forces and natural phenomena. Animism in its full development includes beliefs in world-governing deities and subordinate spirits, in the soul and in the afterlife; in cult practice, animism involved the worship of spirits and gods in order to propitiate them.

Entablature – top part structures lying on columns, an integral element of the architectural order; consists of an architrave, frieze, cornice.

Anthropogenesis(from Greek - man and emergence) - the process of human origin.

Anubis- in Ancient Egypt, the god of embalming, lord of the necropolis. He was depicted as a black dog (or jackal) or as a male figure with the head of a dog (jackal). From the end Ancient kingdom gives way to Osiris as the main deity of the dead and becomes his constant companion.

Apocalypse(Greek - revelation) - one of the books of the New Testament, an early, subsequently canonized Christian literary work (mid 68 - early 69). The author is considered to be John the Evangelist. Contains prophecies about the “end of the world,” the struggle between Christ and the Antichrist, the “Last Judgment,” and the “thousand-year Kingdom of God.”

Apostle(from Greek - messenger) 1) one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ, a witness of his life and Resurrection; 2) a book containing the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles; both are included in the New Testament.

Apse- an altar projection of a temple, usually semicircular or faceted in plan.

Arabesque – special kind an ornament consisting of combinations of geometric shapes and stylized images of plants - the so-called floral ornament. An epigraphic element was often included in the decorative pattern of the ornament: an inscription with a quotation from the Koran or a good wish. Geometric arabesque figures usually represent countless combinations of various polygons, around which stylized images of plants and letter combinations (Arabic script) are intricately intertwined.

Arch(or vault) - a curved ceiling of a room or opening.

Artifact(from Latin - artificially made) - an object of artificial origin.

Archatrope(from Greek - ancient man) - the most ancient person.

Asceticism– 1) religious teaching about the need to combat the “sensual attractions” of the body in order to achieve moral perfection and communication with the deity; 2) extreme degree of abstinence, renunciation of life's blessings.

Aten- the god of the Sun in Ancient Egypt, symbolized by the image of a solar disk with rays emanating from it. In the era of the Middle Kingdom it is mentioned along with other gods. During the reign of Akhenaten (1370–1352 BC), his cult became the only one; After the death of the reformer pharaoh, the cult of Aten did not take hold.

Basilica(from Greek - royal house) - a rectangular building in plan, divided by columns or pillars into a number of longitudinal galleries (naves). In ancient times, the basilica was an administrative building. In the Middle Ages, this was the main type of Christian church.

Baihua– spoken Chinese.

Bas-relief- one of the types of relief. The figures in it protrude above the plane by less than half of their thickness, in contrast to high relief, where the relief image rises above the plane by more than half of its volume.

Baroque(Italian – pretentious) – style in European art, who came at the end of the 16th century. in the late Renaissance and developed until the mid-18th century. It was distinguished by decorative pomp, pretentiousness and picturesqueness.

Benedictine order- the oldest monastic order of the Roman catholic church, founded in the 6th century. At the same time, according to legend, the founder of the order, Benedict of Nursia, established ascetic rules of monastic behavior. In the VI–VIII centuries. acquired the order no small importance in economic and cultural life Europe. His role and influence were undermined during the Reformation. By the 17th century revival refers scientific activity order associated with the study and publication of documents primarily of church history.

Annunciation- one of the twelve holidays, when the Church remembers the joyful news announced in Nazareth by the Archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary about the birth of her son, Jesus Christ.

Bodhisattva(Sanskrit: bodhi - highest knowledge, sattva - enlightened, i.e. enlightened by the highest knowledge) - a Buddhist ascetic who reached the highest stages on the path to nirvana, but voluntarily abandoned it in order to enlighten the souls of mortals in the world with teaching and virtue and save everything alive is from suffering. According to the Hinayana, only 24 reincarnations of the Buddha and the Buddha himself, Gautama Shakyamunya, passed the path of the bodhisattva. The same path awaits the future Buddha - Matreya. Everyone else can only achieve the state of arhat (a person who has achieved nirvana).

Buddha- the founder of Buddhism, Sidhartha Gautama, aka Buddha Shakyamuni, who lived in 623 - 543. BC e. in North India. Son of the ruler of the Shakya tribe, founder of Buddhism.

Buddhism– one of the three (along with Christianity and Islam) world religions. Originated in Ancient India in the VI – V centuries. BC e. The founder is considered to be Sidhartha Gautama. The main directions are Hinayana, “small vehicle”, “southern Buddhism”, and Mahayana, “great vehicle”, or “northern Buddhism”. The heyday of Buddhism in India - 5th century. BC e.–beg. I millennium AD e.; spread in Southeast and Central Asia, partly in Central Asia and Siberia, having assimilated elements of Brahmanism, Taoism, etc. In India by the 12th century. dissolved into Hinduism, greatly influencing him. He spoke out against the predominance of external forms of religious life (including ritualism) inherent in Brahmanism. At the center of Buddhism is the teaching of the “four noble truths”: life is suffering, its cause is lust, liberation is possible, the path to it is the eightfold path. Suffering and liberation are subjective states and at the same time a certain cosmic reality: suffering is a state of anxiety, tension, equivalent to desire, and at the same time a pulsation of dharmas; liberation (nirvana) is a state of unbound personality by the external world and the simultaneous cessation of the disturbance of dharmas. Buddhism denies the otherworldliness of liberation; in Buddhism there is no doctrine of the soul as an unchanging substance - the human “I” is identified with the total functioning of a certain set of dharmas, there is no opposition between subject and object, spirit and matter, there is no God as the Creator and, of course, the highest being. During the development of Buddhism, the cult of Buddha and bodhisattvas gradually developed in it, sanghas (monastic communities), etc. appeared.

Veda – common name Brahmanism scripture; include four collections: Rigvedi, Samavedi, Yajurvedi, Athar-vavedi.

« Venus» Paleolithic– female figurines made of stone, bone, baked clay from the Upper Paleolithic period. Distinctive feature This plastic art is a combination of conventional forms with naturalistic ones. Despite all the differences between the primitive “Venuses”, the images have common features: hypertrophy of individual parts of the body, focusing on specific female characteristics, absence of facial features and feet, characteristic interpretation of the hands, etc. It was not a specific nature that was reproduced, but the image of a woman - the foremother - was created , symbol of fertility, guardian of the hearth.

Stained glass(French - glass) - a composition of multi-colored or decorated glass and other materials that transmit light. The art of stained glass received special development in the Middle Ages: almost all medieval Gothic cathedrals are famous for their stained glass.

Renaissance- era in history and culture XIV– XVI centuries in Italy, from the end of the 15th century to the beginning. XVII century in other Western European countries.

Wenyan is classical literary Chinese, very different from spoken Baihua.

Gazelle(Arabic) – a type of monorhythmic lyric poem. The rhyme scheme resembles a kasadnaya. The last stanza often mentions the author's pseudonym. The form of a ghazal allowed the author to express both his feelings and moods, and philosophical thoughts. This form, in particular, was used by I.V. Goethe and V.Ya. Bryusov.

