Glossary of all terms. History of Russia XVII–XVIII centuries

Here is all the terminology that you will need when taking the history test - questions on the terms are in parts A and B.

The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.

Empire is a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.

Anarchists are a political philosophy encompassing theories and views that advocate the elimination of all coercive government and the power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.

Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore in France the monarchical Bourbon dynasty, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. IN scientific literature the first two coalitions are called “anti-revolutionary”, starting with the third - “anti-Napoleonic”. IN different time The coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.

Great reforms of the 1860-1870s. – bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). Great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), city reform (1870), judicial reform (1864), and military reform (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, printing and affected all spheres of life Russian society.

Military settlements were a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some state peasants were transferred to the position of military peasants. The villagers combined agricultural work with military service. It was expected that over time the entire army would be transferred to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment, and save the mass of state peasants from conscription, essentially turning them into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. The settlements and A.A., who was in charge of their organization. The Arakcheevs were universally hated. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguev and Taganrog settlement regiments in 1819.

The Eastern Question is a designation accepted in diplomacy and historical literature for international contradictions in the 18th – early 20th centuries associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.

Temporarily obligated peasants are peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.

Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. redemption by peasants from landowners of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the ransom amount for the land, and peasants who were in debt to the state had to repay this debt over 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of quitrent that peasants paid to landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, receiving about 700 million rubles. income.

Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam there is a holy war for faith, against infidels (those who do not believe in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).

The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the “Plan government reforms” M. M. Speransky. He did not have legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted to him for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budgets, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special judicial cases).

The Decembrists were participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.

Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the performance of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century, they were a privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.

Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought mid-19th V. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path and opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality,” criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project for the liberation of peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.

The zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition social and political activity of zemstvo councilors and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, and publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geyden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of the political parties of Cadets and Octobrists, the zemstvo movement ceased.

Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864. In charge of education, healthcare, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and governors, who had the right to repeal zemstvo decisions.

Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of shares of the crop. It was a form transitional from feudal land lease to capitalist.

Imamate - common name Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the end. 20s XIX century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.

Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.

Counter-reforms of the 1880s – the name of the activities of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, revision of the reforms of the 1860s: restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), introduction of class principles in primary and secondary schools, abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.

The Corps of Gendarmes is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. The corps of gendarmes served as political police.

Petty bourgeois - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917, a tax-paying class of former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence into communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law they could be subjected to corporal punishment.

Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The purpose of the reform was to restructure the central authorities based on the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Military Ground Forces (from 1815 - Military), Marine forces(from 1815 - Maritime), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I there were the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).

Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e., non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism presupposed the complete and unquestioning subordination of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was led by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.

Populists are representatives of an ideological movement among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the position of “peasant socialism” against serfdom and capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists ). Founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs).

Neo-Russian style - a direction in Russian architecture late XIX V. – 1910s, which used motifs of ancient Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by generalization of motifs, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style allow us to consider it as a national-romantic movement within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov worked in this style (façade Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Marfo-Mariinsky Cathedral, 1908-1912).

Nihilism - in the 1860s. a movement in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.

The Patriotic War of 1812 was the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. Caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia’s refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.

Labor - in post-reform Russia, a system of peasants cultivating the land of the landowners with their own implements for rented land (mainly for sections), loans of bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.

Cut-offs are part of the peasant plots that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of plots was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).

The Peredvizhniki - artists who were part of the Russian artistic association-The Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing social orders. The ideological leaders of the Wanderers were I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov. Main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Peredvizhniki there were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, and Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Peredvizhniki joined the AHRR.

The Petrashevites were participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, problems of restructuring autocratic politics and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the circle participants were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plans by force, for which they created a secret society and began issuing proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the plan. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of execution, it was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.

Poll tax - in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced household taxation. The poll tax was imposed on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore it cannot be fully accomplished in a feudal country.

Commoners - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, they are carriers of revolutionary democratic views.

Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality using specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in the culture of the late 18th – 1st half. XIX century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism contrasted the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the aspiration for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, and the idea of ​​personal and civil independence. The painful discord between a fictional ideal and cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one’s own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).

The Russian Empire is the name of the Russian state from 1721 to September 1, 1917.

Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise known as neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements Byzantine culture. For Russian- Byzantine architecture characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “model projects” of churches by Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Thon built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.

The Holy Alliance is a treaty concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this treaty, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.

Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, who proceeded from the position of fundamental difference Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia’s mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They polemicized both with Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality.” In contrast to the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy, etc. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.

Estates are social groups that have rights and responsibilities enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia from the second half of the 18th century. The class division into nobility, clergy, peasantry, merchants, and burghers was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.

Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates a transition to a socially just society through reforming the bourgeois one. In Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became most widespread. In 1883, the “Emancipation of Labor” group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deitch, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov), the main task of which its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), ​​which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”

Appanage peasants are a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia at the end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. They carried duties mainly in the form of quitrents. In 1863, the basic provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received ownership of part of the appanage lands for compulsory redemption.

A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and division of labor.

“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth in the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of ​​“going to the people” belongs to A.I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell,” addressed this call to student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reaching its greatest extent in the spring and summer of 1874 (covering 37 provinces of Russia). The Lavrists aimed to propagate the ideas of socialism, while the Bakunists tried to organize mass anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.

Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, from 1804 it was regulated by censorship statutes and temporary rules.

Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after opponents of Lenin’s principles of party building found themselves in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became involved in the struggle against Soviet power.

“World of Art” is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers led by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine “World of Art”, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. And." was part of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. And." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the “World of Art” exhibitions.

Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name of trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardeism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to the reflection of existence.

Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital with the aim of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d.) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.

The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17th”. It was formed by 1906. The name comes from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number of members, together with affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper “Slovo”, “Voice of Moscow”, etc., over 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.

Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.

Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) with the aim of putting pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S.I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the cadets P.N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published with demands for updating the composition of local authorities, ending persecution for religion, releasing certain categories of political prisoners, restoring trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of “public trust” from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself during the First World War, and to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.

A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis at the top,” i.e., the inability of government officials to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; aggravation, higher than usual, of the needs and misfortunes of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation occurred in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Reached its climax in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. Revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.

Russian seasons abroad - performances of Russian opera and ballet troupes organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term caught on and became a household word to denote the success of Russian cultural and artistic figures abroad.

Symbolism is a movement in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbol. Striving to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeoisism and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of world social changes, trust in age-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Ciurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.

A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. Syndicate participants retain production, but lose commercial independence.

Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers’ struggle for their rights on the ground. On an incomparably larger scale, the Soviets were revived during the February (1917) Revolution and, until June 1917, acted as a “second” government opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in Russian Federation(from 1936 to 1977 - Councils of Working People's Deputies, since 1977 - Councils of People's Deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies became the highest body of state power (until 1991). A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive powers.

The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating the shortage of land while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, creation of an additional power base among the wealthy layer of peasants. The reform was disrupted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist Revolutionary D. Bogrov.

A trust is a form of monopoly in which members of an association lose production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.

The June Third coup - the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and changes to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.

The Triple Alliance was a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. In 1915, Italy and Türkiye joined.

Trudoviki - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party; it included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper “Working People”. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists

According to the Stolypin agrarian reform, a farm is a farm separated from the community along with land and house. Was private property.

The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian “black hundred” - the taxable townspeople) - members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russians”) people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the revolution of 1905-1907 they supported the repressive policies of the government, organized pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were prohibited.

Social Revolutionaries (social revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader – V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left Socialist Revolutionaries - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers “Land and Freedom” and “Znamya Truda”. They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). From the beginning of 1918 they were opponents of the Brest Peace Treaty and the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918 they organized an armed uprising, which was suppressed. Separate groups of left Socialist Revolutionaries operated in Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. They ceased operations in 1923.

1917–1920

Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the forcible seizure by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.

White movement - collective name political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of supporters of law and order. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M.V. Alekseev, P.N. Wrangel, A.I. Denikin, A.V. Kolchak, L.G. Kornilov, E.K. Miller, N.N. Yudenich).

White is the name of opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.

The Military Revolutionary Committee is the body of the Petrograd Council for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulations on the PVRK were approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks; there were also left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Dissolved in December 1917.

The Provisional Government is the central body of state power formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. Existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7, 1917). Created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma of 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.

Second coalition. Provisional Government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for capitalists and 7 for socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8), 1917

Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) – May 2 (15), 1917

The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for capitalists and 6 for socialists) May 5 (18) – July 2 (15), 1917

Third coalition. Provisional Government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for socialists and 6 seats for capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).

After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the remaining capitalist deputy ministers, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. Based on the forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against Soviet power, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, from which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917

VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossacks' deputies) - a body that exercised general management of the councils during the break between Congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Socialist Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks and 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist Revolutionaries) were elected. Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Since January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 – Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 – M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.

VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes in Ex officio; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (resolution of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed reorganizing the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.

Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, must provide a solution to the main vital issues facing the warring parties.

Dual power is the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation arose in Russia: two authorities were created at the same time - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Adviсe. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of dual power. The period of struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.

Decree (from Latin “decree”) – normative legal act, published by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees and adopted by the Congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical action.”

Dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, a necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and their complete destruction; then power is used for revolutionary changes in all areas social life: economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of workers and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry with the leading role of the working class.. In 1917, in Russia, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.

Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention to be an offence. Intervention can be military, economic, ideological, or carried out in other forms.

“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War for people hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.

Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) - money or other money or other money collected from a defeated state by the victorious state after the war material values, as well as forced monetary levies levied by the authorities on the population in the occupied territory.

Confiscation (from the Latin “to take into the treasury”) is a forced seizure, without compensation by the state, of a private person’s property. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, the lands of landowners, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.

The Kornilov mutiny was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.

The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of carrying out socio-economic activities of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legitimized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.

Reds is a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it applies to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.

Educational program is the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Massive campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign, by the end of the 30s. The literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.

Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy into state ownership.

Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. Created by bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Food Army), trade unions, factory committees, local councils(procurement, harvesting and procurement, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; governing body - Military Food Bureau of the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out food appropriation in the countryside; acted together with committees of poor people, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the confiscated bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.

Prodrazvyorstka is a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of “war communism”, established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, and was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.

Workers' Faculty - workers' faculty. In 1919-1940 a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (3 years of full-time study, 4 years of evening studies).

Reparations are compensation by a defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Sabotage is a deliberate failure to fulfill duties or their careless performance.

Sovnarkom - Council of People's Commissars (SNK) the highest executive and administrative body of state power, government Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, it was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).

Communist cleanup is voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday April 12, 1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan Railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.

Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.

The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, intended to establish a form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.

Emigration (from Latin “to move, to move out”) is a departure outside the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow restoration of citizenship to emigrants.

1920–1930

Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy, which would violate their independence and equality.

Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by a complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens and restrictions on the activities of parties and organizations.

Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against Soviet power and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the Red Army, sometimes even using gas attacks. In June 1922, Antonov was killed. The abolition of food appropriation in 1921 significantly reduced the number of dissatisfied peasants.

“The Great Turning Point” is Stalin’s expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture that began in the late 1920s in the USSR.

GOELRO (short for State Commission for Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V.I. Lenin by the State Commission for Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years and provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO - the Volkhov hydroelectric station in the Leningrad region.

GULAG - Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the Gulag united many ITL in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD/MVD USSR, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), White Sea-Baltic ITL and the NKVD plant, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. The heaviest weapons were installed in the camps conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violation of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and overwork was extremely high. Prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.

Twenty-five thousanders are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR who, at the call of the Bolshevik Party, went to the villages for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people; in fact, 27.6 thousand went.

Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has developed successfully since the late 19th – early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 20s), industrialization was accelerated by the totalitarian regime using violent methods due to the sharp limitation of the standard of living of the majority of the population and the exploitation of the peasantry.

Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic setting of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st Five-Year Plan (1928/29 – 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system had fully developed.

Collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the collectivization period of the late 20s - early 30s. XX century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for so-called eternal use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects a board headed by a chairman, mostly a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the farms by that time had been transformed into state state farms.

The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of ​​world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress was held in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the late 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of ​​​​carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, J.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Concession (from Latin “permission, assignment”) is an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement for the lease of enterprises or plots of land to foreign firms with the right to production activities, the enterprise itself organized on the basis of such an agreement.

The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and promoting the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, ascribing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.

The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.

The League of Nations is an international organization created in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation and guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. Expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.

Peaceful coexistence is a type of relationship between states with different social order, which involves abandoning war as a means of resolving controversial issues and resolving them through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of every people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.

NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed in the Soviet republic by 1920. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of “war communism” was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's food appropriation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supplies, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the New Economic Policy was phased out.

The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to assessments, programs, and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and internal party.

Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Collected from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly below surplus appropriation) taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.

The Five-Year Plan is the period for which centralized economic planning was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the XXI Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. Subsequently, five-year plans were adopted again. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.

Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a particular scale in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of committing political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.

Socialist realism – creative method literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist-conscious concept of the world and man, an image of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.

The Stakhanov movement was a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.

Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, comprehensive state control over all spheres of social life.

Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, linked the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921 During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, nationalization, and militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagated was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of intra-party relations, expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy; they proclaimed the slogans of “dictatorship of industry”, “super-industrialization”. The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The XV Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with being a member of the party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political movement in the RCP(b) ceased to exist due to the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repression.

Shock worker is a Soviet concept that originated during the first five-year plans, denoting a worker who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as role models (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities evoked respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative impact on the earnings of others, since established production standards naturally increased and wage rates decreased.

Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) government bodies are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. are established.

Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on the comparison of an enterprise’s costs for production with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in meeting planned targets and using resources economically. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.

1941–1945

The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against the aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The creation of the coalition began in June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand and others took part in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies with their armed forces. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.

Blitzkrieg is the theory of a fleeting war with victory achieved in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.

Blockade is the encirclement of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base by land, sea or air with the help of armed forces in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating a state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.

The Great Patriotic War is the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name “Great Patriotic War” began to be used in the Russian-language tradition after Joseph Stalin’s radio address on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.

The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was discovered by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with the landing in Normandy (France).

Genocide is the destruction of certain population groups for racial, national or religious reasons.

Deportation (from Latin “expulsion”) - during a period of mass repression, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted recognizing repressive acts against peoples subjected to forced relocation as illegal and criminal.

The card system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain standards for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called standardized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was reintroduced into the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, and was finally canceled in December 1947. The new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) began in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage . It has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the “release” of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.

A radical turning point in the course of a war is strategic and political changes during military operations, such as: the transition of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of forces in the international arena.

Lend-Lease is a system for the loan or lease of weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US expenses on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to $46 billion. The volume of supplies to the British Empire amounted to over 30 billion dollars (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan was 1.3 billion dollars).

Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.

Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is the temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.

The partisan movement is a type of people’s struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformation, which is waged on territory occupied by the enemy, with the armed core relying on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of combat operations, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the Nazi-occupied territory of the USSR. Strategic leadership was carried out by Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were over 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.

Underground - illegal organizations fighting invaders in occupied territories. “Young Guard” - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.

“Rail War” is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy’s railway communications in the occupied territory of the Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.

Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - withdrawal of troops, military property or population during war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydraulic construction ).

