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Aegean letter. History of Pedagogy Discovery and decoding Cypriot writing has been known since the middle of the 19th century

  • The origin of education in primitive society
    • The origin of education, its formation
      • The origin of education, its formation - page 2
      • The origin of education, its formation - page 3
    • The origin of methods and organizational forms of education
      • The origin of methods and organizational forms of education - page 2
      • The origin of methods and organizational forms of education - page 3
    • The emergence of inequality in education in the conditions of the decomposition of the primitive communal system
  • Education and training in the most ancient states of the Near and Far East
    • General and Special in the Genesis of School and Education in the Ancient Civilizations of the Near and Far East
      • General and special in the genesis of school and education in the ancient civilizations of the Near and Far East - page 2
    • "Houses of Tablets" in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia)
      • "Houses of Tablets" in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) - page 2
      • "Houses of Tablets" in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) - page 3
    • School in ancient Egypt
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    • Education and school in ancient India
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    • School work and the emergence of pedagogical thought in ancient China
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      • School work and the origin of pedagogical thought in Ancient China - page 3
  • Upbringing and education in the ancient world
    • Education of children and youth in archaic Greece of the 9th-8th centuries.
    • Education and pedagogical thought in ancient Greece in the VI-IV centuries.
      • Education and pedagogical thought in ancient Greece in the VI-IV centuries. - page 2
      • Education and pedagogical thought in ancient Greece in the VI-IV centuries. - page 3
      • Education and pedagogical thought in ancient Greece in the VI-IV centuries. - page 4
      • Education and pedagogical thought in ancient Greece in the VI-IV centuries. - page 5
    • Enlightenment in the Hellenistic Age
      • Enlightenment in the Hellenistic Age - page 2
      • Enlightenment in the Hellenistic Age - page 3
      • Enlightenment in the Hellenistic Age - page 4
      • Enlightenment in the Hellenistic Age - page 5
    • Upbringing, Education and Pedagogical Thought in Ancient Rome
      • Upbringing, education and pedagogical thought in Ancient Rome - page 2
      • Upbringing, education and pedagogical thought in ancient Rome - page 3
      • Upbringing, education and pedagogical thought in ancient Rome - page 4
    • The origin of the Christian tradition of education
      • The origin of the Christian tradition of education - page 2
    • Education on the periphery of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of our era
      • Education on the periphery of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of our era - page 2
  • Enlightenment and pedagogical thought in Byzantium
    • The main stages in the development of education in Byzantium
      • The main stages in the development of education in Byzantium - page 2
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    • Upbringing and education in Byzantium
      • Upbringing and education in Byzantium - page 2
      • Upbringing and education in Byzantium - page 3
    • Pedagogical thought in Byzantium
      • Pedagogical thought in Byzantium - page 2
      • Pedagogical thought in Byzantium - page 3
      • Pedagogical thought in Byzantium - page 4
    • Byzantine influence on the further development of education
      • Byzantine influence on the further development of education - page 2
      • Byzantine influence on the further development of education - page 3
    • Development of church culture
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      • Development of church culture - page 3
      • Development of church culture - page 4
    • Pedagogical thought and the school of the Renaissance
      • Pedagogical thought and the school of the Renaissance - page 2
      • Pedagogical thought and the school of the Renaissance - page 3
      • Pedagogical thought and the school of the Renaissance - page 4
    • Reformation and its policy in the field of education and upbringing
      • Reformation and its policy in the field of education and upbringing - page 2
    • The Jesuit system of education during the counter-reformation
  • Education, school and pedagogical thought among the peoples of the East in the Middle Ages
    • Practice and education in the countries of the Near and Middle East
      • Practice and education in the countries of the Near and Middle East - page 2
    • Pedagogical Thought of the Near and Middle East in the Middle Ages
    • Pedagogical ideas of scientists of the Arab East
      • Pedagogical ideas of scientists of the Arab East - page 2
      • Pedagogical ideas of scientists of the Arab East - page 3
    • Enlightenment on the territory of the medieval states of Transcaucasia
      • Enlightenment on the territory of the medieval states of Transcaucasia - page 2
    • Education and school in medieval China
      • Education and school in medieval China - page 2
      • Education and school in medieval China - page 3
      • Education and school in medieval China - page 4
    • Education and pedagogical thought in medieval India
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    • Education in Ancient Rus' and the Russian state
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      • Education in Ancient Rus' and the Russian state - page 4
      • Education in Ancient Rus' and the Russian state - page 5
    • Education in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries.
    • Pedagogical Thought in Ancient Rus' and the Russian State
      • Pedagogical Thought in Ancient Rus' and the Russian State - page 2
      • Pedagogical Thought in Ancient Rus' and the Russian State - page 3
      • Pedagogical Thought in Ancient Rus' and the Russian State - page 4
  • School and Pedagogy in Western Europe and North America in the 17th-18th centuries.
    • School and Pedagogy in Western Europe and North America
    • Pedagogical ideas of V. Rathke
    • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky
      • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky - page 2
      • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky - page 3
      • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky - page 4
      • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky - page 5
      • Pedagogical ideas of Ya.A.Komensky - page 6
    • Education and pedagogical thought in the countries of Western Europe by the beginning of the 18th century.
      • Education and pedagogical thought in the countries of Western Europe by the beginning of the 18th century. - page 2
    • Movement to Renew School Education and Teaching Methods
      • Movement to Renew School Education and Teaching Methods - page 2
      • Movement to Renew School Education and Teaching Methods - page 3
    • School education in England XVII-XVIII centuries.
      • School education in England XVII-XVIII centuries. - page 2
    • Empirico-sensualistic concept of upbringing and education by John Locke
      • Empirical-sensualistic concept of upbringing and education by John Locke - page 2
      • Empirico-sensualistic concept of upbringing and education by John Locke - page 3
      • Empirico-sensualistic concept of upbringing and education by John Locke - page 4
    • Pedagogical thought in France of the 18th century.
    • The pedagogical concept of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
      • The pedagogical concept of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - page 2
      • The pedagogical concept of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - page 3
      • The pedagogical concept of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - page 4
    • Projects for the reform of public education in the era of the French Revolution (1789-1794)
      • Public education reform projects during the French Revolution (1789-1794) - page 2
      • Public education reform projects during the French Revolution (1789-1794) - page 3
    • School in the North American States during the Age of Enlightenment
      • School in the North American States during the Age of Enlightenment - page 2
      • School in the North American States during the Age of Enlightenment - page 3
      • School in the North American States during the Age of Enlightenment - page 4