Ganesha- in Hinduism, the god of wisdom, prosperity, ruler of the people. Considered the son of Shiva and Parvati, he is depicted with the head of an elephant.

Harmony – aesthetic category, expressing the connection, harmony, proportionality of parts in the system.

Homo sapiens(lat.) – a reasonable person.

Homo habilis(Latin) – a skillful person.

Gore- according to ancient Egyptian mythology, the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb had three sons: Osiris, Horus the Elder and Set. In addition to Horus the Elder, the sun god, the Egyptians believed in Horus the Younger, the son of Osiris and Isis. Horus the Younger is one of the most revered gods of the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Throughout the history of Egyptian mythology runs the myth of Osiris and his wife Isis, of the evil Seth who killed Osiris, of the god Horus - the avenger of his father, and his long struggle with Seth. The confrontation between the cults of Horus and Set reflected the contradiction between Upper and Lower Egypt. Horus, revered in the form of a falcon, symbolized a heavenly deity. Pharaoh was his living earthly embodiment and was under his protection.

High relief(from French - high relief) - a type of relief. The image in high relief rises above the plane by more than half its volume.

Guohua – classical genre Chinese painting. It is usually performed in the “se i” or “gong bi” manner. “Se i” (“transmission of an idea”) – according to the technique, it involves displaying general outlines landscapes and human figures, without writing out details, by applying several strokes of black ink of varying thickness. “Gong bi” (“diligent brush”) is a careful reproduction of the smallest details: the hairstyles of the people depicted, the plumage of birds, etc.

Engraving(from French - cut out) - a work of graphic art made by printing from a board. It is divided mainly into easel and book.

Humanism(from Latin - humane) - recognition of the value of a person as an individual, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations. Renaissance humanism was a movement that opposed scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church, the feudal enslavement of the individual.

Deesis(correctly Deisis, from the Greek - prayer) - the name of a composition of icons, the center of which is occupied by the image of Jesus Christ, on the right is the Mother of God, on the left is John the Baptist (John the Baptist).

Jahiliya(from Arabic - a state or time of ignorance) - the pre-Islamic period in the life of the Arabs, when, according to the teachings of the Koran, people did not know Islam and the Islamic ideal of life, indulged in polytheism and were guided in their actions by passions and mortal desires. At the same time, it was then that the so-called Bedouin poetry flourished, glorifying the nature of the desert, the life and customs of nomads, their ideal of loyalty to their tribe and given word, admiration for female beauty. This poetry remains to this day the standard of “truly Arabic spirit and language. It caused numerous imitations, including far beyond the Arab world, for example, in Iran and Turkey. Therefore, in the Islamic tradition it is believed that famous poets The Jahiliyas intuitively moved towards the acceptance of monotheism (i.e. Islam). The Jahiliya period is a kind of “Antiquity” of Arab culture.

Dolmens– megalithic structures associated with the religious and magical ideas of primitive man. Quadrangular in plan; consist of large, sometimes roughly hewn stone slabs, placed on edge and covered with a large slab. Most often they were used for family burials and less often as dwellings.

Dharma(Sanskrit) – 1. One of the central concepts of Indian philosophy and the religion of Hinduism, which has several meanings: eternal moral law (analogue of the absolute); a moral and social establishment for a “correct life” (duty) - in this sense, each person has his own dharma. 2. In Buddhism - the primary elements of being and the psychophysical elements of personality - dharmas are eternal, constantly appearing and disappearing; their excitement - the source of suffering - ceases in the state of nirvana.

Gospel(from Greek - good news) - a literary work telling about the life and preaching of Jesus Christ; Of the numerous gospels, four were canonized, included in the New Testament as the first four books.

Eucharist(from Greek - thanksgiving) - communion, one of the seven Christian sacraments, the main one of them.

Heresy(from Greek - choice, selection) - a teaching that deviates from the official church doctrine in matters of dogma and cult.

Ziggurat- a type of religious building that has played a large role in the architecture of Western Asia for thousands of years. It is a stepped tower, rectangular in plan, lined with solid masonry of raw brick. On the upper platform there was a small temple - “the dwelling of God.” A ziggurat was usually built at the temple of the main local deity. An example of a ziggurat is the famous Tower of Babel.

Hidalgo- a knight in medieval Spain (from the end of the 12th century), later - a Spanish nobleman.

Icon(from Greek - image) - a work of temple fine art, which is based on a spiritual figurative and semantic system.

Iconostasis(from Greek - place where icons stand) - a row of icons separating the altar from the rest of the temple.

Impressionism(from French – impression) – artistic movement in art late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, which proclaimed the special importance of perception, in which the fleeting impression of the surrounding world is highly valued.

Individualism– one of the basic principles of liberal values ​​that have been developed in European culture since antiquity, when the individual is at the center of the cultural system. Like any cultural phenomenon, individualism can manifest itself in negative and positive forms.

Hinduism- religion, one of the largest religions in the world in terms of the number of followers (about 95% of all Hindus are in India). Formed in the 1st millennium AD. e. It is the result of the development of the Vedic religion and Brahmanism and the process of further assimilation of folk beliefs. The basis of Hinduism is the doctrine of the reincarnation of souls (samsara), which occurs in accordance with the law of retribution (karma) for virtuous or bad behavior, determined by the veneration of the supreme gods (Vishnu or Shiva) or their incarnations, and the observance of caste household rules. Religious rituals are performed in temples, at local and home altars, and in sacred places. Animals (cow, snake), rivers (Ganges), plants (lotus), etc. are revered as sacred. Hinduism is characterized by the idea of ​​the universality and universality of the supreme deity, which is especially evident in the teaching of bhakti. Modern Hinduism exists in the form of two teachings: Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Initiations(from Latin - performing a sacrament) - initiation rites in primitive society associated with the transfer of boys and girls to the age class of adult men and women. Some initiation rites, which had lost their original meaning, were performed on younger people.