1945–1991

Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.

Lease contracts are forms of organizing and remunerating the labor of employees of rental collectives within enterprises. A contract agreement is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, under which the rental collective undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. He has the right to dispose of products produced in excess of this volume independently. Lease contract form. became widespread during the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).

The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in human history when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and insignificant states from a strategic point of view, which declared their neutrality.

Military-strategic parity is the equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.

Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and possibilities. Charges of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which led to his resignation.

MIC - military-industrial complex, designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) of the alliance of military industry, army and related ones that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the Cold War parts of the state apparatus and science.

Glasnost is a concept developed by Russian political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of government bodies.

GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of government agencies who disagreed with the reform policies of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of the new Union Treaty. The State Emergency Committee included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial, Construction, Transport and Communications Facilities of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were sent into large cities, almost all television programs stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations in opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecisiveness. In this situation, Russian President B.N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobey and a general strike. The center of resistance to the State Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days it became clear that society did not support the State Emergency Committee (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to Crimea to see M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the “GKChP” case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the Emergency Committee accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.

Demilitarization - disarmament, prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, withdrawal of troops and military equipment, conversion of military industries.

Currency reform is changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, usually aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. The 1991 monetary reform in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.

De-Stalinization is the debunking of Stalin’s personality cult and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of managing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.

Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms spoke out for the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, and protested against the introduction of Soviet troops to Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were subjected to repression by the authorities.

“Iron Curtain” - after W. Churchill’s speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “Iron Curtain” began to be used to refer to the “wall” separating capitalism and socialism.

Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.

The Cuban Missile Crisis was an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of American troops in Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (led by N. S. Khrushchev) and the USA (led by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the abandonment of the invasion of Cuba; it was also confidentially announced that American missiles would be withdrawn from Turkey and Italy.

Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of institutionalized voluntary mutual aid associations of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on share participation.

“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Refusal of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “universal human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking ideas, of “kowtowing to the West.” It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.

“Lysenkoism” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from approximately the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I.V. Stalin, T.D. Lysenko (who over time became a symbol of the campaign) and many other people.

Multi-party system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It began to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the Third Congress of People's Deputies abolished Article 6 of the Constitution, which established the leading role of the CPSU.

New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposing socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; declaration of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way to resolve international issues not the balance of power of the two systems, but the balance of their interests; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, etc. Led to the end of the Cold War.

Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenklatura: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.

STR (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and direct productive force. Began in the middle of the 20th century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress and has an impact on all aspects of society.

“Thaw” is a common designation for changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that began after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The “thaw” period was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. Important role The 20th Congress of the CPSU played a role in these processes, condemning Stalin’s cult of personality. The “Thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive changes in the mid-50s. were not further developed.

Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the areas of protecting state security. While monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require identification from them, as well as proof that they are not a danger to public peace. Official documents identifying a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and deregistration of citizens in rural areas were introduced.

Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal human values ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to contradictory efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Human rights activists are individuals who criticized the evils of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, and proposed ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal newsletter in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Participants in the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika

A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term; the State Emergency Committee’s attempt to remove USSR President M. Gorbachev from power contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.

Détente of international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA recognizing the post-war borders in Europe as inviolable, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed

Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation and at least partially solving the problem of shortages on the commodity market of the USSR

Market economy is a socio-economic system developing on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. A market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of a market economy and largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, in the economic systems of developed countries, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementing social protection measures, etc.).

Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge or permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.

CIS, Commonwealth of Independent States - an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR, in conditions of deep crisis and collapse, was ceasing to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed, together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, the Declaration on the Goals and Principles of the CIS in Almaty. Later Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which defined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: Council of Heads of State, Council of Heads of Government, Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Interstate Economic Council, Interparliamentary Assembly centered in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Advisory Committee in Minsk.

Economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.

The shadow economy is a term that refers to all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in GNP.

Commodity shortage - lack, shortage; a product that is not in sufficient quantity.

The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process began with the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975).

“Cold War” is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The “Cold War” is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.

The people of the sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” was the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.

1992–…

A share is an issue-grade security that gives the owner the right to receive income or dividends depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.

Exchange - an institution in which the purchase and sale of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or mass goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; building where stock exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first stock exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.

Near Abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics), which emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).

Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994, a government security (to bearer) for a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.

Devaluation is an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or some national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.

Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: Russia's huge public debt generated by the collapse of Asian economies, a liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials, which formed the basis of Russia's exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The ruble exchange rate against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The trust of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt, many banks burst. The banking system collapsed for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and their standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble has allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.

Impeachment (from the English “censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for holding senior officials accountable (through the lower house of parliament).

Conversion is the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of influence resources. The result of corruption is the degradation of power and increased crime.

Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted of abandoning state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)

Nanotechnology is the technology of objects whose dimensions are about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.

National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state identified the following as priority areas for “investment in people”: healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.

A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, supreme power belongs to the president. The President can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). Once elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without emergency circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the current political situation, the balance of forces in parliament has changed in favor of the opposition to the president, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy he proclaimed, the president, based on the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.

Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property to private ownership.

Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

A referendum (Latin referendum - something that must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.

The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.

The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

“Shock therapy” is a course to improve the economy through its accelerated transfer to a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).

ABACUS- (Greek) Abax– board) upper plate of the capital . In classical architectural orders, the abacus usually has a square outline with straight (in the Doric and Ionic order) or concave (in the Corinthian order) edges. [A brief dictionary of architectural and artistic terms, 2004].

ABBAT– (lat. abbas, from Aramaic abo - father) 1) abbot of a Catholic monastery - abbey (abbess - abbess). 2) Title of a French Catholic priest [Popular Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2002].

ABBREVIATION– (Italian) Abbreviation– abbreviation) 1) a noun formed by an abbreviation of a phrase and read by the alphabetical name of the initial letters (MSU) or by the initial sounds (MFA, university) of the words included in it. A. became widespread in the main European languages ​​in the twentieth century. 2) Signs of abbreviation and simplification of writing in musical notation[Popular encyclopedic dictionary, 2002].

ABORIGENS– (lat. aborigines, from ab origine- from the beginning) autochthonous population, indigenous population, community of people (usually of the same nationality) of a region of significant area, connected with this region by strong economic, social and other relations. The indigenous population is formed over, as a rule, hundreds of years [Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1985].

ABRIS –(German - sketch, drawing) linear outlines of a depicted figure or object without a three-dimensional interpretation. Same as contour. [A brief dictionary of architectural and artistic terms, 2004].

ABSOLUTE –(lat. absolutus- unconditional) a concept that is in opposition to the relative and expresses the complete and complete perfection of any object. Most often, the properties of the absolute are attributed to God, spirit, idea, reason, duty, will, and intuition. The absoluteness of the qualities of these objects does not depend on their subjective perception by man [ Modern philosophy: Dictionary and Reader, 1995].

ABSTRACTION – (lat. Abstraction– distraction) the result of a mental operation consisting of abstraction, separation of one or another attribute, quality of a thing, phenomenon or process; the act of decomposing a syncretic integrity into a number of components. In ordinary consciousness - a unit of thinking in general, the same as a concept, idea, thought. In classical idealism, especially in Hegel, A. is an elementary form of the thought process, the result of the work of the mind, forming ideas, the beginning and prerequisite of thinking in the proper sense of the word - the material from which the mind recreates a holistic, systemic, rich in content, i.e. . concrete knowledge in concepts. According to the logic of absolute idealism, things are abstract (ontological aspect), as well as ideas about them (epistemological aspect), processes are concrete, primarily the process of thinking. In Russian religious philosophy, a peculiar return to the pre-Hegelian understanding of A. as reality, identical with thought, can be traced. Life in concept and reason is often interpreted as A., but not from an object (as in Locke and Lenin), but from life in the Spirit. Thinking, with all the concreteness of its purely intellectual content, can only act as an A. from spiritual experience (religious, church, mystical, intuitive). Building life on “abstract principles”, on A. (science, democracy, technology) turns life itself into A. into a “world of shadows”, into emptiness. Man turns out to be not a microcosm in the macrocosm, but an “atom” in the void. In this regard, the criticism of abstract principles by the Slavophiles, continued by Vl. Solovyov’s “all-ones”, especially V. Ern, condemn the new European style of life as a really existing A. [Russian Humanitarian Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2002].

ABSTRACT ART –(Italian - abstract) direction in painting of the 20th century, which reduced artistic creativity to the creation of non-objective plastic, color, rhythmic, etc. compositions that excite free associations, generate the movement of thoughts, emotions, but do not represent any specific content. The authors revealed their plans through declarations, program statements, etc. Basically, their ideas boiled down to the following: abstractionism is the highest stage of development of visual creativity, which creates forms inherent only to art. “Freed” from copying reality, this art turns into a means of depicting the incomprehensible spiritual origin of the universe, eternal “spiritual essences”, “cosmic forces”. Several trends have emerged in the art of abstractionism. One was the result of the creative exploration of members of the Munich Blue Rider, who experimented with color combinations. Developing emotional abstractionism in their works (it is believed that the first work of this kind was created by V. Kandinsky in 1910), using color spots, the artists sought to express the lyricism and drama of human experiences. At the same time, painting came closer to music, turning into a kind of color symphony. Another direction originates in the work of P. Cezanne, who proclaimed that “nature must be observed according to the scheme of a cylinder, cone and ball,” and the Cubists (see Cubism). Its supporters gravitated towards more abstract geometric motifs: creating all kinds of geometric shapes, colored planes, straight and broken lines filling the artistic space. In Russia this is “Cubo-Futurism” by K.S. Malevich, in Holland - the group “Style” led by P. Mondrian. And finally, the third, irrationalist (see Irrationalism), direction of abstractionism proclaimed a complete rejection of the possibility of conscious perception of the depicted subjects. The main thing in creativity became the expression of the artist’s feelings, but the means of achieving this expression could be very different (“rayism” of M.F. Larionov and N.S. Goncharova; “non-objectivity” of L.S. Popova and O.V. Rozanov, the creativity of M. .Matyushina, P.Filonova). The recognition of the impossibility of depicting the spiritual essence of the world by means of realistic art and the rejection of such depiction were not accidental. It was the abstractist tendencies in art that most adequately expressed the process of alienation of the artist at the beginning of the century from the nightmares of reality. Thus, the German abstractist P. Klee wrote in 1931: “The more terrible the world becomes, the more abstract art becomes.” During the 20th century. abstractism was present to a greater or lesser extent in almost all avant-garde movements and in the work of individual artists. [World artistic culture: Dictionary of terms, 2010]

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM –( English abstract expressionism) New York school is a movement in abstract painting that arose in the USA around 1942. Its peculiarity is extreme spontaneity, improvisation of the creative act, often using the technique of dripping (spraying or squeezing paint directly onto the canvas). This method excludes a purposefully constructed form; the painting captures the sequence of the artist’s actions. One of the characteristic features of abstract expressionism is the large scale of the works (sometimes more than five meters in length). [Large encyclopedic dictionary. Art, 2001]

ABSTRACTIONISM –(from lat. abstractus- abstract") is the general name for a number of movements in the fine arts of the 20th century, which abandoned the understanding of art as imitation of nature, reproduction of forms of reality. [Big Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2001].

ABSURD –(lat. a bsurdus - absurd) is a philosophical and cultural concept that characterizes such a limiting state of meaninglessness to which, under certain circumstances, any reasonable or meaningful state of affairs, order, state, and even reality as a whole can be brought. The technique of deliberately inverting meaning is used in modern drama, film and television productions in order to look beyond the usual state of affairs, expand the horizons of the usual, or emphasize that there are connections between phenomena that were missed from the usual perspective, but which actually reveal the essence of the event. M. Stafetskaya defines A. as a trap into which consciousness falls, as a payment for being blinded by the evidential power of a concept. For rationalists, A. is the line separating the correct world of consciousness from disordered chaos. What is absurd in one dimension (universe, space, paradigm, way of thinking, culture, era) may not be so in another. Many counterintuitive scientific theories seemed absurd at first, such as Einstein's theory of relativity. They said about him that he has paradoxical, unusual thinking. In this case, A. is synonymous with paradoxical. In the Russian language there is a word that semantically incorporates the concepts of A. and nonsense - nonsense. Nonsense and nonsense have similar meanings in many ways: nonsense is not a simple absence of meaning, but rather the active impossibility of the existence of meaning; nonsense is the resulting impossibility of manifestation of actions by a subject deprived of this meaning. One of the most significant theories of nonsense was developed in the circle of “plane trees” (A. Vvedensky, Y. Druskin, A. Lipavsky, V. Oleinikov, D. Kharms), which existed in the 20-30s. Its representatives proceeded from the thesis of the fluidity of thought and language; distinguished two types of nonsense: a) nonsense of speech, where words are introduced into an unusual context for them (using the destruction of associative and logical connections, they created a new language in which even a single word could be a hermetic metaphor overflowing with meaning); b) ontological nonsense, reminiscent of a borderline situation in existentialism. Perhaps the first apostle of A. in the 19th century. was F. Nietzsche, who created a kind of “Revelation of the Absurd”. His nihilism, according to Rose (hieromonk Seraphim), is the very root from which the entire tree A grew. Two famous statements of Nietzsche “God is dead,” that is, faith in God has died in our hearts, and “There is no Truth,” T. that is, we abandoned the revealed truth on which European civilization was once built; they lie at the basis of the Apocalypse of the 20th century. Two phrases: “God is dead” and “There is no truth” mean exactly the same thing; these are revelations about the absolute absurdity of the world, in the center of which, instead of God, there is nothingness. Among the existentialists, ser. 20th century The idea of ​​A. was most fully expressed by the outstanding French writer-philosopher A. Camus in a work specifically devoted to this problem (“The Myth of Sisyphus. An Essay on the Absurd”). For A. Camus, A. is a feeling that permeates all the pores of life and the nooks and crannies of the human soul, that is, a kind of illness of the spirit, to which neither metaphysics nor faith are mixed. The feeling of A. is not equivalent to the concept of A. The feeling lies at the foundation, it is the fulcrum. It cannot be reduced to a concept. The phrase "This is absurd" means "this is impossible" and also "this is contradictory." In all cases, from the simplest to the most complex, the greater the absurdity, the greater the gap between the things being compared. In each case, the absurdity is generated by comparison. Essentially, A. is a split. It is not in any of the compared items. It is born in their collision. Y. Rose believes that A. is not an external, but an internal phenomenon: not in the world, but in the person himself, meaning and agreement disappear. For A. Camus, suicide is the natural outcome of A. The mind, having reached a dead end in solving some of its own intellectual problems, gives the command to destroy the body, which is innocent of anything. This is A., which lies at the very basis of human existence. Our mind searches for the meaning of life and, not finding it, destroys not itself, but the body, which does not need any meaning to exist; it needs nutrition and comfort. We get used to living long before we get used to thinking, writes A. Camus. If we resort to a metaphor, we can say that our culture is a guide or a huge map of A., and our mind is a guide in this chaos. The main occupation of the mind is to distinguish true from false. Nostalgia for the One, the desire for the Absolute express the essence of human drama. The drama of human existence lies in the fact that unity conceals diversity. Being-towards-death, as Heidegger would later say, is the basis of human existence. Perhaps, if we use the metaphor of A. Camus, this is the last circle of hell, leading to non-existence, i.e. to A. Thus, there is no escape from A. He is total. The absurd person exhausts everything and exhausts himself; A. is the ultimate tension, supported by all his forces in complete solitude. Life is really just a premiere, which the viewer sees not only for the first time, but also for the only time. A person only lives once, and in the face of this truth, any attempt to leave the performance ahead of time is worthless. Gone means never to return. This makes a person cling to life, although it is absurd. Heidegger believed that man clings to this absurd world, curses it for its frailty and seeks a path among the ruins. Jaspers was sure that there was no way out of the deadly game. He was echoed by L. Shestov, who endlessly argued that even the most closed system, the most universal rationalism always stumbles over the irrationality of human thinking. For Shestov, the acceptance of A. and A. himself are one-time. To state A. means to accept it, and all of Shestov’s logic is aimed at revealing the absurdity, making way for the immense hope that follows from it [Culture and Culturology: Dictionary, 2003].