The origin of writing in the conditions of the Aegean culture

Ancient Eastern civilizations gave humanity the first examples of schools. Further development of the school was carried out at the next stage of historical development - in the era of antiquity. Achievements in the field of content, methods and organization of education of the younger generation in ancient Greece, the Hellenistic states and their comprehension by ancient rhetoricians and philosophers were an important stage in the subsequent evolution of the school and pedagogical thought.

The territory and temporal boundaries of the ancient world are huge: from the 3rd millennium BC. e., when in the Aegean Sea basin, on the islands and the mainland, ancient Greek culture was just emerging, and up to the 5th century. n. e., when the Greco-Roman world collapsed, mixed with the barbarian world, Christianity, and gave rise to the Middle Ages. Geographically, the ancient world at different stages of its development covered the lands of three continents from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, Central Asia and India.

On the islands of the Aegean, primarily in Crete and on the mainland coast of Greece, in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. a special type of culture developed, in many respects similar to the ancient eastern civilizations, many threads, both economic and cultural, associated with Egypt, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia. In the conditions of this original culture already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. in Crete, a specific type of writing was born, dating back to the pictographic signs of the ancient Balkan writing and to the proto-Sumerian cuneiform. Writing originated here along with the emergence and development of temples, priestly and palace households.

In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. in this region, the syllabic (Cretan) writing, which was owned not only by priests, but also by servants of royal palaces and even wealthy citizens, is becoming widespread. It is worth noting that the Cretan letter had signs for the transmission of both consonants and vowels, a number of other signs of a gradual transition to alphabetic writing.

Like the ancient Eastern civilizations, originally the centers of learning were created here at the temples and royal palaces. So, at the palace of the Cretan king there was a special room for the servants-scribes and their students. The Cretan scribes established firm rules for writing: the direction of writing is from left to right, the arrangement of lines from top to bottom; they began to highlight capital letters and the red line. All this became, to one degree or another, the property of the European written culture of subsequent centuries.

DECRYPTION OF THE PHAISTUS DISC / YA. A. YARALIEV

CHAPTER II

Cretan-Mycenaean writing

The first archaeological research in Crete was carried out in 1876, when a local resident, the namesake of the legendary Cretan king, Minos Kalokerinos partially excavated the ruins of a huge building near the city of Heraklion, in which the American scientist William Stillman recognized the famous Knossos labyrinth in 1884 /37/ . Since 1884, an expedition of Italian archaeologists began to work on the southern coast of Crete. Of particular importance were the long-term excavations of the grandiose palace at Knossos, which from 1900 to 1930 were carried out by the eminent English scientist Arthur Evans. In 1935, he completed the publication of his capital work, which laid the foundations for the periodization of the Cretan culture of the Bronze Age / 38 /.