Islam(from Arabic - “surrender to the will of God”) is one of the three world religions (Christianity, Islam and Buddhism). There are now about 1 billion Muslims on earth; Muslim diasporas, especially in recent years, have spread almost throughout the world. Islam arose in Arabia at the beginning of the 7th century. during the period of decomposition of the patriarchal communal system and the formation of the Arab state. His creed is set out in the holy book - the Koran (literally - reading), which, according to legend, was sent down by God (in Arabic - Allah) to the prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel (Gabriel). The basis of the doctrine is seven dogmas: belief in one God - Allah, in angels, in all the books of God (the Old Testament of the Jews, the New Testament, or Gospel, of Christians and the Koran itself), all the messengers of Allah (known from the indicated Scriptures, including Jesus Christ, whom Muslims consider a prophet, the direct predecessor of Muhammad, to the end of the world, predestination and the resurrection from the dead. The Islamic cult is based on the “five pillars”: confession of faith (corresponds to the Christian Creed and boils down to the formula: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger God's Day"), daily prayer five times a day, strict fasting in the month of Ramadan according to the lunar calendar (Turks and Iranians call it Ramadan, or Eid), obligatory charity (zakat) and pilgrimage (hajj) to the holy city of Mecca (if financial and life circumstances permit) There are three holy cities of Muslims - Mecca, Medina (in Saudi Arabia) and Jerusalem. Muslims try to harmonize their actions and judgments about the world around them, in addition to the Koran, with the Sunnah (biography of the Prophet Muhammad) and the Hasidim (statements of Muhammad and his closest followers on various questions). Interpretations of the listed sources and recommendations on specific problems are carried out by learned theologians - ulama and qadi judges belonging to four legal directions (madhabs), which are considered in principle equal. Islam is divided into two main branches - Sunnis (up to 90% of all Muslims) and Shiites, who especially reverence Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, Ali, who is married to the prophet’s only daughter, Fatima, from whom all the descendants of the prophet existing today descend. There are certain dogmatic differences between Sunnis and Shiites, but the cultural and ethnic factor is also significant - the majority of Shiites are Iranians, who maintain such specific form their traditional cultural and religious traditions. In everyday life, a Muslim tries to be guided by the recommendations of the so-called Shiriat (roughly this term can be translated as “the path to God”), which includes knowledge of the basics of Muslim theology, morality and jurisprudence: Islam does not recognize the opposition of worldly and spiritual life. IN modern conditions Islam has shown itself to be a flexible and quite successfully adapting philosophical and religious system to the changing situation, although the complexities and contradictions of the processes taking place in the world have, to a certain extent, Negative influence on the activities of some Muslim groups.

Calligraphy in China. There are four types: Shen - a style full of energy and vitality, Qi - a style that values ​​rigor and force of brush strokes, Yun - a style of rhythm or balance, Wei - a style of aesthetic quality.

Kalokagathia– one of the central concepts of ancient aesthetics; denotes the harmony of internal and external, a condition for human beauty.

Canon(from Greek - rule, measure) - 1) a set of firmly established rules and norms of creativity; 2) model of a work of art; 3) a cycle of prayers and matins chants.

Kasida(Arabic) – a genre poetic form in the literature of the Middle East, a type of poem. Formal features: monorhythm (rhyme according to the aa ba wa system, etc.) and three-part composition. According to the canon, which developed even before the time of Jahiliya, the qasida begins with a lyrical introduction (“nasib”), in which the author mourns the separation from his beloved, then follows a description of his journey to her and, finally, in the main part, her praise follows. Later, these three components of the qasida gave rise to independent types of poetic creativity: love lyrics developed from the nasib, a description of nature from the description of a journey, and a panegyric from praise. Regional literature knows many types of qasidas (panegyric, philosophical, etc.). The frequent connection of the plot of qasidas with specific events or persons often makes them an important source of historical information. Outstanding masters The Arab poets Imru-ul-Qays (VI century) and Abu Tammam (IX century), the Persian-Tajik Unsuri, Anvari (XI century), and the Azerbaijani Khagani (XII century) are considered qasid. Over the centuries, the qasida genre has undergone changes: its rhythmic canons were adapted to non-Arabic languages, the tripartite division became less rigid, and the plots were modernized. And now in the countries of the Near and Middle East, many poets, especially among traditionalists, willingly write qasidas on special occasions or on socially significant topics.

Catholicism- one of the denominations of Christianity. Catholics make up the majority of believers in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Lithuania, and Latin American countries. The division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox occurred in 1054 - 1204; in the 16th century During the Reformation, Protestantism broke away from Catholicism. The organization of the Catholic Church is distinguished by its strict centralization and hierarchical nature of management. The center of the papacy is the Vatican, where the residence of the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, is located. The sources of doctrine are Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition. Catholicism differs from Orthodoxy in the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son, by the presence of the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary and her bodily Ascension; assertion of papal infallibility; sharp distinction between clergy and laity, etc.

Classicism(from Latin - exemplary) - style in art; began to take shape in the 18th century, mainly in French culture. The style of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism, strived to express the sublime, heroic and moral ideals, to create clear images. He also had features of utopianism, abstraction, and academicism. In Russian painting, classicism is reflected in some of the works of K. Bryullov and F. Bruni. In the sculpture of I. Vitali (sculpture for the Triumphal Gate in memory of the Patriotic War of 1812), S. Pimenov and V. Deput-Malinovsky (Chariot of Glory of the Triumphal Arch of the General Staff in St. Petersburg), I. Martos (monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Krasnaya square in Moscow). Classicism in architecture was characterized by clarity and geometricism of forms, logical planning, and a combination of order with restrained decor. Most major representatives classical architecture in Russia were M.F. Kazakov, K.I. Rossi, A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov.

Choir- in the temple, the right and left wings of the ambo - the elevated part in front of the altar; singers are located on the choir

Cosmopolitanism(from Greek - citizen of the world) - the ideology of world citizenship. It arose in antiquity as a statement of the commonality of all people inhabiting the earth, their belonging to the cosmos.

Krishna- in Hinduism one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu. Shown in dark blue. By nature, he is a protector of the disadvantaged and a deliverer from troubles.

Cromlechs- the most complex of megalithic (built from huge stones) structures around a flat sacrificial stone in concentric circles are menhirs - vertically standing stone pillars. Some pairs of menhirs are covered with transverse stone beams. A classic example is the cromlech at Stonehenge in England.

Cult(from Latin - veneration) - 1) religious ritual, a set of prayers, spells, rituals, etc., service to a deity; 2) veneration, worship.

Culturogenesis– the process of emergence and formation of culture.

Qibla(Arabic) - the direction to the Kaaba temple in Mecca, which a praying Muslim must take.

Liturgy(Greek - worship) - the main Christian worship, practiced in one form or another in all Christian denominations. Central worship Orthodox Church; the Russian popular name for liturgy is mass; Catholics and Lutherans have Mass. The liturgy includes reading passages from the Bible, hymns, prayers, petitions and the sacrament of communion.

Magic(from Greek - witchcraft) - sorcery, sorcery, sorcery. Belief in the ability to influence the environment through any actions and these actions themselves.

Manichaeism- heretical philosophical and religious doctrine that arose in the 3rd century. in the Middle East and spread in the 3rd – 11th centuries. from North Africa to China. In the late Roman Empire and Byzantium, it was subjected to severe persecution by the state and orthodox Christianity. Founder – Mani. The teaching is based on the principle of dualism, which affirms the eternal struggle between two principles - good and evil, light and darkness. The world is the embodiment of evil. The human soul contains a particle of light, bound by his flesh. The goal of development is the salvation of light in the human soul, which is achieved by an ascetic lifestyle.

Marduk- Patron god of Babylon. After the unification of the Babylonian kingdom under the rule of Hammurabi (XVIII century BC) and the creation of a single pantheon of gods, Marduk took the place of the main god - the ruler of gods and people, the creator of heaven and earth, everything that grows and lives on earth, and was also creator of people.