Vanguard –(fr. Avant-garde – forward detachment)1) Part of the troops (fleet) located in front of the main forces when moving towards the enemy.2) The advanced, leading part of society; people who lead a social movement. 3) Same as avant-garde. An artistic movement of the 20th century, characterized by a desire for a radical break with the traditions and principles of classical realism, a search for new, unusual means of expression [Dictionary-reference book on the culture of speech for schoolchildren, 2005].

AVANT-GARDISM –(fr. a vantgarde– vanguard) is a term denoting trends in the art of the 20th century, which, breaking with the realistic tradition, see in the breakdown of established aesthetic principles, methods of constructing an artistic form, the main path to art achieving its purpose. Being an extreme expression of the broader trend of modernism, A. sees in the absolutization of traditional principles of art a tendency to isolate it into a special self-sufficient aesthetic sphere. Hence the attacks of avant-garde artists on the aestheticism of traditional art, the search for various, often non-aesthetic, ways of direct influence on the recipient (reader, listener, viewer). Among these methods: emphasized emotionality, appeal to direct feelings (expressionism) , the cult of the machine, opposed to the imperfection of man, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe “intenseness” of the word (futurism), the destruction of all meaning (Dadaism) , “mental automatism”, influence on subconscious impulses (surrealism), etc. Avant-gardists refuse such elements of realism in art as plot, character, considering them as a manifestation of a false “ideological” approach to reality. The creative nature of Africa, as some art historians believe, is largely connected with the dynamics of scientific and technological progress, which has decisively changed the appearance and rhythms of modern world, with the development of abstract thinking, which determined the attraction to art of associative structures (a shift in emphasis from external to internal, from contemplating aesthetic objects to experiencing them). Connected with this is the elitist tendency in A., the desire to create an almost physically tangible tension between the impenetrable structure of the work and the perceiving consciousness (“new novel” containing impersonal registers of things, “concrete poetry” in which only a formal structure is evident, a drama of the absurd demonstrating illogicality seemingly familiar reality, etc.). In general terms, the destruction in A. of established canons and formative elements as obstacles to the direct and most adequate, from the point of view of its adherents, perception of reality is carried out in the form of either its intuitive assimilation (including undifferentiated and mythologized), or a visual statement the fundamental impossibility of such development due to total alienation from reality. A. began to develop rapidly in the 10-20s. XX century, when the collapse of bourgeois ideology was revealed with particular force. As a phenomenon of artistic culture, A. was extremely heterogeneous both in terms of the social positions of its adherents and in terms of the style of their artistic creativity. Russian art in the fine arts includes, for example, such very different, original, talented artists , like yeah. Chagall, P.N. Filonov, K.S. Malevich, V.V. Kandinsky . The fundamental anti-ideological orientation of many representatives of A. in the West led them in the 60s. to merge with the position of the “new left radicalism”, expressed in the denial of culture under the pretext of its “ideology” and in the establishment of a counterculture opposing it. Various forms of art are also developing in modern art [Aesthetics: Dictionary, 1989].

AUGEAN STABLES - in Greek mythology, the huge and heavily polluted stables of King Augeas of Elis, cleansed of uncleanness in one day by Hercules, who directed the waters of the river into them (one of his 12 labors) [Popular encyclopedic dictionary, 2002].

AUTOCEPHAL CHURCH– (auto... and kephale- head) in Orthodoxy an administratively independent (local) church. In the beginning. 1990s there were 15 A.C., which, according to the Russian diptych of honor and antiquity, are located in this way: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Russian, Georgian, Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Cypriot, Hellenic (Greek), Albanian, Polish, Czechoslovak, American . Under the jurisdiction of the Jerusalem Church is the Sinai Autocephalous Church, the Finnish Autocephalous Church of Constantinople, and the Japanese Autocephalous Church (since 1970) of the Russian Church (Popular Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2002).

AUTONOMY IN EDUCATION –(Greek Autonomy– independent) one of the basic principles public policy in the field of education, providing for the independence of educational institutions in the selection and placement of personnel, scientific, financial, economic and other activities in accordance with the law and their charters approved in the manner established by law [Additional vocational education in labor protection and industrial safety: Educational terminology dictionary, 2007]

SELF-PORTRAIT- a portrait in which the artist depicts himself, mostly using a mirror or a system of mirrors. A self-portrait expresses the artist’s assessment of his personality, its role in the world and society, and his creative principles. Self-portrait is a special type of portrait genre [Art: encyclopedia, 2002].

AUTHORITARIAN EDUCATION – a pedagogical concept according to which educational relations are built on the unquestioning authority of the teacher and the student’s subordination to his will. Suppressing the initiative and independence of children, A. v. hinders the development of their activity and individuality, and leads to confrontation between educators and students. As a result, a person grows up passive, irresponsible, and prone to conformism. A.v. oppose the concept of natural education and free education. [Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2002].

AUTHORITARIANITY –(lat. Auctoritas– power, influence) dominance of the power of one person in a state or in a team; is accompanied, as a rule, by the deformation of previously established laws and norms for this purpose [Political Science: Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1993]

Authority –(lat. Auctoritas– power, influence) the influence of a person, group or organization, based on knowledge, merits, life experience. It is expressed in the ability of holders of authority to direct, without resorting to coercion, the thoughts, feelings and actions of other people, as well as in the recognition of the holder of authority’s right to leadership, in the readiness to follow his instructions and advice. The importance of authority in education is determined by the role of the teacher’s personality in this process. The success of creating an educational situation depends on how authoritative specific teachers and the entire teaching staff are in the eyes of children [Pedagogy of Leisure: Terminological Dictionary, 2007].

The authority of the teacher- gained recognition, which allows you to have a beneficial influence on children, the most important means and a decisive condition for effectiveness pedagogical activity[G.D.Bukharova, O.N.Arefyev, L.D. Starikova Educational Systems, 2008].

AUTHORITY OF THE TEACHER –(lat. Auctoritas– power, influence) a necessary condition for a teacher’s positive influence on the effectiveness of teaching and education, based on their knowledge, moral virtues, and life experience. At the heart of A.p. lies the trust of the listeners in him, the conviction that he is right, their internal readiness to share with the teacher responsibility for the decisions he makes [Encyclopedia vocational education, 1998].

AGENTS OF CULTURE- 1) individuals and groups that have a personal, direct impact on the formation of the cultural potential of the individual, creating, evaluating or distributing cultural products; 2) also institutions promoting the creation, development, preservation and transmission of cultural values ​​and products. Both of them, i.e. individuals and institutions, are called cultural subjects. Cultural institutions are often separated into a separate category and called cultural institutions . Since the terminology in this case has not yet been established, both names should be considered equally usable. How. include: a) large social groups, primarily ethnic groups (tribe, nationality, nation), which are stable intergenerational communities of people, united by a common historical destiny, common traditions and culture, peculiarities of life, unity of territory and language; 2) professional groups of creators, researchers, curators and performers of artistic works, in particular, musicologists, local historians, art historians, historians, ethnographers, philologists, philosophers and physicists, critics, censors, architects, builders, restorers; 3) non-professional groups involved in culture in one form or another, for example, spectators, readers, fans; 4) audiences - reading, viewing, mass, specialized, newspaper and magazine, scientific, popular, youth, elderly, women, etc.; b) small social groups, in particular, voluntary professional associations that unite cultural creators, promote their professional growth, protect their rights and promote the dissemination of cultural values. These primarily include creative associations such as unions of artists, writers and composers; 2) specialized associations and circles, for example, the Petrashevites circle; 3) a circle of fans of certain types of art, a musical group, adherents of a certain movement in art, fans of a specific type of fashion, adherents of a certain religion (for example, Buddhists), religious sect, etc.; 4) cultural environments, representing a vague (indefinite) set of people belonging to the intelligentsia and providing spiritual support either to culture as a whole, or to its individual types and directions; 5) the family in which the primary socialization and enculturation of a person occurs; c) depositors constitute a special category of cultural subjects. Contributors are people who drive positive change in culture. This category falls into several groups: 1) creators of works of art - poets, writers, composers, artists; 2) patrons, sponsors, i.e. cultural investors; 3) distributors of cultural values ​​- publishers, entertainers, lecturers, announcers; 4) consumers of cultural values ​​- public, audience; 5) censors - literary editors, editors-in-chief, literary censors who monitor compliance with the rules; 6) organizers. How. or cultural institutions should include institutions and organizations that create, perform, store, distribute artistic works, as well as sponsor and teach the population cultural values, in particular, academies of sciences, schools and universities, ministries of culture and education, galleries, libraries, stadiums, educational -educational complexes, theaters, etc. This is the first, but not the only understanding of a cultural institution. Its second meaning brings us to established social practices. For example, censorship is not always represented, like a museum or library, by a multi-story building or an extensive organization. Censorship can be carried out by a single official authorized by the state to monitor the ideological direction of literature. The editor-in-chief, scientific editor, and even the author himself can act as a censor. As a social practice, censorship has its roots in ancient times. Throughout history, it has repeatedly changed its forms, leaving unchanged its main function - ideological (sometimes moral) control. Censorship should be called a social or cultural practice, not an institution. Literary critics and reviewers, juries that award prizes and prizes, as well as public libraries, schools and universities are also called cultural institutions that promote the promotion of literature to the market and distribution to readers. Cultural institutions are such population groups and phenomena that at first glance are difficult to classify as them. For example, cultural institutions include English butlers, industrial instructors, institutions of guardianship, private education, and tutorship [Culture and Cultural Studies: Dictionary, 2003].

HAGIOGRAPHY- (Greek - saint and write) a type of church literature describing the lives of saints [Culture and Culturology: Dictionary, 2003].

Agitation– early genre of Soviet cinema; short films like posters and leaflets [Voskoboynikov, V.N. History of world and domestic culture, 1996].

AGNOSTIC3M –(Greek Agnostos– unknowable, unknown) philosophical doctrine about the fundamental unknowability of existence, which denies the very possibility of identifying its laws and comprehending objective truth. It cannot be presented as a concept that denies the very fact of the existence of knowledge, because agnosticism does not reject this fact. He is not talking about knowledge, but about clarifying its capabilities and what it is in relation to reality. Elements of agnosticism can be found in a wide variety of philosophical systems, including opposing ones. Therefore, it is wrong to identify any idealism with agnosticism. Representatives of agnosticism grasped some real difficulties of the process of cognition: the impossibility of “full comprehension” of an ever-changing existence, its subjective “refraction” in the senses and thinking of a person - limited in their capabilities, etc. Meanwhile, the most decisive refutation of agnosticism is contained in the sensory-objective activity of people. If they, cognizing certain phenomena, deliberately reproduce them, then there is no room left for the “unknowable thing in itself.” From the second half of the twentieth century. the term “agnosticism” is used in the literature most often when characterizing certain teachings found in the history of philosophy [Modern philosophy: Dictionary and Reader, 1995].

AGON –(Greek agon- competition) a distinctive feature of Greek life - an uncontrollable desire for any competition in almost all areas public life[Culturology: educational and methodological complex, 2008].

AGONALITY- (Greek - competition, struggle) a distinctive feature of ancient Greek culture, expressed in an uncontrollable desire for perfection, for any competition in almost all spheres of public life. As polis relations developed, it became the fundamental beginning of the existence of the Greek civil corporation, legal proceedings, rhetoric, science, and art. In practical terms, it was embodied in the system of sports and artistic competitions, the main of which were the Olympic, Isthmian, Nemean and Delphic Games [Culturology: educational and methodological complex, 2008].

AGORA –(Greek - market place) a popular, judicial or military assembly in the time of Homer. Later - a place of public meetings, trade, the center of public life in ancient Greek culture. There were altars, sanctuaries, temples, bouleuteria (a room for council meetings - boule), stands, porticoes, a mint, workshops, trading shops[Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary, 2003].

ADAGIO– (Italian – calmly, slowly) designation of a slow tempo in music when performing a piece or a separate part of it; in ballet - a dance composition of a lyrical, melodious nature. Adagio is part of complex classical dance forms (pas de deux, pas de trois,) at a slow tempo. In ballet exercise - a complex of slow movements of dancers at the pole and in the middle of the hall to develop stability, harmony in the combination of legs, arms and body [Art: encyclopedia, 2002].

ADAPTATION– (lat. adaptation– adaptation) the ability of an organism or system, changing, to adapt to different environmental conditions. In pedagogy - optimal A. for the conditions of training and education. In the andragogical context, active A. is not a simple adaptation, but the successful performance of other professional and job functions on the basis of newly acquired knowledge, the ability to interpret existing work experience and the ability to independently obtain missing information in order to use it in practice. The A. function consists mainly of two variables: the first is the tendency to self-realization, to achieve success and satisfy needs in counteracting environmental factors that limit the self-realization of the individual; the second is a tendency towards increased self-control with a refusal to achieve immediate needs for the sake of maintaining congruent relationships with the environment. As for the factor of psychological adaptation, it is associated with the neuropsychic, emotional stability (stability) of the individual, which cannot be considered in isolation from: (1) cognitive (cognitive) activity; (2) productivity of thinking; (3) communicative competence; (4) organizational skills. "A." most often considered as a process, and “adaptability” as a personality trait, but in both cases we also turn to the motivational sphere of the specialist in order to diagnose: 1) the dominance of socially significant motives and drives; 2) needs to achieve success at work; 3) desire for self-affirmation; 4) attitudes towards gaining professional prestige, authority and respect of colleagues (team) [Additional vocational and technical education in labor protection and industrial safety: Educational terminological dictionary, 2007].

CULTURAL ADAPTATION– adaptation of human communities, social groups and individuals to changing natural, geographical and historical (social) living conditions through changes in stereotypes of consciousness and behavior, forms of social organization and regulation, norms and values, lifestyles and elements of pictures of the world, methods of life support, directions and technologies of activity, as well as the range of its products, mechanisms of communication and transmission of social experience, etc. A. k. is one of the main factors of cultural genesis in general, the historical variability of culture, the generation of innovations and other processes of socio-cultural transformation of a community, as well as changes in the traits of consciousness and behavior of individuals. In the works of evolutionists of the 19th century. (Spencer, L. Morgan, etc.) A.k. is postulated as a dominant factor determining the cultural diversity of humanity, the pace, direction and specificity of the sociocultural evolution of communities. Leading figures of cultural studies of the 20th century. (neo-evolutionists, structural functionalists, etc.), recognizing A.K. one of the most important mechanisms of cultural variability, nevertheless, they did not absolutize it, considering as equally significant factors of development people’s interest in learning new things, their desire to rationalize their activities, save time and labor costs, the internal logic of technology development in specialized areas of activity, etc. P. In general, the evolution of methods of adaptive reactions can be considered as one of the basic characteristics of the evolution of life forms on Earth. At the same time, a path is traced from adaptation through changes in morphological species characteristics in plants, through adaptation that combines the variability of biological characteristics with changes in behavioral stereotypes in animals (depending on the fundamentality, radicality and duration of changes in environmental conditions), to purely human A.C. through changes in forms of life activity (behavior) and images of consciousness in people. From this point of view, the very dynamics of the genesis of man and his culture represents a gradual displacement of the process biological evolution hominids (anthropogenesis) by the process of evolution of forms of activity (socio- and cultural genesis), i.e. A.k. becomes the main means of human adaptation to the environment. Moreover, unlike animals, whose adaptation (even behavioral) is predominantly a passive adaptation to changed environmental conditions with minimal response to it, A.c. people gradually increasingly turns into the active adaptation of the environment to their own needs and the construction of an artificial subject-spatial, social-activity and information (symbolically marked) environment for their habitat. If at the primitive and archaic stages of the historical development of communities the main adaptable factor was, first of all, the complex of natural conditions of existence (ecological niche containing the landscape), when in the process of developing technologies for sustainable self-sufficiency in food, ethnographic cultural and economic features of the social practice of the rural population were formed, then at the stage early class pre-industrial civilizations (slavery, feudalism), the importance of A.K. communities to historical conditions their existence (i.e. to the social environment represented by other communities) in the forms of exchange of products, resources, ideas, etc., and struggle for territories, resources, political and religious dominance, etc., and sometimes for survival and opportunity social and cultural reproduction. At this stage, mainly the features of a socially stratified political-confessional urban culture of the class type are formed. At the industrial and post-industrial stages of sociocultural evolution, A.K. gradually becomes a priority. to the needs of sustainable reproduction of the economy of communities and its constant resource supply, to the features of an increasingly technically saturated artificial human environment. The process of continuous consumption of products produced by the economy, acceleration of cycles of using things for the sake of the speedy acquisition of new ones, intensification of technologies for the socialization of the individual and its involvement in social practice, standardization of the content of mass consciousness, consumer demand, forms of social prestige and the like give rise to a new type of culture - national with its specific methods A.K. At the individual level (in addition to the individual’s participation in the collective adaptation of a social group) A.k. is associated primarily with the entry of an individual into a new social or national environment (migration, change of profession or social status, military service, imprisonment, loss or acquisition of material means of subsistence, etc.) or a radical change in the socio-political conditions of his life (revolution, war, occupation, radical reforms in the country, etc.). At the same time, A.k. the individual, as a rule, begins with the stage of acculturation, i.e. combining previous stereotypes of consciousness and behavior with the process of mastering new ones, and then can lead to assimilation, i.e. the loss of previous cultural patterns (values, samples, norms) and a complete transition to new ones [Culturology. XX century. Encyclopedia, 1998].

PROFESSIONAL ADAPTATION – adaptation, habituation of a person to the requirements of the profession, his assimilation of production, technical and social norms of behavior necessary to perform labor functions. A.p. usually associated with the initial stage of a person’s professional and labor activity. However, in fact, it begins even during training for the profession. , when not only knowledge, skills, rules, and norms of behavior are acquired, but a lifestyle characteristic of workers in a given profession is formed. The total duration of the period A.p. depends both on the characteristics of a particular profession and on the individual abilities of a person, his inclinations and interests. Degree A.p. can be measured by sociological and psychological methods. Sociological analysis uses indicators characterizing the quantitative and qualitative results of labor, the employee’s attitude to the nature, content and conditions of work, his inclusion in the work team, orientation towards maintaining or changing his place of work, profession, position, advanced training, etc. Results of sociological research A.p. used in planning social development work collectives, training, selection and placement of personnel, in organizational and educational work with youth [Russian Sociological Encyclopedia, 1998].

SOCIAL ADAPTATION – 1) the active adaptation of a person to the changing conditions of the social environment and the result of this process. The ratio of these components, which determines the nature of behavior, depends on the goals and value orientations of the individual, the possibilities of achieving them in the social environment. Despite the continuous nature of the AS process, it is usually associated with periods of cardinal changes in the activity of the individual and his social environment; 2) the process and result of an individual mastering new social roles and positions that are significant for the individual himself and his social environment [Continuing economic education: Dictionary of basic concepts, 2004].

SOCIO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION – the process of mastering traditions, norms, customs, values; entering another culture, accepting its fundamental principles [A.A. Oganov, I.G. Khangeldieva Theory of culture: Textbook for universities, 2003].

Adequacy of education– compliance of the education received with the objective needs of human and personality development [G.D. Bukharova, O.N. Arefiev, L.D. Starikov Educational Systems].

ADZEKURA– (Japanese) style of wooden pile structures in Japanese architecture, intended for storing grain and for religious rites associated with the completion of field work. Buildings of this type are a log structure made of triangular logs intersecting at the corners, without windows. The style developed in the 4th–3rd centuries. BC, served as the prototype for the first Shinto shrines and royal treasuries. [A brief dictionary of architectural and artistic terms, 2004].

ADITON– (Greek – inaccessible) inner part ancient Greek temple, located behind the naos and communicating with it. Obviously, cult relics were kept here, so entry into the aditon was strictly limited and only priests were allowed there. [Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary, 2003].

ADMINISTRATION - 1. Management, supervision, ability to practically organize executive, administrative and production activities. 2. Bureaucratic style of management, characterized by a one-sided focus on coercive methods, excessive enthusiasm for punitive measures as supposedly the only effective incentives for proper behavior of members of labor organizations; suboptimal resolution of issues without going into the essence of the matter, but within the limits of formal requirements. [F. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Modern version, 2002.]

ADORANT– (Latin – to ask, to worship; and French – to honor, to adore) a figurine of a praying person, an intercessor performing a rite of veneration of a deity. Adorants first appeared in Mesopotamia, where they were placed in temples in front of statues of gods. They had to turn to the gods and assure them of their devotion, pray for the person who appointed them. On many of the figures, often on the back, less often on the shoulder, the name of the person who placed and dedicated them was carved. In a later period, a request was also included with which the customer addressed God. The figurines were carved from soft stones - limestone, sandstone, local alabaster. Their sizes vary from 10 cm to 1.5 m, but most often reach 30-40 cm. No single pictorial canon has been developed, but the most characteristic rules of depiction can be identified. First of all, it should be noted the refusal to correctly convey the proportions of the human body, the distortion and hypertrophy of individual human features, and the lack of portrait resemblance. In such a sculpture, according to the canon, the head is erect, the eyes are wide open, and the ears are disproportionately enlarged. Huge ears symbolized all-encompassing wisdom, since the words for ear and wisdom sound the same in the Sumerian language - “ngeshtug”. Eyebrows and eyes, beard and hair are almost always inlaid (see Inlay). Diversity is allowed in the interpretation of the figurines' poses, clothing and, especially, the details of the patterns on them. Stylistically, it is possible to distinguish between the figures of adorants of Northern and Southern Mesopotamia. Northern figurines are distinguished by elongated, slender proportions and more careful attention to detail. Southern figurines are more squat, heavy, with large heads. Adorant figures were used in ancient (see Antiquity) and early Christian art. [Voskoboynikov, V.N. History of world and domestic culture, 1996].

ADJUNCT –(lat. adjunctus - attached) a person undergoing a scientific internship. In Russia, academician titles and positions were provided for in the Academy of Sciences, a number of state universities (until the beginning of the 20th century) and universities (until 1863). Since 1938 A. - an officer studying in an adjunct course (similar to postgraduate study) at universities of the Armed Forces. [Popular encyclopedic dictionary].

ASIAN CULTURES - 1) traditional cultures of countries and indigenous peoples in the geographical space of Asia; each of these A.K. is interpreted as relatively self-sufficient, but connected with others by a formal community; 2) recognition of Asia as a combination of several large cultural communities, including different countries and peoples of Asia, closely connected with each other by a single cultural history and traditions of a large culture. The traditional cultures of the countries and peoples of Asia that are part of these large cultural communities have common systems of worldview, values, ideas and behavioral stereotypes. The framework of these communities is outlined either very broadly by inclusion in the cultural and historical spheres of the great Asian civilizations - Arab-Persian (Islamic), Indian (Hindu-Buddhist) and Chinese (Confucian), which actually leads to the complete identity of the concept of aquatic life with the concept “Oriental cultures”, or locally limited to the regions of East, Southeast and South Asia, which makes it possible to more accurately and clearly determine the specifics of A.c. in their commonality and particularity. The German orientalist O. Weggel (Hamburg. Institute for Cultural Research) recognizes the geographical and cultural boundaries adopted with this approach as most closely corresponding to the concept of Asia. Although “Asia” (in the work of the German researcher these are the regions of East, Southeast and South Asia; The regions of the Near and Middle East, Middle, Central and Northern Asia are not included in the concept of Asia, just as the cultures of the peoples of these regions are not included in the concept of A.K.) - this is rather a geographical than a cultural concept. The use of the term A.K. makes a lot of sense, since it includes common features characteristic of different countries, peoples and cultures of Asia, allowing us to talk about their cultural identity: having historically deeper roots and territorially more extensive than in other parts of the world, statehood; predominance in cultures Asian peoples historically more ancient than in other cultures, autochthonous (mostly) religions. And yet Asia is perceived by the peoples inhabiting it as a single cultural whole. According to Weggel, in the value systems of Asia and in the way of thinking of Asian peoples there are common orientations towards a holistic perception of the world and its phenomena, which sharply differs from the European-American desire for differentiation and demarcation. Over many years of comparative study of Western and Asian cultures, science has developed stereotypes in which the dynamism of the former is opposed by the staticity of the latter, the “youth” of the former is opposed to the “oldness” of the latter, the orientation towards freedom is an orientation towards despotism, the conceptual culture is opposed to emotional, historical and this-worldly dominants of thinking – unhistorical and otherworldly, materialism – spirituality. These oppositions are as controversial as they are unreliable, since much of what is attributed to Western culture is no less characteristic (or at least was characteristic) of Asian culture. The main difference is that A.K. strive for a holistic, undifferentiated perception of the world, for harmony, while Western ones adhere to the opposite orientation. The origins of this trait of A. k. are in their agrarian nature. The agricultural dominant remains strong in them to this day. Its essence is determined by the recognition of the harmony of three principles - Heaven, Earth and Man. Any false note in this harmony gives rise to disharmony, which in itself is very dangerous. In the picture of the world created on this basis, there is no place for chance; nothing can arise from nothing or disappear without a trace (the Hindu-Buddhist doctrine of karma is indicative in this regard). Everything that happens in one of the three spheres has its parallels or analogies in others: for example, today in Asian countries it is often believed that natural disasters are accompanied by political unrest. The parallelism of the three spheres - heavenly, earthly and human - existed in the past and continues to exist today in all A.K. In Confucianism, Hinduism and Taoism, the idea of ​​​​analogies of the three spheres can be clearly seen. In a world built on the principles of analogies, the dominance of laws and orders that are common and identical for these spheres is recognized. A holistic worldview and the desire for harmony generated by it also determined the nature of the attitude of Asian peoples to nature, economic activity and power structures. Instead of the typical Western desire to dominate and exploit nature, the worldview and behavior of Asian peoples are characterized by the desire to live in harmony with the natural world, with nature, to create unity between man and his environment, to the integrity of the micro- and macrocosm. The religious consciousness of Asian peoples is much less differentiated than European ones: for a Chinese or Japanese, for example, it is just as difficult to answer the question of what religion he professes - Buddhism, Shintoism or Taoism, as for a European to answer the question of what his blood type is. Asians, with the exception of Muslim Asians, are characterized by religious tolerance. Eastern religious thought has never become a source for the emergence of new, non-religious fields of knowledge and non-theological concepts, as was the case in Western Christianity. Moreover, Asian religions have never been subjected to the temptation of rationalism. IN big picture AK can be divided into five subcultures. The first is meta-Confucian, which includes the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and the countries of East and Southeast Asia with a predominant Chinese population (primarily Hong Kong and Singapore). For countries with a meta-Confucian culture, strong “cell” group formations, the ideology of state centralism, and a value system oriented towards economic achievements are typical. The second subculture is formed by the cultures of peoples professing Theravada Buddhism - Thai, Laotian, Burmese, Khmer, Sinhalese. In them, the way of life and human behavior were formed under the influence of the prevailing industries in these areas, structures usually characterized in the literature as “loose.” These structures determined rather individualized behavior of the individual and required the presence of strong state power. The third type of Asian subculture is Hindu. It includes different, but at the same time connected into a single whole, local cultures of Hindustan. It is characterized by the organization of everyday life on the basis of a subtle system and rules of caste relations, which penetrated deeply into religious consciousness. The Hindu subculture emphasizes group orientations, realized in family or intra-caste structures. In the fourth type - Islamic - there is a strong influence of local pre-Islamic traditions. Weggel distinguishes two subgroups in this type: Malay-Islamic - Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Southern Philippines, partly Singapore and Indo-Islamic - Bangladesh, Pakistan, Maldives. The fifth type of Asian subculture is Catholic, which includes the majority of the Philippine population. Philippine Catholicism was heavily influenced by pre-Christian local traditions. The psychology of a large family is one of the most important characteristic features this type of subculture. [Culturology. XX century. Encyclopedia, 1998].

IVAN- (Persian - Eyvan, Ivan, Lebanon) a vaulted hall, open from the side of the courtyard (reception halls in the palaces of Parthia and Sasanian Iran, in mosques and palaces of Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan in the Middle Ages). This term also refers to a terrace in Central Asian dwellings and mosques - a flat covering on columns or pillars. [A brief dictionary of architectural and artistic terms, 2004].

ACADEMISM – 1) Purely theoretical direction, traditionalism in science and education. 2) Isolation of science, art, education from life, social practice. 3) Direction in fine arts of the 16th-19th centuries. [Pedagogical encyclopedic dictionary, 2002].