Mass culture– a generalized characteristic of the dominant type of culture in modern society, transformed into an industrial-commercial form of production and distribution of standardized spiritual goods through mass media.

Matriarchy– the dominance of women in the family and society.

Megaliths(from Greek - large stone) - buildings made of huge stone blocks of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. e., apparently, mainly for religious purposes. They were first studied in the Celtic regions of Western Europe, therefore certain types of megaliths are named with the Celtic words “menhir” (a free-standing stone pillar), “dolmen” (a table about a similar structure made of several stones), “cromlech” (stones placed in a circle).

Mesolithic– Middle Stone Age.

Measure– an aesthetic concept expressing a certain relationship of properties in a system. This text is an expression of the fundamental proportionality of the universe and the harmony of art.

Mesopotamia– the territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Interfluve), an ancient civilization in this territory; in ancient times, the states of Sumer, Babylon and Assyria existed here, which became one of the main centers of world culture. In the early Middle Ages, wars were often fought between Byzantium and Persia for the possession of this territory. During the Islamic era, it was the center of the Arab Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258). Then, until the end of the First World War, it was part of the Turkish Empire; now the territory of Iraq.

Patronage– patronage and material support of art.

Mosque(Arabic, lit., “place where prostrations are made”) is an Islamic prayer building. The first mosque was built by the Prophet Muhammad shortly after his arrival in Medina. It was a square courtyard with a canopy along the walls, the only entrance was from the west, therefore, praying Muslims, as in a Christian temple, faced the east. All other mosques were already oriented towards the Kaaba temple in Mecca. According to the plan of the first mosque, many subsequent ones were built in countries that fell under Arab rule, for example, in North Africa, Iraq, and were designed for a large number of worshipers (these were camp cities founded by the Arabs, where the warriors of Islam were stationed). In Syria, Christian churches were often used as mosques, and in Iran, Zoroastrian temples and temples were used, which were gradually rebuilt in accordance with the requirements of Islam. An obligatory element of the mosque is a pond for ablution; later a minaret, a mihrab, and then a minbar are added. A desirable accessory for a mosque is a library. The layout, dimensions, and construction materials of mosques are known in many variations. According to their purpose, mosques were Friday (cathedral), quarterly, home, and could belong, for example, to craft workshops or some other professional corporations. All this was taken into account when constructing mosques. In addition, it was taken into account that the mosque, like a medieval church, also performed an important social function: community meetings were held here, the public treasury could be stored, and a traveler could find refuge here. Even in the last century, the tradition of Iranian mosques was extraterritoriality (the so-called best) - any person who managed to penetrate it enjoyed immunity.

Mimesis(from Greek - imitation, reproduction) - in ancient aesthetics, the principle of the creative activity of an artist imitating nature.

Minaret(Arabic) - a tower at a mosque, from which a muezzin minister (in its functions roughly equivalent to a Christian bell ringer) - proclaims the azan - the call to prayer - with a recitative. Connoisseurs appreciate the masterly performance of the azan, which has its own characteristics in different traditions, and skillful muezzins are loved by their admirers. Mosques may have several minarets, but there are two main types - round and rectangular in cross-section.

Miniature– illustration for a handwritten medieval book, made with paints. Later this word acquired a broader meaning - a small object, a small form.

Mystery- a medieval theatrical performance based on a religious plot. In most cases, such performances were held at fairs and city squares.

Mythology(from Greek - tradition, legend, word) - a set of myths; legends about gods, heroes, historical and fantastic events created by folk fantasy.

Mihrab- a niche in the wall of the mosque indicating the direction of the sacred temple of the Kaaba in Mecca. Muslims praying turn their faces towards her, the imam stands in front of her - leading the collective prayer, and a minbar is placed near her. In a certain sense, the mihrab performs the function of an apse in a Christian church - an altar niche, usually oriented to the east.

Modern– Russian name artistic style(Art Nouveau) of the late 19th – early 20th centuries, which developed in European and American artistic culture; it is characterized by an attempt to overcome eclecticism in art; distinguished by whimsicality, elegance, sophistication.

Modernism(from French - newest, modern) - the artistic and aesthetic system that replaced modernity, which developed in the 20s. XX century, reflecting the peculiarities of the worldview of this time through artistic means in many relatively independent artistic movements: cubism, constructivism, functionalism, surrealism, futurism, abstractionism, etc.

Mosaic(French - lit., “dedicated to the muses”) - a type of monumental fine art, the materials of which are smalt (tempered glass), ceramics, natural stones, etc.

Rock art– these are images of people, animals, multi-figure compositions on flat rocks in the open air. A huge complex of rock carvings in the Sahara, in the Tassini mountains on the African continent, is recognized as the world's largest “museum of prehistoric art”.

Naturalism(from Latin - nature) - a direction in art that developed in the 19th century, striving for an accurate and dispassionate reproduction of reality, becoming like positive knowledge.

Neolithic– New Stone Age. This is the last period of the Stone Age (VII - III millennium BC), followed by the Metal Age.

Nave(from Latin - ship) - part of a basilica temple, separated from others by columns or pillars.

Nirvana- one of the central concepts of Indian philosophy, Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism it means the highest state of tranquility - the ultimate goal of man. Nirvana represents a departure from ordinary human values, the achievement of absolute peace, dispassion, tranquility, independence and freedom.

Order(from Latin - order, row) - in architecture, a certain combination of load-bearing and supported parts of a post-and-beam structure, their structure and artistic treatment. It includes vertical load-bearing parts - supports in the form of columns, pillars or pilasters, and horizontal load-bearing parts - an entablature, including an architrave, frieze, cornice. IN classical architecture orders are distinguished: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and composite (complex).

Ornament– a pictorial, graphic or sculptural decoration consisting of a combination of repeating geometric, plant or animal elements.

Etching(French) - engraving, mainly on a copper plate. The design is scratched onto a varnished plate, etched with acid, then the resulting grooves are filled with paint and an imprint is made on paper.

Pagoda- in Buddhist architecture, a multi-tiered memorial tower. Erected to honor the deeds of saints or famous pilgrims, as well as to commemorate important events associated with Buddhism.

Palazzo(Italian) – palace, mansion.

Pantheon(Greek) – 1) among the ancient Greeks and Romans, a temple dedicated to all gods; 2) the general name of all the gods of a particular cult; 3) a building where the remains of prominent people are stored.

Paradigm(from Greek - example, sample) is one of the basic concepts of modern cultural studies. Denotes a set of beliefs and values ​​accepted in society and ensuring the existence of society and culture.

Parsuna(person) – portrait painting of the late 16th – 17th centuries. in Russia, striving for a realistic reproduction of nature, but preserving the techniques of icon painting.

Patesi- King-priest in Ancient Mesopotamia.

Patriarchy- male dominance in the family and society.

Persia– the name of Iran, which was used until 1935.