ACADEMISM in art –(from Greek Academia – school) 1. Respect for traditions, high professionalism, “immunity” to fashionable, but short-lived and superficial trends in art. At the same time, art also has its negative side, often turning into traditionalism, leading to the canonization of proven manners and techniques in artistic creativity, stagnation of artistic thinking, giving rise to salon, outwardly beautiful, “smoothed” art, but devoid of acute life content and spiritual fulfillment. . Artistic culture, highly appreciating and protecting art in its positive manifestation, creates a counterbalance to the negative tendencies of art in the form of the primitive, studio theaters, the creativity of amateur groups and other forms that focus creative search and innovation . In the modern situation of increasing eclecticism in art and the expansion of mass culture, A. reveals its ability to preserve and develop cultural traditions and national heritage, and this is its relevance. 2. A direction in the plastic arts that took shape in European culture since the time of the Bologna Academy of the Carraci brothers (1585) and gave rise to the two largest styles in art of the 17th-18th centuries. - classicism and baroque, and subsequently the formation of broader principles of art. The Bologna school affirmed the status of a professional and free artist, characteristic of Renaissance aesthetics, proclaimed the need for artists to have theoretical and practical mastery of various styles, cultivated the elaboration of artistic ideas first graphically and only then painterly, and laid the foundation for the development of pictorial standards. At the same time, the practice and theoretical program of the Bologna school created the ground for epigonism and eclecticism in the plastic arts, as well as for the revaluation of the technical side of skill to the detriment of meaningful search and expression of individual originality. The experience of the Bologna Academy contributed to a broader organization in the 17th-19th centuries. academies of “fine arts” (dance, drama, music), which laid the foundation for the formation of the principles of systematic education and training in art, the transfer of accumulated experience in the field of professional skills, and the mastery of classical heritage and national traditions. Some of these academies were transformed into theaters, conservatories, and higher educational institutions of the arts. [Aesthetics: Dictionary, 1989].

ACADEMIC FREEDOM –(Academic freedom) freedom of members of the academic community, each individually or all together, in the pursuit of development and transfer of knowledge through research, development, discussion, documentation, creative activity, teaching, lecturing and writing scientific papers. In order to create conditions for the emergence of new knowledge and learning from technologies of the past and present, governments must refrain from using the education system as a tool for propaganda. They must also ensure that teaching staff and students of all higher education institutions have the autonomy and freedom to teach and research without police or military surveillance or harassment. A.s. includes open access to information about public affairs and the affairs of one's institution, the ability to exchange information with one's colleagues in one's own country and abroad. [Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary, 2003].

ACADEMY – the name of many scientific institutions and educational institutions. A. the leading form of organization of scientific activities in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution. It comes from the school of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato - the so-called Platonic Academy, which was located on the outskirts of Athens in a grove dedicated to the mythical hero Academ. The name A. is received starting from the 15th century. circles of scientists in various European countries that are developing vigorous research, literary and teaching activities. Some of them, having received financial support from governments, eventually became official scientific institutions. The first Academy of Sciences arose as national scientific centers: in 1660 - the Royal Society in London, in 1666 - the Academy of Sciences in Paris, 1700 - the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, 1724 - the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, etc. They pursued mainly for research purposes (they provided, first of all, conditions for experimental work, although in a number of cases they also took on the functions of educational institutions). The Royal Society of London, for example, arose from a circle of informal scientific meetings that included both scientists and noble “science lovers” who gave contributions for experiments. A. began to publish printed works, which included, in particular, reports on inventions. In general, considerable attention was initially paid to the applied aspects of science; A. carried out an examination of technical inventions. They included many people involved in practical activities (engineers, doctors, shipbuilders, etc.). However, already in the 18th century. A.'s interest in technical issues decreased. This was due to the improvement of the organization of science. Due to the increase in the scope of research. A. focused on solving fundamental scientific problems. New forms of organizing scientific and pedagogical activities in the field of technology also emerged - engineering societies, higher technical schools, engineering factory laboratories, and then industry research institutes and design bureaus. [Scientific and technological progress: Dictionary, 1987].

ACANTHUS– (Greek . akanjov – bear paw plant » )plastic ornament in the form of stylized acanthus leaves. Appeared in ancient Greek art in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. It was used mainly to decorate capitals of the Corinthian order (see architectural order). In ancient Roman art, acanthus leaves became a decorative element of the capitals of the Corinthian order, consoles, friezes and cornices . This kind of plastic ornament was developed in the culture of the Renaissance, the Baroque style [Theory of culture: Textbook. aid., 2008].

AKATHIST- (Greek - I don’t sit down) church songs of praise in honor of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, sung by worshipers standing. [Voskoboynikov, V.N. History of world and domestic culture, 1996].

WATERCOLOR –( French aquarelle, lat . aqua– water) water-based adhesive paints made from finely ground pigments, diluted in water and easily washed off with it. Watercolors can be used to paint on dry or damp paper and cardboard. The main qualities of watercolor painting are purity of color, tenderness and transparency of the colors, through which the tone and texture of the base are visible. Techniques of graphics and painting with these paints; a work made using this technique [Brief Dictionary of Architectural and Artistic Terms, 2004].

AQUEDUCT –(lat. Aquaeductus, from aqua– water and duco- lead) a water conduit (channel, pipe) to supply water to settlements, irrigation and hydropower systems from their sources located above them. An aqueduct is also called a part of a water conduit in the form of an arched bridge over a ravine, river, or road, in which the walls and bottom of the channel or pipe are load-bearing span structures. [A brief dictionary of architectural and artistic terms, 2004].

CHORD- consonance, including three or more sounds, which is perceived as a coherent whole. [Art: encyclopedia, 2002].

Accreditation– the right of an educational institution to issue its graduates a state-issued document on education, to be included in the system of central government funding and to use an official seal. [G.D. Bukharova, O.N. Arefiev, L.D. Starikov Educational Systems].

ACCULTURATION – process of change material culture, customs and beliefs, which occurs through direct contact and mutual influence of different sociocultural systems. The term A. is used to denote both this process itself and its results. Close to it in meaning are terms such as “cultural contact” and “transculturation”. The concept of A. began to be used in American cultural anthropology at the end of the 19th century. in connection with the study of the processes of cultural change in the tribes of North American Indians (F. Boas, W. Holmes, W. McGee, R. Lowy). Initially, it was used in a narrow sense and primarily denoted the processes of assimilation occurring in Indian tribes as a result of their contact with the culture of white Americans. In the 30s this term has become firmly established in American anthropology, and the processes of anthropology have become one of the main topics of empirical research and theoretical analysis. A. was the subject of field research by Herskowitz, M. Mead, Redfield, M. Hunter, L. Spier, Linton, Malinowski . In the second half of the 30s. There has been interest in a more systematic study of acculturation processes. In 1935, Redfield, Linton, and Herskowitz developed a standard model for the study of A. They defined A. as “a set of phenomena that arise as a result of the fact that groups of individuals with different cultures come into permanent direct contact, during which changes occur in the original cultural patterns of one of the groups or both." An analytical distinction was made between the recipient group, whose original cultural patterns undergo change, and the donor group, from whose culture the former draws new cultural patterns: this model was convenient for the empirical study of cultural changes in small ethnic groups due to their encounter with Western industrial culture . Redfield, Linton and Herskowitz identified three main types of reaction of the recipient group to a situation of cultural contact: acceptance (complete replacement of the old cultural pattern with a new one, learned from the donor group); adaptation (partial change in the traditional pattern under the influence of the culture of the donor group); reaction (complete rejection of the cultural patterns of the “donor group” with intensified attempts to preserve traditional patterns unchanged). This analytical framework has had a beneficial effect on empirical research and has been further developed. Herskowitz's works explored the processes of combining cultural elements of contacting groups, as a result of which fundamentally new cultural patterns emerge (studies of syncretism in the black cultures of the New World, in particular syncretic religious cults). Linton and Malinovsky analyzed the negative reaction of “primitive cultures” to the situation of contact with Western industrial culture (Linton introduced the concept of “nativist movements” for this purpose; Malinovsky used the term “tribalism”). Linton developed a typology of nativist movements (Nativist Movements, 1943). Linton’s work “Acculturation in Seven Tribes of the American Indians” (1940) was of great theoretical importance for the study of A., where two types of conditions were identified in which A. can occur: 1) free borrowing of elements from each other by contacting cultures, occurring in the absence of military -political domination of one group over another; 2) guided cultural change, in which a militarily or politically dominant group pursues a policy of forced cultural assimilation of a subordinate group. Until the 50s. A.'s study was limited to the study of changes in traditional cultures under the influence of Western civilization; starting from the 50-60s. there has been a noticeable expansion of the research perspective: the number of studies devoted to the interaction and mutual influence of non-Western cultures and processes such as Spanishization, Japaneseization, Sinicization, etc., characteristic of individual cultural regions has increased (J. Foster, J. Phelan, etc.); A. research methods were applied to the study of the process of urbanization in complex societies (R. Beals). If earlier the main attention was focused on the influence of the “dominant” culture on the “subordinate” one, now the reverse influence (for example, African musical forms on modern Western music) has also become the subject of research. Explicit or implicit identification of A. with assimilation gave way to a broader understanding of A. as a process of interaction between cultures, during which they change, assimilate new elements, and form a fundamentally new cultural synthesis as a result of mixing different cultural traditions. [Culturology. XX century. Encyclopedia, 1998].

ACCUMULATING FUNCTION– (lat. Assitilatio – accumulation) plays the role of human memory; with its help, the most important spiritual and cultural values ​​of a universal and national character are selected and stored. Y. Lotman rightly noted that culture is one of the forms of human memory, but being subject to the laws of time, it has a unique mechanism to overcome it, holding multiple elements of the past in its treasury. A. f. culture is called upon to resist the disintegration of the connection of times. [A.A. Oganov, I.G. Khangeldieva Theory of Culture, 2003].

ACMEISM –(Greek - the highest degree of something, blooming power) current in Russian poetry of the 1910s. (S.M. Gorodetsky, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov, M.A. Kuzmin, E.Yu. Kuzmina-Karavaeva, early N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam). Found theoretical justification in the works of N.S. Gumilyov (article “Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism”, 1913), S.M. Gorodetsky (article “Some trends in modern Russian poetry”, 1913), O.E. Mandelstam (article “The Morning of Acmeism”, published in 1919). The Acmeists united in the group “Workshop of Poets”, which existed from 1911 to 1914, and then revived in 1920-1922. They joined the Apollo magazine, and in 1912–1913. published their own magazine “Hyperborea” (editor M.L. Lozinsky; a total of 10 issues of this publication were published), almanacs of the “Workshop of Poets”. The Acmeists contrasted the mystical aspirations of symbolism towards the “unknowable” with the “element of nature”, declared a concrete sensory perception of the “material world”, returning the word to its original, non-symbolic meaning. But unlike the realists (see Realism), they elevated reality and aestheticized it. Their poetry is characterized by certain modernist (see Modernism) motifs, a tendency toward intimacy and poeticization of the feelings of “man of nature.” [Yu.S. Stepanov Constants: Dictionary of Russian Culture, 2001].

ACMEOLOGY –(Greek Acme– peak, blooming time, logos – doctrine ) a science that arose at the intersection of natural, social and humanitarian disciplines and studies the patterns and phenomena of the progressive development of a person to the stage of maturity and, especially, when he reaches the highest level in this development (A.A. Bodalev, A.A. Derkach, N. V. Kuzmina). A. studies developing person as an individual, a subject of labor, personality and individuality. At the origins of the formation of acmeols

Related information.

ABSTRACTIONISM is a modernist movement in the art of the 20th century; abstract art comes down to creation with the help of abstract artistic forms(color spots, lines, textures) non-figurative, non-objective compositions.

LACERY JEWELRY (from the French ajour - through) - skillfully and finely crafted products made using artistic metal processing techniques used by silversmiths. Openwork patterns also used in other decorative and applied arts - lace making, wood carving.

AKANTHUS (bear paw) (Greek akanthos) is a decorative form that goes back to the design of the leaves of the herbaceous plant of the same name. The acanthus leaf motif was often used to decorate furniture.

AMALGAM (medieval lat. amalgama - alloy) - an alloy of mercury with another metal (gold, silver). Amalgam is used, for example, for filigree technology instead of solder, for gilding, in the production of mirrors, etc.

AMULET (from Latin amuletum) is a talisman that, according to superstitious beliefs, is capable of protecting its owner from disasters and evil forces.

ANTIQUE - a carved stone (gem) inserted into jewelry.

ANTIQUE - the art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome (1 thousand BC - V century AD)

ARABESQUE is the European name for an ornament developed in the art of Muslim countries. Since Islam prohibits the depiction of people and animals, Arabic architecture is dominated by geometric and floral patterns, including ornaments called arabesques and built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of geometric or floral motifs. It is distinguished by repeated rhythmic layering of homogeneous forms, which creates the impression of a rich, whimsical pattern.

ARCH - a curved covering of an opening in a wall. It is like a segment of a vault and is laid out from wedge-shaped stones.

ARCHITECTONICS (from the Greek architektonike - construction art) is the artistic expression of the laws of structure, the relationship of load and support inherent in the structural system of a building or sculpture.

BAS-RELIEF - a sculptural image or ornament protruding on a flat surface of less than half its thickness.

BARMA - a large rounded collar with images of saints, worn by Byzantine emperors, Russian princes and tsars of the 14th - early 18th centuries. Worn during coronations and ceremonial exits.

BASMA (from the Turkish “imprint”) - embossing patterns from matrices on copper or silver sheets. Basmine embossing was common in Russia in the 13th-17th centuries.

COSTUME JEWELRY - jewelry made from base stones and metals.

BILLON - ligature, a mixture of a small part of an expensive metal with a simple one; alloy, alloy; billon, billon, related to it or made from it. Low-grade silver from which coins are minted.

BRACELET - a ring-shaped (closed or open) decoration made of various materials, which was worn on the hands from the wrist to the elbow, as well as on the legs, at the ankles.

BRONZES - copper-tin alloys containing from 3 to 12% tin, as well as, depending on the purpose, aluminum, lead, silicon, manganese, beryllium and other elements, with the exception of zinc.

BROOCH (from the Celtic broc - “point”, “needle”) - a piece of jewelry pinned to clothing - most often on the chest or collar - consisting of a decorative part with soldered to it reverse side pin and crochet. The initial use of the brooch was purely utilitarian - it served solely to fasten clothes, such as a raincoat.

BYZANTIUM - a state on the territory of Asia Minor in the period from the 4th to the 15th centuries. n. e., Eastern Roman Empire, part of the Great Roman Empire.

REVIVAL (Renaissance) is an era in the history of European culture of the 13th - 16th centuries, which marked the advent of the New Age. Its first sign was the “flourishing of the arts” after long centuries of medieval “decline”, a flourishing that “revived” ancient artistic wisdom; it is in this sense that the word rinascita (from which the French Renaissance and all its European analogues come) was first used by G. Vasari.

VOLUTA (Italian voluta, lit. - curl) - an architectural motif in the form of a spiral curl with an “eye” in the center. Component of order capitals; architectural detail of cornices, portals, doors, windows.

VOTIV (from Latin ex voto - by vow, votivus - solemnly promised) - offerings to deities, saints or spirits of places of worship in the form of ribbons and panels of matter, colored threads, hair, items of clothing and household items, small stones, horns of animals of various species, money, etc. This action is performed on the occasion of accepting a certain obligation (vow), expressed in making a sacrifice, renovating a religious building, distributing money to the needy, etc., in case of fulfillment higher powers stated request: for receiving, acquiring something, liberating 01 any troubles, for a happy ending or prosperous! completing any intended task.

GUILLOCHE - applying a design to metal using a special guilloche machine in the form of a pattern of rays, stripes, zigzags, concentric circles.

ENGRAVING is a technique of artistic processing of metal and glass products, which consists of applying a pattern to their surface using cutting engraving tools.

GRIVNA - neck decoration, hoop; an ancient type of medallion, amulet, icon, copper, silver, gold, usually? folded, worn on a chain. Known since the Bronze Age, there were granted hryvnias, which served as a kind of orders that celebrated a person’s merits.

DECOR - a system of decoration of a structure (facade, interior) or product.

DOLPHIN is a symbol of love and devotion. He saves a drowning man in the seas and oceans. According to ancient Greek mythology, the dolphin is the king of all sea creatures. It serves as an emblem of the sea element and an attribute of Poseidon and Neptune - the gods of the sea. The image of a dolphin was used as a sign of speed; a dolphin hugging the barrel of an anchor signified prudence and caution. In Christian semiotics, the dolphin was chosen as an allegory of the image of Christ. If he was depicted impaled on an anchor or trident, the sign was interpreted as the crucifixion of Jesus. Just as the dolphin saves drowning people, it is also considered the savior of human souls and is often depicted as carrying these souls to higher worlds. The dolphin is also used as a sign of the Resurrection of Christ. For early Christians, the dolphin acted as that biblical huge fish that swallowed Jonah and disgorged him three days later (in the Russian version of the Bible this fish was a whale). The dolphin was very popular as a heraldic figure. For a long time he was depicted on the coats of arms of the heirs to the French throne. The name of the title - Dauphin - in one of the meanings was translated as dolphin. According to popular belief, sailors who jump overboard turn into dolphins.

DESIGN is a type of design and artistic activity associated with the development of a person’s objective environment, systems of visual communication and information, the organization of human life and activity on a functional, rational basis.

GRAIN - a type of filigree; small gold, silver or copper balls (with a diameter of 0.4 mm), which are soldered onto jewelry, often onto an ornament made of twisted wire. The grain creates a spectacular texture and play of light and shade.

GOLD is a precious metal of bright yellow color with a strong shine. A heavy metal with a density of 19.3 g/cm 3 and a hardness of HB18 B. This metal is resistant to most chemicals.

INLAY (Late Lat. incrustatio, lit. - covering with bark) - decoration of products with patterns and images from pieces of marble, ceramics, metal, wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl, etc., which are cut into the surface and differ from it in color or material . Inlays with wood on wood (intarsia) and metal on metal (notching), etc. are common.

CABOCHON - 1) an uncut stone, polished on top 2) a protruding round or oval decorative element, often used in combination with acanthus leaves or shells to decorate cabrioles, popular in the 18th century.

BORDER - a strip along the edge of the fabric, differing from it in color and pattern.

KANFARNIK - a tool for embossing, a type of embossing, used to transfer a design onto metal by embossing along the contour, as well as to decorate the background with dots - shotting.

CAST - a special place (frame) for attaching an insert (stone) in a piece of jewelry; There are deaf, rim (tsargovye), prong and corner castes.

CENTAUR is a fictional supernatural creature from Greek mythology, symbolizing the animal side of human nature. There is an assumption that the word “centaur” comes from the Vedic Gandharvas - the minor gods who ruled the horses of the Sun.

CESAR is the title of the Roman emperors.

KIOT (from the Greek kibotos - wooden box) - a shrine, a wooden decorated cabinet or a folding frame for icons.

CLASSICISM (from Latin classicus - exemplary) - a style and direction in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model.

FORGING is a method of mechanical processing in which metal heated to a plastic state and placed on an anvil is compacted, spliced ​​or takes the required shape under the influence of hammer blows. Usually, forging of products is understood as the operation where the product is given the required shape.

KOLT - ancient Russian women's jewelry of the 11th - 13th centuries. - a hollow pendant, often decorated with grain, filigree, enamel, and niello. Paired kolta were hung from both sides of the headdress.

COMPOSITION is a means of bringing all individual elements to a harmonious unity, determined by the artist’s ideological plan.

CULT - religious veneration of various objects, supernatural beings in the form of rituals, sacraments, holidays, sacrifices, etc. The components of the cult are religious and magical actions (rites, prayers) and objects related to them (sacred images, temples, sanctuaries, etc. .)

LATE CULTURE (in archaeology) of the Iron Age in Western and Central Europe (5th century BC - 1st century AD) - remains of settlements, settlements, burial grounds, treasures. The carriers are mainly Celts. Economy: agriculture, cattle breeding, crafts.

CASTING is a method of manufacturing products by pouring molten metal into special molds. The cooled casting is cleaned and refined by embossing and engraving.

MEANDER - a geometric pattern of a continuous curve or a broken line at a right angle, forming a series of spirals. Designed in the art of Ancient Greece. Its prototype was the bed of a winding river in Asia Minor.

MEDALLION (from the French medaillon, from the Italian medaglione, magnifying from medaglia - medal) - a pictorial or ornamental composition (sculpted or carved relief, painting, mosaic) in an oval or round frame.

COPPER is a viscous metal of a reddish-pink color, density - 8.93 g/cm 3 ; melting point - 1083 C°; hardness - HB35. Very viscous and soft; rolled into thin sheets and drawn into wire.

MINIATURE is a work of fine art, distinguished by its small size and special subtlety of artistic techniques.

MYTHOLOGY - includes stories about certain characters - gods, people and especially “heroes”, i.e. great people of antiquity, occupying an intermediate position between the gods and ordinary people. MYTH (from Greek mytos - legend) - legends about ancestors, gods, spirits and heroes that appear in pre-literate societies. A mythological complex that takes on syncretic vi-| visual-verbal forms, acts as specific! a way to systematize knowledge about the world around us. 1

MOKOSH is a female deity (goddess of nature), included in the pagan pantheon in Kyiv by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

MOSAIC (French mosai "que, Italian mosaico, from Latin musivum, lit. - dedicated to the muses) - an image or pattern made of particles of homogeneous or different materials (stone, smalt, ceramic tiles, etc.), one of main types of monumental and decorative art.Mosaics are also used to decorate works of decorative and applied art and, less often, to create easel paintings.

OVERLAY - any metal part that is applied to an object so that it does not wear out so quickly, as well as for decorative purposes and to hide joints.

CHARM - according to the Slavs, an object that protects against evil forces and misfortunes; amulet.

RITE - a religious act performed by believers for various purposes. For example, some religions use rituals to consolidate certain religious ideas in the minds of believers and strengthen faith in almighty forces.

OKLAD - in ancient Russian art, decoration of the front surface of an icon or the binding of a gospel, made using the technique of chasing and embossing from sheets of gold or silver.

LONG - low frill, fringe.

FENCE - a structure designed to restrict free access of people, animals and vehicles to the territory, for example, a park.

CLOTHING is an artificial covering of the human body, made of fabric and other sewing materials, protecting against adverse environmental influences and performing various functions (utilitarian, aesthetic, communicative).

ORNAMENT - a pattern built on the rhythmic alternation of elements.

PALEOLITHIC (from the Greek palaios - ancient and lithos - stone) - ancient stone Age, the first period of the Stone Age, the time of the existence of fossil humans (paleoanthropes, etc.).

PALMETTE (French palmette - decoration in the form of a palm leaf) - an ornamental motif in the form of a stylized fan-shaped leaf.

PANAGIA (from the Greek panagia - all-holy) - a small round icon with the image of the Mother of God, the breastplate of bishops.

PYSANKA - painted egg. It dates back to pagan times (finds in burial mounds), and later became part of the ritual of celebrating Christian Easter. Pysanka painting (predominantly geometric or floral patterns, strictly subordinated to the shape of an egg) is a common type of decorative art among many peoples (Slavic, etc.).

PLAQUETTE (French plaquette, diminutive of plaque - plate, tablet) - 1) a work of medal art, differing from an ordinary medal in its rectangular (or close to rectangle) shape; 2) a plate (made of metal, ceramics and other materials) with a relief image, prev. intended for decorating furniture, household items, etc.

NETWORK - a relief pattern on ceramic products in - "basket weaving.

POLYCHROMITY (from poly... and Greek chroma - color) - multi-colored works of decorative applied arts, sculpture or architecture.

POLYTHEISM (from poly... and Greek theos - god) - polytheism, belief in many gods.

PONEVA - one of the oldest elements folk costume for married women of the southern and central regions of Russia. Belt clothing was made from homespun materials, often checkered; depending on the place of existence, it had its own ornamental, coloristic and design features/

CHALICE (from the Greek poter - cup, glass) - a vessel for communion, the Eucharist, with wine and water, symbolically transforming 01 into the blood of Christ. Particles of the holy lamb are also lowered into the chalice - a symbol of the body of Christ. The chalice also served as a necessary element in most Christian initiation rites.

POSTMODERNISM is an artistic and cultural ideology of the second half of the 20th century, calling for a correction of the ideology of modernism. Postmodernism softens the rigidity of the design principles of modernism, expressed in the desire to design the whole world anew, and allows humor, historical quotes and elements of mass culture into art, design and architecture.

SOLDER is a metal or alloy used in soldering to fill the gap between the parts being connected in order to obtain a monolithic connection. Alloys based on lead, tin, cadmium, copper, nickel, etc. are used.

PRICHELINA - in Russian home decor, an inclined board placed on the ends of the roofing slabs. In addition to a purely decorative function, it also had a utilitarian function, covering the gap between the fall and the roof from rain and wind. The ends of the piers were often finished with carved towels. There are often cases when the piers were nailed into two or three boards with an offset,

which made it possible not only to increase its width, but also to add additional decorativeness.

RAPPORT (French rapport, from rapporter - to bring back) - a repeating part (motif) of a pattern (pattern) on fabric, knitwear, embroidery, wallpaper, etc.

RELIEF - in art, a type of sculpture in which the image is convex (or recessed) in relation to the background plane. The main types are bas-relief and high relief. In arts and crafts, decoration that protrudes above the surface.

ROSETT (from the French rosette, lit. - rosette) - an ornamental motif in the form of a stylized blooming flower (for example, a rose). In furniture I often hid the joints.

RYASNY - chains of embossed blocks, attached to a woman's headdress (colts were attached to them).

SACREDITY - divinity, inexplicability; sacred - sacred.

SATIR - in Ancient Greece, one of the spirits of forests and mountains, identified in Roman mythology with the god Faun. The satyrs formed the retinue of Bacchus (Dionysus) and from him acquired their goat-like features: hairy legs and hooves, tails, bearded faces and horns. Their eyebrows are entwined with the sacred plant of Bacchus - ivy. According to myths, satyrs are lazy and dissolute. They spend their time drinking and hunting nymphs.

SWASTIKA (Sanskrit) - a cross with ends bent at right angles (less often an arc). Perhaps an ancient symbol of fertility, the sun, crossed lightning bolts, Thor's hammer, etc. As an ornamental motif, it is found in the art of ancient cultures, as well as in ancient, European medieval and folk art.

LIGHT - a simple metal rod that had a split at the upper end into which a long lit splinter was inserted. To ensure that the rod with the splinter stood vertically, a heavy hoop was riveted to its base.

RED - in architecture, a spatial structure, ceiling or covering of structures, having a geometric shape formed by a convex curved surface. Under load, vaults, like an arch, work primarily in compression, transmitting vertical forces to the supports, and also horizontal forces in many types of vaults (thrust).

SANCTUARY - in polytheistic religions, a sacred place or altar dedicated to a deity, often serving as a place of refuge for the persecuted. In ancient times, sanctuaries could be groves or individual trees, mountains, springs, etc.

SILVER is a metal that belongs to the group of precious and noble metals; white metal, density - 10.49 g/cm 3, melting point - 960.5 C°, hardness - HB25. It polishes well, has high reflectivity, has good malleability and the highest thermal and electrical conductivity of all metals.

EARRINGS - jewelry in the form of rings, pendants, balls, threaded into the earlobes.

SILHOUETTE - projection of a volumetric shape onto a plane; a planar expression of a volumetric form, emphasizing its features.

SYMMETRY - the natural arrangement of equal parts relative to each other, as well as the axis (plane) of symmetry; is a means of achieving compositional expressiveness.

A SYMBOL is a concrete and visible embodiment of the highest values ​​and meanings, as well as one of the most powerful “tools” of culture for conveying the highest, ineffable truth. The perception of a symbol is associated with various senses, but primarily with vision; symbols form the most universal and powerful language of culture.

FINISH (from Old Russian ekat - to twist) - filigree, a type of jewelry technique: openwork or soldered onto metal

background pattern made of thin gold or silver wire, smooth or twisted into ropes.

SMALTE (German: Smalte) - colored opaque glass of various shapes for mosaic work; plate, cube made of such glass.

BULLE BEARD, a type of large bead - multi-colored short glass tubes strung on a thread. Bugles are used for finishing clothes and interior design (drapery, tablecloths, lampshades, etc.).

RHINESTER (German Strass, named after the inventor, glassmaker and jeweler of the late 18th century, J. Strass) - an artificial stone made from lead glass with the addition of boric acid, which gives it shine; in brilliance and play similar to precious stones; fake gemstone. The most famous are rhinestones made of colorless glass - like “diamonds”. “Emeralds” were created by an admixture during the melting of chromium oxide, “topazes” by iron oxide, and “amethysts” by cobalt oxide.

SCHOOLASTICS (from Latin Schola - school) - school philosophy of the Middle Ages. The main character of scholastic philosophizing is that it attaches excessive importance to certain general concepts, and behind them the words that signify these concepts, so that as a result, an empty play with concepts and words takes the place of a real study of nature and facts.

SPHINX (Sphinx) - mythol. a monster with the winged body of a lioness, the head and chest of a woman; lived near Thebes on a rock and killed everyone who could not solve the riddle asked of them. In modern poetry, the sphinx is a symbol of mystery, as well as the embodiment of the idea of ​​​​the contiguity of suffering with pleasure.

TOREUTICS (from the Greek toreuo - cut, mint) - the art of manual relief processing of artistic metal products - embossing, embossing, finishing cast products.

TRANSFORMATION (from lat. Transformatio) - transformation, transformation, modification.

FIBULA (lat. fibula) - a metal fastener for clothing in the form of a pin, hairpin with a shield, usually richly decorated. Used by the ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as in the Middle Ages and the 18th century.

FILIGREE (Italian filigrana, from Latin filum - thread and granum - grain) - a type of decorative technique, production of artistic; products, is divided into filigree and grain.

FINE (enamel) (French email, from the Frankish smeltan - to melt) is a technique used in jewelry, as well as the products themselves made using this technique. Enamels are used to decorate gold, silver and copper items, glass, and ceramics.

FOLKLORE - folk studies, a department of ethnography, studies folk morals and customs, beliefs, superstitions, rituals, proverbs, fairy tales, poetic works, language, etc. The term was first introduced into scientific use in 1846 by the English scientist William Toms.

HI-TECH - style direction in world design and architecture of the 1970s, associated with the presentation through the form and design of products and structures of perfect finishing quality, advanced industrial technologies, precision joining of parts, and the use of components, structures and parts used in industry, trade and on transport. It is distinguished by an abundance of metal surfaces with different textures, a predominance of achromatic range of products, and a contrasting combination of black and white.

COUNTERING - 1) a method of artistic processing, which consists in obtaining relief images on thin metal sheets (mainly copper and silver) by hand punching; 2) surface finishing of artistic casting products in order to eliminate minor defects; 3) finishing operation of volume stamping - compression of the product in a finishing die to improve dimensional accuracy and surface quality (in the manufacture of coins, medals, precision parts).

NIELLO (Italian niello, from Latin niger - black) - black or dark gray images applied to metal (gold, silver) by engraving and filling the strokes with the so-called niello alloy (made of silver, copper, lead or tin and sulfur).