Perspective(from Latin - to carefully examine) - 1) an image on the surface of objects in accordance with the apparent change in their size, outline, clarity, which is due to the degree of their distance from the viewer, from the point of observation; 2) department of descriptive geometry; 3) distant view; 4) prospects for the future.

Petroglyph(from Greek - carved stone) - an image carved, embossed or scratched on a stone.

Cave art– the whole complex artistic monuments, created by primitive man in caves, which he used as housing or sanctuaries.

Pictography– picture letter, oldest form writing: depiction of objects, events, actions using schematic drawings.

Pylon(Greek - gate) - massive trapezoidal towers that formed the entrance to a temple in Egypt.

Pilaster(it.) – a flat vertical protrusion of rectangular cross-section on the surface of a wall or pillar. The pilaster has the same parts (trunk, capital, base) and proportions as the column; serves to divide the plane of the wall.

Orthodoxy- one of the main and oldest trends in Christianity. It arose with the division in 395 of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. The theological foundations were determined in Byzantium in the 4th – 8th centuries. It finally emerged as an independent church in 1054. It gradually divided into several autocephalous (administrative) strategically independent) churches. In Rus' - from the end of the 10th century. Since 1448- Russian Orthodox Church.

Protestantism- one of the trends in Christianity. Broke away from Catholicism during the Reformation in the 16th century. Unites many independent churches and denominations (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglican Church, Methodists, Baptists, Adventists, etc.). Protestantism is characterized by: the absence of a fundamental opposition between the clergy and the laity, the rejection of a complex church hierarchy, a simplified cult, the absence of monasticism and celibacy; in Protestantism there is no cult of the Mother of God, saints, angels, icons, the number of sacraments is limited deno to two (baptism and communion). Main source of faith– Holy Scripture, which is allowed to be read and interpreted by all believers.

Enlightenment - direction in philosophy and art XVIII – XIX centuries, connecting the further progress of society with the possibility of building a society on a reasonable basis, primarily through education.

Prostyle- type ancient temple: a rectangular building with one row of columns on the main facade.

Psalm(Greek - song) - a religious song, a hymn glorifying God.

Psalter- a book of the Bible (Old Testament), consisting of 150 psalms. Occupied an important place in the Christian cult. Influenced folklore and medieval literature. In the Middle Ages it was the main educational book for mastering literacy.

Ptah(Ptah) – in Egypt the main god of the city of Memphis; according to the Memphis legend about the creation of the world, he was the creator of all gods and the universe, as well as the patron of arts and crafts. The act of creation of Ptah is carried out by a thought expressed in a word. Ptah was depicted in a humanoid form, the figure of the god was hidden by tight-fitting clothes.

Separation churches(schism) - the division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox. The main reason is the struggle for supremacy in the Christian Church between the popes and the patriarchs of Constantinople. The division of churches was facilitated by differences between the Western and Eastern churches (obvious from the 7th century) in dogma, organization, and rituals. Traditionally dated to 1054. Ended with the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204.

Rationalism – philosophical direction(in the narrow sense of the word) and the mindset of the Enlightenment (in in a broad sense words). Rationalist philosophers were characterized by the belief that the life of man and society is determined by reason. Rationalism as a mentality and worldview is convinced of the unlimited possibilities of rational human activity.

Realism(from Latin - reality) - an artistic direction striving for truthfulness artistic depiction reality through means traditional art. TO mid-19th V. realism becomes the dominant trend in Russian literature. Its foundations were laid by Pushkin and Gogol. In Russian painting realistic direction The Wanderers expressed it especially clearly.

Relief(from Italian - protrusion, convexity, rise) - one of the two main forms of sculpture. Occupies an intermediate position between a round sculpture and an image on a plane. It has three dimensions, although the depth dimension is somewhat reduced. The peculiarity of the relief is its organic connection with the plane, which serves as both the technical basis of the image and at the same time the background.

Reformation– a broad public religious movement in Western and Central Europe XVI century, which led to the reformation of the Christian (Catholic) Church.

Rococo- a bizarre style in architecture and decorative art of the 18th century, distinguished by its special sophistication and ornamental mentality.

Romanticism(from French - novel) - an ideological and artistic direction, reflected in various fields of science, literature and art in Europe and North America. Romanticism contrasted utilitarianism and the leveling of the individual, which came with the advent of the bourgeois era, with aspirations for boundless freedom, a thirst for perfection and renewal, personal and civil independence. Romanticism flourished in the 20s and 30s. XIX century Romantics - representatives artistic direction, from the end of the 18th century. putting forward the demand for an emotional, free and, above all, individual attitude of the artist to life.

Samsara(Sanskrit) - a Buddhist term, means countless changes of births and deaths, a world of suffering to which a person is doomed until he achieves enlightenment. Also means earthly world, where all beings are subject to suffering.

Vault– an architectural structure, ceiling or covering of structures that has the shape of a convex curved surface: a) a cylindrical vault forms a semicircle in cross section; b) a cross vault is formed by the intersection of two cylindrical vaults; c) a closed vault is formed by an inclined extension of the walls along a given curve; d) the domed (sail) vault is a complete hemisphere.

Semiotics(Greek), or semiology - general theory(or a set of scientific theories) that studies the properties of sign systems or systems of signs, each of which has a specific meaning.

Sentimentalism(from French - feeling) - a movement in European and American literature and art of the 2nd half of the 18th century - early XIX centuries It is characterized by the cult of natural feeling, nature, and the idealization of patriarchal bucolic simplicity. Its the most famous representatives in Europe were S. Richardson, L. Stern,T. Smollett, J.J. Rousseau and the writers of Sturm and Drang, in Russia - N.M. Karamzin.

Symbolism- a movement in European art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in which they sought to use symbols to express ideas that were beyond sensory perception and to reflect the ideal essence of the world.

Syncretism(from Greek - connection) - an undifferentiated, fused, organic unity of something. This text contains the organic unity of artistic culture.

Syncretism primitive - indivisibility, unity of art, mythology, religion, characterizing the initial state of primitive culture.

Style(from Lat. - stick, rod) - the commonality of the figurative system, the structural unity of the artistic system and techniques in a work of art.

Style art– 1) stable unity of artistic and figurative means in a certain historical period; 2) the individual author's style of artistic creativity.

Sunnism- the main direction in Islam. From a theological point of view, its main difference from Shiism is that Sunnism does not recognize the possibility of anyone’s mediation between Allah and people after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, denies the idea of ​​​​the special mystical nature of Ali (Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law) and the special right of his descendants to Imamat, i.e. leadership of the Islamic community. There are also significant differences in the principles of making legal decisions, in the nature of holidays, in relations with fellow believers, in the details of prayer and other aspects of the ritual, in civil law (for example, Sunnis do not recognize the legality of temporary marriage - muta), etc.

Sufism(Arabic) - Muslim mysticism, which, along with religious, philosophical and worldview concepts, also develops the principles and practice of poetry and other forms of art. In Sufi poetry, the ideals of Muslim mystics were sung in allegorical expressions (Allah was called the beloved, love meant love for God, etc.).