STAMPING is a process of metal forming by pressure, in which the shaping of a part is carried out in a specialized tool - a stamp; a type of forging and stamping production. Based on the type of workpiece, a distinction is made between volumetric stamping and sheet stamping, and based on the temperature of the process - cold stamping and hot stamping. Compared to forging, stamping provides greater productivity due to the fact that the entire workpiece or a significant part of it is plastically deformed simultaneously.

HELLENISM is a stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean from the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) until the conquest of these countries by Rome, which ended in 30 BC. e. subjugation of Egypt. The term “Hellenism” was introduced into historiography in the 30s. XIX century German historian I. G. Droysen.

ENAMEL - lead-silicate glassy layer applied to various metal surfaces jewelry to protect it from external influences or as a decorative coating.

EMBLEM (from the Greek emblema - insert, convex decoration) - a conditional explanation of an abstract concept, idea using some image; often considered as a type of allegory. In a narrow sense, it is a symbolic image, usually accompanied by a short motto and more detailed didactic text.

ENCOLPIONS - gold oval medallions.

AESTHETICS is the science of sensory knowledge that comprehends and creates beauty and is expressed in images of art. The concept of “aesthetics” was introduced into scientific use in the middle of the 18th century. German enlightenment philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The term comes from the Greek word aisthetikos - sentient, referring to sensory perception. Baumgarten singled out aesthetics as an independent philosophical discipline.

Paganism (from Church Slavonic “pagans”) - peoples, foreigners), the designation of non-Christian religions, in a broad sense - polytheistic. In modern science, the term “polytheism” (polytheism) is more often used.

LARGE - a horizontal division of the volume of a building (another object), separated from other parts by a cornice.

Control questions

CONTROL QUESTIONS. SECTION I

TERM

TERM

1. In formal logic, a concept expressed in a word (philosophy). Three terms of a syllogism.

2. A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. Precise, imprecise term. Lucky, unlucky term. New term. Philosophical terms. Technical terms. Special terms (denoting special concepts of certain branches of science, art, technology, production, etc.). “...for the masses it is necessary to write without such new terms that require special explanation...” Lenin .

|| A special word and expression adopted to designate something in a particular environment or profession. Card game terms. Chess terms.

Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

See what "TERM" is in other dictionaries:

term- a, m. terme m., German Termin, gender. termin, lat. terminus. 1. mat. From the first decade of the 18th century. The term progression, proportions. Exchange 168. In a single geometric progression, the edges of 4 and 8748 happened to be, in those proportions there is 3, and it is known how many... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (from Latin terminus border, limit, end), 1) a name with a special connotation. (scientific) its meaning, specified in the context of k. l. theory or branch of knowledge. 2) In antiquity philosophy, a concept that captures stable and enduring aspects... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus). 1) an accepted conventional expression, a name characteristic of any science or craft. 2) deadline. 3) among the Romans: the god of boundaries, to whom the festival of terminalia was established. 4) border post, column. 5) in logic: the name of the concept,... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Terminus). Roman deity of boundaries, originally the god of boundaries and boundary stones. A temple to him was built by King Numa, and the festival of Terminalia was celebrated in his honor. (Source: “A Brief Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities.” M. Korsch. Saint Petersburg,… … Encyclopedia of Mythology

Term- TERM is a word that has a special, strictly defined meaning. Used in science and technology. In connection with the general history of science and technology, the most magnificent development of which is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries, the terms, by origin, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

See word... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. term name, word; differentiation, numerator, antilogarithm, continuum, quotient, determinant, extremum, factorial,... ... Synonym dictionary

- (from Latin terminus boundary limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, and art. In modern logic, the word term is often used as a general noun in the language of logical... ...

Term- this is a word or phrase of a special sphere of use, which is the name of a concept. The term names a special concept and, together with other terms of this system, is a component of the scientific theory of a certain field of knowledge... Official terminology

- (from the Latin terminus border, limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art... Modern encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus limit boundary), in Roman mythology, the guardian god of boundary signs, was revered among the peasants. His feast of terminalia was celebrated on February 23... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• 101 tax law terms. Brief legislative and doctrinal interpretation, Reut Anna Vladimirovna, Paul Alexey Georgievich, Solovyeva Natalya Aleksandrovna, Pastushkova Lyubov Nikolaevna. The scientific and practical publication is a brief summary of tax, legal and economic views on 101 terms of tax law, including both terms enshrined in…

Ministry of General and Vocational Education

Rostov region

State budgetary professional

educational institution

Rostov region

Novoshakhtinsky Technological College

Glossary of terms

by subject

"Computer science"

Novoshakhtinsk

2015

Compiled by: Maruda Tatyana Yurievna

teacher of the highest category

The dictionary of professional terms is intended for teachers of the professional cycle, students and masters of industrial training in accordance with the requirements of Federal State Standards

This dictionary contains the most common terms that are used when working with computer technology and are necessary for continuous self-education and self-improvement in the field of information technology

Paragraph – structural element of the text. In the Word processor, an arbitrary sequence of characters between two “Return Correction” characters, as well as between the beginning of the text and “Return Correction” and between “Return Correction” and the end of the text.

Network Administrator is a specialist responsible for the design, installation, configuration, monitoring, management and maintenance of networks (for example, local in an office or educational institution), systems, etc.

File address – full file designation indicating the logical drive, file path and name. For example: c :\nort \exel \trf .bat .

Algorithm is a finite sequence of unambiguous instructions, the execution of which allows, using a finite number of steps, to obtain a solution to the problem that is uniquely determined by the initial data.

Alphanumeric information – these are code table characters that can be entered into a PC with one keystroke (letters, numbers, service characters).

Animation - This is the animation of the image.

Network hardware resources - This is additional equipment that can be connected to the network and shared between users. Hardware resources enhance network capabilities.

Archivers – these are specialized programs that are designed to compress files, i.e. to reduce their size.

Archiving files – a service operation on a computer that allows you to pack a group of files into one archive file to save space on magnetic media.

Authentication – checking the entered name and password of a user or another computer trying to access the resources of this computer.

Database – a set of data and objects related by a common task. Each database is a collection of tables, queries, forms, reports, which is stored in a file with an arbitrary name and extension.mdb.

Byte – a set of eight bits perceived by the computer as a single whole. A byte is an eight-bit binary number, i.e. an eight-bit combination of zeros and ones.

Bit – digit of the binary number system. The smallest unit of information known in nature. The bit value is 0 or 1.

Notebook – a program that is used to write any texts, or to create pages by writing hypertext (HTML). Every user of the Windows operating system has Notepad on their computer by default.

Browser – a program for viewing web pages. There are many different browsers: Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, Opera and others.

Buffer exchange – s it is temporary storage of information.

Web design - This is the design of web pages. It plays the same role for a website as printing design and layout for a paper publication.

Webmaster – a specialist who supports and updates websites (commercial).

Vector . A vector image is when an image is presented in the form of straight line segments, vectors. In a geometric sense, a vector is a directed segment, that is, a segment that has a specified beginning (also called the point of application of the vector) and an end.

Vector graphics – the image consists of objects: geometric shapes made up of straight lines, arcs, circles and Bezier curves.

Video card (video adapter) – controls the process of displaying information on the monitor screen.

Virus – a malicious program that, as a rule, infects or disrupts the operation of a computer and programs. A virus can get onto a computer via the Internet, through electronic media (floppy disks, disks). To avoid this, be careful and periodically scan your computer using anti-virus programs that can detect and remove viruses from your computer.

twisted pair – one of the most common types of cable used for installation of various systems inside buildings.

The World Wide Web (WWW) – the most flexible and promising tool for working on the global World Wide Web. The user can display graphics, text, sounds, music and live video on the computer screen.

Headset – appearance, font writing.

floppy disk – removable magnetic media for permanent storage of information (in the form of files).

Hypertext – information presented in such a way that certain words in the text are simultaneously links (pointers) to other information.

Global network – connects computers or local networks located very far from each other, in different cities, countries, on different continents.

Gradient – a gradual transition from one shade or color to another shade or color.

Graphics tablet – a device for creating images using graphic editors. It can also be used instead of a mouse.

Graphical user interface – provides the ability to control the behavior of a computer system through visual controls - windows, lists, buttons, hyperlinks, etc. The first operating systems used the command line method of interaction.

Graphics editor – a program on a computer that allows you to create and edit images on a computer screen: draw lines, color areas of the screen, create inscriptions in various fonts, process images, etc. Some graphic editors provide the ability to obtain images of three-dimensional objects, their sections and turns.

Disk Defragmenter – optimization of the physical location of files on the disk in order to speed up the computer.

Dialog window – a rectangular segment of the screen in which the user sets some parameters.

Dynamic site – an Internet site that can be filled with information by company employees using special software - the Administrator interface. Typically done using a database.

Disk – a magnetic carrier of information presented in the form of files.

Drive – an electronic-mechanical device for servicing a magnetic disk.

Document – application program processing object.

Driver – system program, located between the application program and a peripheral device or memory and performing service functions.

Inch – unit of measurement of length.

HDD – non-removable magnetic media for permanent storage of information.

Requests – these are specialized structures created to obtain certain information from a database. Using queries, you can organize data, filter, merge, select or change it.

Sound card – an additional board designed to process audio information and interface with external audio input/output devices (microphone, headphones, speakers).

Hierarchical structure – a data structure in which each child element has one parent element.

Icon – pictogram, small icon, symbolic image.

File name – file designation, which consists of its own name and extension.

Indicator – a luminous light bulb that reflects certain parameters in the operation of the computer.

Internet protocol – a network protocol responsible for transmitting and routing messages between Internet nodes and defining the rules for dividing data into packets.

Interface – a convenient shell through which the user communicates with the computer.

Information system – a collection of structured data in one way or another and a set of hardware and software for storing and manipulating data.

Uninterruptable power source (UPS)– a device that ensures uninterrupted operation of a computer when the network voltage drops.

Skittle – (measured in points: 1 point = 0.35 mm) is the conventional font size, the distance from the bottom of a lowercase letter, for example y, to the top of a capital letter (U).

Keyboard – a device for entering alphanumeric information and control actions into a PC.

Character code table – internal representation of symbols in the machine. Each character is represented by a decimal number (from 0 to 255) contained in one byte.

Codes – symbols of objects (numeric or alphabetic). Sometimes codes are called numbers.

Running title – a structural element of a document. Located at the top or bottom of the page and contains some information identifying this document (page number, section number, title, date, etc.).

Team – the name of the program (possibly with parameters) to be executed.

Batch file – a text file with the extension .bat, the lines of which contain sequentially executed commands.

Computer – a device for entering, processing and displaying all kinds of information.

Context menu – a menu that opens in Windows when you right-click on an object and contains a group of commands for managing this object.

Copy – creating an exact copy of an object while maintaining the original object intact.

Corel Dro –CorelDraw. One of the most popular vector graphics editors. Multifunctional. Used in many design studios.

Corporate network – a local network covering a certain enterprise, firm and uniting heterogeneous computing resources in a single environment.

Italics - Italic. Italic font. Example: " I am writing this letter to you, dear Maria Ivanovna, in the hope..."

Cursor – in text mode – a flashing bar (mark) on the screen, emphasizing the line position in which the character will be displayed when an alphanumeric key is pressed. In graphic mode, the cursor has several modifications and can perform other functions.

Cache memory - a small block of high-speed memory that stores recently used or frequently used data, so that the processor does not need to retrieve this data from main RAM. Cache memory is an integral element of any computer. It significantly improves overall system performance by eliminating delays that occur when information is exchanged between the processor and RAM across the system bus.

Ruler – located at the top or left of the document window. Designed for document control and processing.

Line drawing - an image created with a pencil on paper.

Logical drive – part of memory hard drive, identified by the Latin letter C:, D:, etc.

Logical datum – takes one of two values: “true” or “false”.

The local network – a network limited by short distances and a maximum number of nodes (computers) in the network.

Login – 1. The registration procedure on any site/server that provides any services, for example, a mail service. 2. The procedure for identifying a user when entering the network, the site of any service, etc. 3. The username that he enters to log in, for example, to an email service where he is already registered.

Menu – a list of objects (operations, switches, etc.) that appears on the screen. A choice must be made among these objects.

Modem – a device that uses signal modulation to transmit digital data over analog networks. Using a modem, you can access the Internet through a regular analog telephone network.

Monitor – a device for displaying information on the screen. Can work in text and graphic mode.

Mouse – a manipulator, a hand-held device for indicating screen coordinates and transmitting simple commands.

Desktop Publishing – these are programs that are designed to create layouts of printed publications: magazines, newspapers, booklets, books, etc.

Typeface – the text can be typed in any of four styles – regular font, bold, italic, underlined.

Laptop – a portable laptop computer weighing less than 4 kilograms.

An object –1. One of the basic concepts of object-oriented programming. 2. One of the components of a computer graphic image.

Window – a rectangular segment of the screen, most often enclosed by a frame.

Document window – the window in which the document is located – the processing object of the application program.

Application window – the window in which the application program is executed.

Online –Online. On-line. Non-autonomous operating mode is an operating mode when the computer is connected to a network (for example, the Internet).

Operand – expression element (literal, variable, function, other expression).

RAM – a set of special electronic cells, each of which can store a specific combination of zeros and ones. The information is stored in RAM until the computer turns off, then it disappears.

operating system – a program that organizes a dialogue between the user and the computer, controls the distribution and use of machine resources, and orchestrates the operation of all hardware elements of the computer.

Reports – determine the forms of presentation of data output from queries or tables in the database. Data can be displayed on a monitor, printer or other output device in a convenient and visual form.

Offline –Offline. Off-line. Offline operating mode is an operating mode when the computer is not connected to a network (for example, the Internet). However, when working offline, you can view on your computer pages and sites previously specially saved from the Internet.

Memory is a device for storing information.

Quick Launch Toolbar – located to the right of the “Start” button, contains buttons for quickly launching main programs.

Task bar – an element of the Desktop on which buttons are located to maximize windows of minimized but not closed applications.

Toolbar – one of the elements of the graphical user interface, designed to perform instrumental functions and control the program. Some of the toolbar tools duplicate the functions of the horizontal menu.

Folder (directory, directory) – a named group of files on a floppy or hard magnetic disk.

Password –Password. Access code to receive sensitive information (for example, to log into your mailbox).

Primary key – a set of table fields in a relational database, the values ​​of which uniquely identify a specific record, i.e. object instance.

Renaming – the operation of replacing an old file name with a new one.

Switch – menu item, toolbar icon, dialog box field. Determines whether a certain function will or will not be executed, or a certain mode will or will not be enabled.

Moving – moving an object (file, block) to another location.

Personal Computer is a small complex of interconnected devices, each of which is assigned a specific function. This is the most common class of computers, capable of solving problems of various levels - from compiling financial statements to engineering calculations. Designed for individual use.

Pixel – the minimum image element (“dot”) on the monitor screen created by the video adapter. Has the shape of a rectangle or square.

Pictogram – graphical representation on Windows screen program element, program group, window, switch, shortcut, tool, etc. Also called icon, icon, symbol.

Plotter – a specialized large-format printing device for outputting drawings, maps and other large-format images.