Tempera(Italian) – colorful material for painting. There are casein, gum arabic and egg based on the nature of the paint binder. Tempera is also called painting with tempera paints.

That- in Ancient Egypt, a lunar deity, the main god of the city of Hermopolis. He was considered the god of wisdom, the patron of sciences, and the inventor of writing and calculation. It was revered in several iconographic forms, most widely as the baboon and ibis.

Totem(North American Indian, - “his kind”) - 1) an animal, plant, object of nature or its phenomenon, which among tribal groups served as an object of religious worship as the ancestor of this kind, bearing the name of its totem; 2) tribal coat of arms with a totem image.

Totemism- the oldest form of religion of the early tribal system, characterized by belief in a supernatural connection and blood affinity of a given clan group with some totem, which is considered not a deity, but a relative and friend. It had almost universal distribution.

Traditional art- an art that exists at the lowest stages of development among all peoples. Its features: continuity in form and content, unprofessional character, richness in mythological symbolism, inextricable relationship with the religious and cultural complex.

Fetishism(from Portuguese - talisman) - religious worship of fetishes, objects supposedly endowed with supernatural magical powers.

Futurism- an avant-garde movement in European art of the 1910s - 1920s, which denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values, and sought to create “the art of the future.”

Caliphate(from Arabic - governor, successor) - a form of Muslim government, the head of which combines spiritual and secular power. However, the status of the caliph differs from the Christian (Vatican) or Buddhist (Dalai Lama in Tibet) theocracy, since Islam does not recognize the institution of priesthood in principle. Not all Arab caliphs were related to Muhammad to some extent, although they strived for this. A characteristic feature of the caliphate is its claim to unite the entire Muslim world. This was the case during the Umayyad (Damascus, 661 - 750) and in the first period of the Abbasid (Baghdad, 750 - 1258) Arab caliphates, and then the Turkish Empire (after the capture of Baghdad by Mongol troops, part of the Abbasids moved to Egypt, where with their religious authority, the Abbasids sanctified the power of local sultans and sometimes gave investiture (raised to religious rank) to other Muslim rulers; after the capture of Egypt by the Turks in 1517, the last representative of the Abbasids allegedly transferred his title to the Turkish sultan). The caliphate in Turkey was officially abolished on March 3, 1924. Since then, the historical continuity of this form of organization of the Islamic state has ceased, although talk about the desirability of its restoration arises from time to time in certain Muslim circles.

Charisma(Greek – mercy, grace, divine gift) – exceptional talent; the targeting of a person (charismatic leader, prophet, preacher, politician) with special qualities of exclusivity, supernaturalism, infallibility in the eyes of a more or less wide circle of adherents or followers.

Christianity– one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam) has three main directions: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Protestantism. A common feature that unites Christian faiths and sects is faith in Jesus Christ as the God-man, the savior of the world, the incarnation of the second person of the triune deity (God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit). The main source of doctrine is the Holy Scripture (the Bible, especially its second part - the New Testament). Christianity arose in the 1st century. n. e. V eastern province Roman Empire - Palestine. In the 4th century. became the state religion of the Roman Empire.

Celibacy(from Latin - unmarried) - mandatory celibacy of the Catholic clergy.

Integrity– a philosophical concept expressing the internal, organic unity of the system. In the text there is an aesthetic category denoting the fundamental unity of the universe and the work of art.

Value– a philosophical concept that denotes the positive or negative meaning of objects, phenomena, events, processes in the world and culture for humans.

Civilization(from Latin - civil, public, state) - denotes a historically established set of material and spiritual culture, social order, way of life, system of values ​​and norms of behavior of a particular society or an entire era. In this sense, they talk about ancient, medieval, Muslim, Indian, Chinese, European and other civilizations. The totality of civilizations and cultures defines the general concept of global human civilization.

Jingju– Beijing national opera with fixed roles 1 sheng - male role, dan - female, jing - mask, know - clown.

Chandi– general name for original Hindu or Buddhist temples medieval period on the territory of Southeast Asia. Their appearance shows the influence of the architectural canons of India, which, however, most likely superimposed on more ancient local elements - their origins can be traced in the surviving stepped megalithic structures. They are a square, rectangular or cruciform building in plan, having a raised base - a plinth, on which rests a cubic cella, ending with a stepped multi-tiered covering. It is characterized by a wide variety of forms: from simple ones, such as the Hindu chandis on the Dieng plateau, to complex Buddhist complexes, the unrivaled peak of which is Borobudur. For the most part, they served the ideological needs most characteristic of medieval culture, being at the same time the tomb of rulers and a temple.

Chaitya- Hindu cave temple.

Chunjie(“Spring Festival”) is a New Year holiday according to the Chinese (lunar) calendar.

Shiism(from Arabic - joining someone) - a general name for various movements and sects that recognize special role Ali and his descendants as the legitimate heirs of the Prophet Muhammad. Their main difference with the Sunnis is the interpretation of the concept of “imamat”: for the Sunnis, the imam is the spiritual and secular head of the Muslim community, elected by the people, and for the Shiites, he is its head in essence, thanks to the “divine grace” transmitted by inheritance. According to the views of the Shiites, the “real” imam disappeared in the Middle Ages (different Shiite movements interpret this event differently and attribute him to different descendants of Ali) and now remains in a “hidden state.” Therefore, Shiites constantly await the coming of this messiah and see him in various descendants of Ali or in charismatic Shiite leaders, such as Imam Khomeini (died 1989). Shiism is characterized by a special exaltation, a cult of suffering, which are reflected in different forms art. In memory of the villainous murder of Ali’s son, Hussein, various mysteries are played out, for example, until recently, processions with self-torture were carried out - the so-called “Shahsey-Wahsey”, something reminiscent of medieval processions of self-flagellation flagellants in Western Europe. Spiritual chants and spiritual poetry are highly developed. Popular prints depicting various scenes from the life and exploits of Ali are produced en masse. At the same time, under the outer shell of Shiism, many traditions of pre-Islamic cultures and beliefs are preserved not only by the Iranians themselves, but also by many other peoples of the Near and Middle East.

Eclecticism(from Greek - knocking out) - a mechanical connection of dissimilar parts, elements and characteristics. In art - a combination of heterogeneous stylistic elements, an arbitrary choice of stylistic design of a work of art, and this artistic form does not always correspond to the meaning and purpose of the works of art.

Expressionism(from French – expression, expressiveness) –

2) worldview based on the idea of ​​disharmony, disorder of the world, alienation of a person in it.

Chalcolithic– Copper-Stone Age.

Epic- a narrative type of literature, one of its main types, along with drama and lyrics.

era Enlightenment– period of widespread distribution in the 18th century c., the “Enlightenment” movement, mainly in France, and then in England and other countries. The French enlighteners Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and their followers highly valued the role of knowledge, reason, and proclaimed the ideas of political, civil, legal and other equality.

Aesthetics(Greek) - a philosophical science that studies the specific perception and assessment of the real world inherent only in humans through human ideas about the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, the base, etc. The most important sphere of manifestation of the aesthetic is artistic creativity.

This tutorial is short essays on the history of world artistic culture. Compiled in accordance with author's program course “History of World Artistic Culture” (1994), includes 4 sections: culture Ancient world, European culture, Russian culture and the culture of the twentieth century. Is teaching aid new type. Takes into account the multi-level training of students, activates cognitive and creative activity. For successful mastery of the educational material, the manual is illustrated, supplemented with questions and tasks, applications and a dictionary of terms. For secondary specialized educational institutions, lyceums, colleges, schools, as well as everyone interested in problems of culture and art.

PRIMITIVE CULTURE.
To understand any phenomenon, it is always necessary to go to its origins. Everything once and somewhere began, originated, arose - this seems indisputable. But step by step we discover that every beginning is relative, it is only a link in endless changes... Until now, we cannot answer many of the questions that primitive man posed to us.

How old is humanity? What made ancient man invent and create? How did culture come about?
Archaeologists distinguish three periods of primitiveness - depending on what materials people used to produce tools - the Stone Age, Bronze and Iron.

In our today's perception, this period constitutes a huge stage at the dawn of civilized humanity, in comparison with which the last twenty centuries are only a relatively small episode. Studying how culture arose in those distant times allows us to better understand its subsequent dynamics.

The Stone Age is the oldest period in the development of mankind between two million and six thousand years BC, during which tools and weapons were made of stone and people learned to make fire artificially. The Stone Age is divided by scientists into three stages: ancient (Paleolithic) - when, in fact, homo sapiens appeared; middle (Mesolithic) - when the bow and arrows were invented; and new (Neolithic). The Paleolithic, in turn, is divided into lower, middle, and upper. This can be represented in the following table.

Table of contents
SECTION 1
Introduction. Concept of culture 5
Culture and civilization 6
Chapter 1
Primitive culture 9
Chapter 2
Culture of early civilizations 14
Culture of Ancient Egypt 14
Culture of Ancient India 19
Culture of Ancient China 23
Culture of Ancient Greece 26
Culture Ancient Rome 36
Appendix 42
Glossary 59
Literature 70
SECTION 2
Chapter 3
Middle Ages. Arab-Muslim world 73
Culture of the Arab East 74
Questions and tasks 77
Appendix 78
Glossary 78
Chapter 4
Medieval Europe 81
Worldview foundations of the Middle Ages 81
Medieval Architecture 83
Chivalry 85
Art of the Middle Ages 87
Universities 88
Questions and tasks 89
Appendix 89
Glossary of terms 95
Chapter 5
Renaissance 102
Renaissance Humanism 104
Painting, sculpture, architecture of the Renaissance 105
Literature and Theater of the Renaissance 108
Renaissance Music 111
Crisis of Humanism 113
Reformation and Culture 114
Questions and tasks 116
Appendix 116
Glossary of terms 123
Chapter 6
New time 125
New worldview XVII century 126
17th century art 129
Baroque. Classicism 131
Questions and tasks 134
Appendix 134
Glossary of terms 137
Chapter 7
Age of Enlightenment 139
Bourgeois and nobles in culture XVIII century 140
Ideology of Enlightenment culture 143
Literature and theater of the Enlightenment 146
Rococo 150
Painting, sculpture, architecture of the 18th century 151
Music of the 18th century 153
Questions and tasks 157
Appendix 157
Glossary of terms 159
Chapter 8
Europe of the 19th century 162
Romanticism as a type of culture 163
The Art of Romanticism 165
19th century realism 170
Impressionism 173
Post-Impressionism 178
Questions and tasks 182
Appendix 182
Glossary of terms 185
Literature 187
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
Pagan Rus' 191
Slavic paganism 191
Worldview of the Eastern Slavs 193
Mythology of the Eastern Slavs 196
Folklore 197
Religion of the Eastern Slavs on the eve of the Baptism of Rus' 199
Questions and tasks 201
Appendix 202
Glossary of terms 204
Chapter 10
Medieval Rus' 207
Change of faith. Baptism of Rus' 209
The Bible as a monument of world culture 212
Art of Orthodox Rus' 214
Moskovia 221
Questions and tasks 223
Appendix 223
Glossary of terms 225
Chapter 11
Russia of modern times 229
Transformations of Peter 230
New capital - St. Petersburg 232
Art of the Turning Age 233
Questions and tasks 238
Appendix 238
The Golden Age of Russian Culture 239
Nobility. Intelligentsia 240
From the Decembrists to the “superfluous man” 243
Golden Age Art 244
Questions and tasks 250
Application 250
Silver Age of Russian Culture 253
Russian philanthropists 254
Turn of the Century Art 255
Questions and tasks 260
Glossary of terms 263
Literature 266
SECTION 4
Culture of the 20th century. Main development trends 271
Chapter 12
Philosophy as cultural self-awareness 272
Freud. Paradoxes of Freudianism and Marxism 274
Spengler. Sorokin. Cultural concepts 277
Berdyaev about Russian culture 280
Gumilev. Passionarity Theory 282
Fromm. The art of loving 284
Ortega y Gasset Concept mass society 286
Questions and tasks 288
Literature 289
Chapter 13
Art as an imaginative sphere of culture 290
The fate of realism. Vanguard 292
art
Fauvism. Matisse. Color Master 295
Expressionism. Personality drama 297
Cubism. Creativity of forms. Picasso 298
Abstract art. Malevich. Kandinsky 302
Surrealism. In the labyrinths of consciousness and subconscious. Dali 306
Pop Art. The art of success. Rauschenberg 309
Questions and tasks 311
Literature 312
Sculpture
New plastic forms. Siddur 312
Architecture
Liki modern city 316
Literature
Features of literary processes 318
Music
Musical types and styles of modern times 322
Jazz. Rock music 334
Theater Art 337
Screen arts
Cinema. Television 339
Questions and tasks 342
References 343
Chapter 14
Culture and state 344
Popular culture 345
Counterculture. Subculture 348
Culture in totalitarian and democratic regimes 350
Cultural catastrophe of Russia 353
UNESCO 355
Questions and tasks 357
Literature 357
Appendix 358
Glossary of terms 381
SECTION 5
Course program 387
Course content 393
Approximate topics test questions, abstracts, discussions on the course MHC 408.

It is difficult to disagree with how important a role art plays in the history of any period. Judge for yourself: in history lessons at school, after each topic devoted to the study of the political and economic situation in the world in a given time period, students are asked to prepare reports on the art of a given era.

Also, in the school curriculum since relatively recently there has been such a subject as MHC. This is absolutely no coincidence, because any work of art is one of the brightest reflections of the time in which it was created, and allows you to look at world history through the eyes of the creator who gave this work life.