Repeater (repeater) is a self-powered device that provides data transfer between network segments if the length of the segment is limited by the cable parameters.

Search system (search engine)– a system that allows you to search for websites containing specified keywords. In order to collect information, each search engine has a special module (robot), which, moving from link to link, collects and indexes documents contained on websites.

Field – 1. A structured element of a relational table record that represents some data and has a type and length. In modern systems, a field is called a column. 2. In a Word document, a text element that contains special information.

Scroll bar –Scroll bar. Horizontal and vertical stripes on the right and bottom of the document window that appear when content does not fit within the window. At the ends of each scroll bar there are two scroll arrow buttons that you can click or drag on the scroll bar to view the document's contents.

Port – connector on the motherboard for connecting external computer devices.

Portal –Portal. A large site with a lot of information, combining several topics, taking into account the interests of a wide audience, which ensures a large number of visitors, fame, and popularity. The portal not only absorbs a large amount of certain information, but also provides the visitor with a large number of links to similar resources, and also includes various interesting services (for example, search, directory, reference book, a place for communication (forum), possibly mail services , statistics services, etc. - depends on how large the portal is and its topics).

Persistent memory – serves to store data about the computer configuration, its settings, etc. This data remains virtually unchanged or changes very rarely.

Mailbox –Mailbox. Mailbox in email systems. You can create an electronic mailbox for sending letters to other Internet users on special websites that provide such a service, both for a fee and for free.

Presentation – a set of pictures (slides) on a specific topic. It is stored in a special format file and can be shown to viewers on a monitor screen or on a large screen (using a projector).

Transceiver (transceiver) – a device that connects a computer to a network and functions as a transmitter and receiver.

Printer –Printer. A device for printing text and images from a computer.

Provider –Provider. A company or firm that provides services for access to the Internet.

Conductor – a program that allows you to perform operations with files and folders.

Program - a set of instructions compiled by a programmer and executed by a computer.

Shell program (file manager) – designed for ease of working with folders and files.

Processor (microprocessor) is the “heart” of the computer, and the chipset is its “nervous system”, ensuring the exchange of information between the processor and other parts of the computer.

Paragraph – unit of measurement of font and typesetting bar elements. Abbreviation: "pt". Currently, two measurement systems are used that differ in point size: the Didot system, where 1 point is equal to 0.375 mm, and the Anglo-American system, where 1 point is equal to 0.352 mm. In Europe and Russia the Didot system is traditionally used, but in computer typesetting the Anglo-American system is generally used by default. In many computer layout programs, a point is defined for simplicity as 1/72 of an inch.

The path to the file – file designation indicating the chain of directories leading to the file and its name. For example: \nort \exe 1\trf .bat .

Workspace - the largest part of the window. It is designed for working with documents.

Work station – this is any working computer on the network that is not a server. Requirements for workstations are determined by the range of tasks of the station.

Radiator - This is a metal plate with a ribbed surface. Due to it, the heat exchange between the processor and the environment significantly increases.

Screen resolution (Screen Resolution) – monitor screen size in width and height in pixels. The most popular resolutions are 640x480, 800x600, 1024x768. The higher the resolution a computer has, the higher quality images it can display on the screen.

Bit depth – this is the number of bits that is perceived by the microprocessor as a single whole (4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 – an integer power of 2). Performance and maximum volume depend on the bit capacity internal memory, which the machine can work with.

Raster . Raster image. A format for graphically representing an image in the form of a set of dots.

Raster graphics – the image is formed by many dots (pixels), each of which has its own color.

Extension – file name extension. A suffix added to a file name that complements the name itself, but most often indicates the format and type of data stored in the file. The extension is separated from the actual file name by a dot. For example, snow.jpg: where snow is the file name, and *.jpg is an extension indicating that this is a graphic file, a picture in JPEG format.

Text editor – a software tool for entering and modifying text files or text documents.

Backup – duplication of any information. By making a backup copy of a file, program, disk, system, you can restore it if it malfunctions or if any problems arise.

Relational approach – representation of an arbitrary data structure with simple two-dimensional tables.

Runet – all resources related to the Russian Internet, i.e. resources whose content is written in Russian and is aimed at Russian-speaking visitors.

Website –Site. A set of pages (documents) with a repeating design (design), united in meaning, navigationally and physically located on the same server (i.e., a site is a collective concept: both a portal and a home page are sites).

Server is a computer that contains and runs a program that turns it into a central repository and manager for all computers connected to the network.

Network adapter – a board for connecting a computer to a network cable.

Net is a group of computers connected to each other by a communication channel. The communication channel ensures data exchange within the network, i.e. between computers of this group.

Database Management System – designed to create, maintain and carry out various operations with data in databases.

System menu –The button for this menu is located on the left side of the title bar area of ​​the application window, document window, and dialog box. Used to change the presentation option, size and position of a window, as well as to close a window or switch to another window.

System unit – contains all the main devices and components of the computer (for example, processor, memory, etc.).

Scanner – a device designed to input images into a computer: scan, scan.

Screenshot . Using the Prt Sсr key you can take a “snapshot” of what is on this moment on your computer screen. Next, by opening a graphic editor, you can insert a “snapshot” there and save it as a picture.

Slide – the main structural element of a presentation, a color picture that can contain text, graphic, audio and video information.

Slot – a connector on the motherboard for connecting internal computer devices.

Footnote – structural element of the text. A note to the text that is located at the bottom of the page or at the end of the document and is provided with a number or other marking.

Spam – promotional messages or notifications that you did not subscribe to. To put it bluntly, spam is garbage.

Specification – official documentation from the technology developer (for example, HTML specification).

Style – a method of formatting a structural element of a text document (a sequence of characters or a paragraph).

Title bar – the topmost line in the window. It displays the name and icon of the program and document.

Menu bar – main menu of the program. When you select a menu item, it expands, allowing you to select various commands.

Status bar – located under the Work Area. It can reflect various properties of performing operations, etc.

Structuring information – introduction of agreements on ways of presenting and organizing data.

Table – the main form of data storage in a database. It consists of columns (fields) and rows (records).

Clock frequency – the speed at which the microprocessor executes machine instructions. Every computer has an internal clock that regulates the speed at which commands are executed and keeps all computer components in sync.It takes a fixed number of system clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each command. The faster the clock, the more commands the processor executes per second. Clock frequency is expressed in), 1 MHz is equal to 1 million cycles per second.

Word processor – the term is used to refer to powerful text editors that can create non-text files.

Texture - an artist or designer uses textures in their work - two-dimensional pictures in which, using color, light and shadow, they create the illusion that this surface is stone, rough, cold, wet, etc.

Text file – a file that contains a set of lines of variable length (usually from 0 to 255), and each line is a set of arbitrary characters of the code table, closed by two control characters with codes 13 (“Carriage Return”) and 10 (“New Line”).

Teleconference – forum. Script (program) for communicating on the Internet.

Topology is a network configuration, a way of connecting network elements (computers) to each other.

Traffic – data flow on a local or global network (Internet).

Tag – mark. Concept from HTML. Tags determine how images, text, and other elements on your page will look and how they will be positioned relative to each other.

Deleting a file – declaring the area occupied by a file on disk free for use by other files.

File – a named collection of bytes recorded on a hard or floppy disk. This collection does not necessarily occupy a contiguous area of ​​storage on the disk.

Filer - a dialog box in Windows designed to indicate to the system the address of a file that needs to be opened, saved, or used in some way.

Physical Disk Abnormalities – these are defects in the magnetic coating of the disk surface.

Filter – a set of conditions (logical expression) that the user specifies to select a certain subset of table rows in relational databases.

Background – background. A field on which objects are displayed or drawn.

Background image - "Wallpaper". A background image that the user can change or set as desired on the desktop in Windows.

Form – a specially created tool that allows you to enter new data into the database or view existing records in a user-friendly form.

Form factor (motherboard format) - the general strategy for the placement of main chips, slots, etc. on the board, the shape and size of the motherboard.

Fractal graphics – images are obtained by mathematical calculations (formulas) for constructing an image.

Function – a variable quantity, the value of which depends on the values ​​of other quantities (arguments). Has a name and arguments, which are usually written separated by commas in parentheses, following the function name.

Hub (hub) is a multiport device to which computers are connected using network cables.

Hacker – Hacker. A person who uses his knowledge to achieve unconventional goals. A person who maliciously hacks programs and penetrates other people's systems and computers.

Hosting – Hosting - a place for your website, page.

Data integrity – a mechanism that ensures data consistency between related tables in relational databases. Allows you to organize a cascade update of fields and cascade deletion of database records when there are changes in the main of the related tables.

Chat – Chat. Special program, a script that allows many users to communicate simultaneously in real time (text dialogue, correspondence - you enter a phrase and your interlocutor immediately sees it).

"Worm" – Worm. Malicious program. One of the types of computer viruses.

Chipset – a component of the motherboard responsible for interaction of the central processor with other devices.

Sample – this is a blank, a form that contains general information and document design.

Tire – a set of conductors through which information (data) is transmitted from one system board device to another.

Gateway – a device for connecting different networks.

Font – Font. A complete set of characters of a given style. A font family forms a typeface.

Object instance – a specific object in a group of similar objects.

Email – E-mai (E-mail). Electronic mail - electronic mail, a system for transmitting messages between computers using networks (Internet). Email can be compared to regular mail, where you write a letter and send it to a specific address to the recipient. Unlike regular mail, the recipient can receive your letter within 3-10 minutes after sending. Example email address: .

Spreadsheets – software for processing tabular data.

User – User. User, client.

2 D – a “flat” two-dimensional picture.

3 D – “three-dimensional” three-dimensional graphics or sound.

Adobe Systems – this company is one of the leaders in the production of programs in the field of creating and processing graphic information and desktop publishing systems. The most popular products are Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Acrobat Reader.

Adobe Illustrator – one of the most popular vector graphics editors. Multifunctional. Used in many design studios.

Adobe Photoshop – one of the most popular raster graphics editors. Multifunctional. Used in all design studios.

ADSL – Assymetrical Digital Subscriber Line, Assimetrical DSL - asymmetric digital subscriber line, asymmetric DSL. Technology of high-speed data transmission over regular telephone lines to the user. Data transfer and telephone connection are possible simultaneously.

AGP – slot for installing a video card.

ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange. American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A set of 128 character codes for their machine representation.

ATX – form factor, type of design of the motherboard and computer case.

BASIC is one of the popular programming languages.

BIOS (Basic Input -Output System) - a basic input/output system that is “hardwired” into the computer’s permanent storage device and performs a number of service functions.

BMP – a standard raster graphics file format developed by Microsoft for Windows (color: 1, 4, 8 and 24 bits per dot) or an extension of file names written in this format.

CD - ROM – CD, a large-capacity removable storage medium.

CD - R - O rewritable CDs for CD-Writer drives.

CD - RW – m rewritable CDs for CD-Writer drives.

CMOS – a microcircuit containing information about the device parameters.

DIMM – a type of RAM module used in modern computers.

DMA – direct memory access channel.

Dpi – Dots per inch. Number of dots per inch. A unit of measurement for print density, screen resolution, or scan resolution, the number of distinguishable image dots displayed (or recognized) by a device on a one-inch line.

Drag & Drop – “drag and drop” - the ideology of working with objects and files in Windows.

DVD – high-capacity universal compact disc.

FTP – File Transfer Protocol is a file transfer protocol.

GIF – Graphics Interchange Format. Graphic file format used on the web. The maximum image size is 65536x65536 pixels and 256 colors. The current version of GIF (GIF89a) also allows you to store animated images and supports background transparency.

HTML – Hypermarket MarkUp Language is a hypertext markup language. HTML is responsible for the fact that you see text and pictures in a certain sequence on a web page.

HTTP – HyperText Transport Protocol. Protocol for hypertext transmission. The main WWW protocol, with which HTML documents are sent over the Internet from node to node (from computer to computer).

IP – Internet Protocol is a network protocol responsible for the transmission and mapping of messages between Internet nodes.

JPG – graphic file in JPEG format.

JPEG –Joint Photographics Experts Group - a standard for compressing full-color still images with a compression ratio of more than 25:1, developed by the JPEG group. Due to the loss of quality during compression, JPEG images are usually not used in professional prepress (printing) because on the output we will receive an image of unsatisfactory quality, however, for viewing electronically full-color images on your monitor screens, JPEG is a very excellent format, because it is designed for a wide range of colors and subtle variations in the brightness of tonal images (such as photographs or images with gradients). This format can use millions of colors to provide an image.

Lpi – Lines per inch. The number of rows (lines) per inch. Unit of measurement for screen lineature.

LPT – parallel port. Designed to connect a printer, scanner and other devices.

Microsoft Office – This is a package of application programs aimed at office work. In addition, it is a single environment into which various software, tools and libraries are integrated and which ensures a high degree of interaction between them.

MIDI – Musical Instruments Digital Interface. Format for presenting music. A standard for pairing electronic musical instruments with a computer and software. Developed in 1983

MPEG - With A standard for compressing and reproducing moving images. The MPEG standard contains 4 variants - from MPEG-1 to MPEG-4, which differ in the requirements for digital video quality.

OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) – linking and embedding of objects. Microsoft technology that allows you to combine the tools of different applications when processing documents. The main idea of ​​OLE is to include in a document one application (OLE client) an object created in another application (OLE server), with the ability to edit this object using the OLE server.

PCI – bus standard. Standard slots for connecting additional cards (sound, etc.).

Plug & Play – “plug and play” is a standard for computer boards in which the board is configured automatically by the computer itself.

PS /2 – port for connecting a mouse and keyboard.

RGB – Red-Green-Blue - Red - Green - Blue - color rendering system.

TIFF – Tag Image File Format. A standard format for compressing and storing image files (graphics).

TV -tuner – a device for receiving television signals and displaying them on a monitor.

URL – a universal identifier (address) of an Internet resource used for searching.

USB – serial port. Designed to connect a monitor, printer, scanner, digital video camera, camera, mouse, keyboard modem and other devices.

Windows XP ( Vista ) – graphical operating system.

List of abbreviations used

ALU- arithmetic-logical device

ADC- analog-to-digital converter

DB- database

BZ- knowledge base

BIS- large integrated circuit

Sun- computing system

VT- Computer Engineering

GUI- graphical user interface

LCD– liquid crystal

LCD- liquid crystal indicator

ZD- data protection

memory- Memory device

IS- Information Security

UPS- uninterruptable power source

AI- artificial intelligence

ICT- information and communication technologies

IP- Information system

IT - information Technology

KGA- computer graphics and animation

instrumentation- control and measuring device

PDA- pocket computer

CT- computer telephony

LAN- local computing network

MP– microprocessor

NIS- desktop publishing system

NJD- hard disk drive

RAM- random access memory

OOP- object-oriented programming

OS- operating system

RAP- direct memory access

ROM- read only memory

PC- Personal Computer

BY- software

CAD- computer-aided design system

VLSI- ultra-large integrated circuit

SZI- information security tools

DBMS- database management system

UU- control device

CA- The educational center

CV- digital video

DSP- digital signal processing

CPU- central processor

DSP- digital signal processor

computer- electronic computer

CRT- cathode-ray tube

THIS- spreadsheet

EDS- electronic digital signature