Definition of culture

World artistic culture, or MHC for short, is a type of public culture, which is based on the figurative and creative reproduction of society and people, as well as living and inanimate nature through the means used by professional art and folk artistic culture. These are also phenomena and processes of spiritual practical activity that creates, distributes and masters material objects and works of art that have aesthetic value. World artistic culture includes the pictorial, sculptural, architectural heritage and monuments, as well as all the diversity of works created by the people and their individual representatives.

The role of MHC as an educational subject

In the course of studying the course of world artistic culture, both broad integration and an understanding of the connection of culture are provided primarily with historical events any time period, as well as with social sciences.

As mentioned earlier, world artistic culture covers all artistic activities that a person has ever engaged in. These are literature, theater, music, fine arts. All processes associated with both the creation and storage, as well as the dissemination, creation and evaluation of cultural heritage are studied. Problems related to ensuring the further cultural life of society and the training of specialists with appropriate qualifications in universities do not remain aside.

How academic subject MHC is an appeal to the entire artistic culture, and not to its individual types.

The concept of a cultural era

A cultural era, or cultural paradigm, is a complex multifactorial phenomenon that contains the image of both a specific person living at a specific time and carrying out his activities, and a community of people with the same way of life, life mood and thinking, and value system.

Cultural paradigms replace each other as a result of a kind of natural-cultural selection through the interaction of traditional and innovative components that art carries. MHC as a training course aims to study these processes.

What is the Renaissance

One of the most significant periods in the development of culture is the Renaissance, or Revival, which dominated in the 13th-16th centuries. and marked the advent of the New Age. Greatest influence the sphere of artistic creativity has undergone.

After an era of decline in the Middle Ages, art flourishes, and ancient artistic wisdom is revived. It was at this time and in the meaning of “rebirth” that the Italian word rinascita was used, later numerous analogues appeared in European languages, including the French Renaissance. All artistic creativity, primarily fine art, becomes a universal “language” that allows us to learn the secrets of nature and get closer to it. The master does not reproduce nature conventionally, but strives for maximum naturalness, trying to surpass the Almighty. The development of our usual sense of beauty begins, natural science and knowledge of God are constantly finding common ground. During the Renaissance, art becomes both a laboratory and a temple.

Periodization

The revival is divided into several time periods. In Italy - the birthplace of the Renaissance - several periods were identified that were used throughout the world for a long time. This is the Proto-Renaissance (1260-1320), partly included in the Ducento period (13th century). In addition, there were periods of Trecento (XIV century), Quattrocento (XV century), Cinquecento (XVI century).

A more general periodization divides the era into Early Renaissance(XIV-XV centuries). At this time, new trends interact with the Gothic, which is creatively transformed. Next come the periods of Middle, or High, and Late Renaissance, in which a special place is given to mannerism, characterized by the crisis of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance.

Also in countries such as France and Holland, the so-called Late Gothic style is developing. As he says history of MHC, The Renaissance is reflected in Eastern Europe: Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, as well as in the Scandinavian countries. Spain, Great Britain and Portugal became countries with a distinctive Renaissance culture.

Philosophical and religious components of the Renaissance

Through the reflections of such representatives of philosophy of this period as Giordano Bruno, Nicholas of Cusa, Giovanni and Paracelsus, they become relevant in MHC topics spiritual creativity, as well as the struggle for the right to call an individual “second god” and associate a person with him.

Relevant, as at all times, is the problem of consciousness and personality, faith in God and higher power. There are both compromise-moderate and heretical views on this issue.

A person faces a choice, and the reform of the church of this time implies a Renaissance not only within the framework of the MHC. This is also a person promoted through the speeches of figures of all religious denominations: from the founders of the Reformation to the Jesuits.

The main task of the era. A few words about humanism

During the Renaissance, the education of a new person was of paramount importance. The Latin word humanitas, from which the word humanism is derived, is the equivalent of the Greek word for education.

Within the framework of the Renaissance, humanism calls on a person to master the ancient wisdom that was important for that time and find a path to self-knowledge and self-improvement. Here there is a merging of all the best that other periods that left their mark on the MHC could offer. The Renaissance took the ancient heritage of antiquity, the religiosity and secular code of honor of the Middle Ages, the creative energy and human mind of the New Time, creating a completely new and seemingly perfect type of worldview.

Renaissance in various spheres of human artistic activity

During this period, illusory life-like paintings replaced icons, becoming the center of innovation. Landscapes are being actively painted, household painting, portrait. Printed engraving on metal and wood is widespread. Working sketches of artists become an independent form of creativity. Picture illusoryness is also present in

In architecture, under the influence of architects’ passion for the idea of ​​centricity, proportional temples, palaces and architectural ensembles, placing emphasis on earthly, centrically perspective-organized horizontals.

Renaissance literature is characterized by a love of Latin as a language educated people, adjacent to national and folk languages. Genres such as picaresque novel and urban novel heroic poems and novels of medieval adventure-knight themes, satire, pastoral and love lyrics. At the peak of the popularity of drama, theaters staged performances with an abundance of city holidays and magnificent court extravaganzas, which became the birth of colorful syntheses of various types of arts.

In music there is a flourishing of strict musical polyphony. The complication of compositional techniques, the appearance of the first forms of sonatas, operas, suites, oratorios and overtures. Secular music, close to folk music, is becoming equal to religious music. Separation occurs instrumental music V separate species, and the pinnacle of the era was the creation of full-fledged solo songs, operas and oratorios. The temple is being replaced by Opera theatre, which took the place of the center of musical culture.

In general, the main breakthrough is that the once medieval anonymity is being replaced by individual, authorial creativity. In this regard, world artistic culture is moving to a fundamentally new level.

Titans of the Renaissance

It is not surprising that such a fundamental revival of art, actually from the ashes, could not take place without those people who created with their creations new culture. They were later called "titans" for the contributions they made.

The Proto-Renaissance was personified by Giotto, and during the Quattrocento period the constructively strict Masaccio and the soulful and lyrical works of Botticelli and Angelico opposed each other.

The middle, or represented by Raphael, Michelangelo and, of course, Leonardo da Vinci - artists who became iconic at the turn of the Modern Age.

Famous architects of the Renaissance were Bramante, Brunelleschi and Palladio. Bruegel the Elder, Bosch and Van Eyck are painters of the Dutch Renaissance. Holbein the Younger, Durer, Cranach the Elder became the founders of the German Renaissance.

The literature of this period remembers the names of such “titan” masters as Shakespeare, Petrarch, Cervantes, Rabelais, who gave the world poetry, novels and drama, and also contributed to the formation of the literary languages ​​of their countries.

Undoubtedly, the Renaissance contributed to the development of many trends in art and gave impetus to the creation of new ones. It is unknown what the history of world artistic culture would have been like if this period had not existed. Perhaps classical art today would not evoke such admiration; most movements in literature, music and painting would not exist at all. Or maybe everything with which we are accustomed to associate classical art would have appeared, but many years or even centuries later. Whatever the course of events, only one thing is clear: even today we admire the works of this era, and this once again proves its importance in the cultural life of society.