Archaeological finds show that the Balkan array of pre-Greek tribes created their own independent writing system almost at the same time as the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, whose oldest writing is known in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. As for the Egyptian pictographic system, created in the second half of the 4th millennium BC, it is simultaneous with the Balkan pictography. Thus, the long-outdated hypothesis about the appearance of writing in ancient Greece under the influence of Egypt is finally eliminated /10, p. 114/.

In layers dating back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, seals were found covered with drawings and symbols. Later, more complex combinations appear - from two or more signs-drawings. These are all pictograms, of course. In Lerna, Tiryns and Zigouries, impressions of the same seal with a spiral ornament were found. Monuments of this phase of writing have been found in many places on Crete, but the inscriptions found in Phaistos in the layer of the "Ancient Palace", dating from 1900-1700, are especially important. BC. But on later seals, there are no longer just drawings, but signs that convey words or parts of words. And even later, writing was streamlined and brought into a system, and a new principle of using signs was introduced: pictograms, which previously denoted entire individual words (concepts), acquired the meaning of only the initial syllables of these words. Thus, a syllabary, usually called a syllabary, arose. Over time, some of the logographic-verbal signs began to be used as syllabic signs - syllabograms, using the so-called "acrophonic" principle, i.e. using

The initial syllable of the given word. By analogy with them, signs were then selected to convey all other syllables found in the language of the ancient inhabitants of Crete - the "Minoans" (Pelasgians).

Then "linear A" appears, which ceases to be used at the end of the late Minoan period, i.e. around the middle of the fifteenth century. BC. This happens simultaneously with the collapse of the pre-Greek Cretan civilization itself, which is associated with the consequences of a natural disaster - a catastrophic volcanic eruption around 1450 BC. on the island of Thera (modern Santorini) 110 km north of Crete (according to the Greek archaeologist S. Marinatos) or with the death of the legendary Atlantis, accompanied by a devastating earthquake, tsunami and a thick layer of ash, and with the invasion of Crete from the Greek mainland - Achaeans. Since the alien language (Greek) has now become dominant in Crete, for the preparation of business accounting documents, they switched to using the “linear B” adapted for it.

As has been repeatedly pointed out, the presence of a pre-Indo-European linguistic layer in the south of the Balkan Peninsula (including Crete and other islands of the Aegean Sea) can no longer raise any doubts at the present time. Ancient linguistic Balkan studies came to establish this fact in two different ways. On the one hand, as a result of a consistent analysis of the substrate pre-Greek lexicon of this region, for some of which there are clearly no Indo-European etymologies, a special group of languages ​​is singled out, united under the common conditional name "Aegean". On the other hand, the reading of the Cretan texts of “Linear A” (after deciphering the related “Linear B”), although it did not lead to a complete interpretation of their content, nevertheless made it possible to form some idea of ​​their language, which received the conditional name “Minoan”.

There are linguistic, archaeological and historical data on the complex, multi-ethnic composition of the population of Crete in the Early Minoan and Middle Minoan periods, which included at least three components: Minoan, Pelazgian and Anatolian. Only after the addition of about the XVI century. BC. a single Knossos power, the common Cretan Minoan language could finally take shape. It was based on the early Minoan language of the 3rd millennium BC, which absorbed elements of other languages ​​defeated by him in Crete /39/. linguistic minoistics.

On clay tablets, on pottery, on walls, on leather, on palm leaves, the ancient inhabitants of Crete wrote their letters /41/. Naturally, those of them that were written on clay have come down to us. These are either square or palm leaf clay tablets, most of which (168 out of a total of 220 according to /41/) were found in Agia Triada, or inscriptions on vessels. The inscriptions consisted not only of signs denoting syllables, but also ideograms - signs, words and concepts (animal, human, etc.) that explained the syllabic writing that preceded them.

In Cretan hieroglyphics, a strictly defined direction of writing was not accepted: hieroglyphs were written from top to bottom, right to left and left to right /37/. A fairly common way of writing hieroglyphic texts was the one that the ancient Greeks later called "boustrophedon" ("as oxen walk in arable land"). It is characterized by the turn of each next line in the opposite direction, which is why the inscription was “snake”. Often there is also a spiral arrangement of the inscription ribbon.

Evans showed that from other scripts of Crete II millennium BC, directly descending from hieroglyphics, was the so-called "linear letter A". He managed to unravel the system of numerical designations developed by the Minoans - the creators of Cretan hieroglyphics and linear A. This system was decimal and included separate digits only to indicate the numbers I (vertical bar), 10 (horizontal bar), 100 (circle), 1000 (circle with four rays diverging in different directions), 10000 (circle with four rays diverging in different directions and horizontal bar inside it), with the help of which all other numbers were transmitted. They knew not only how to add, subtract, divide and multiply whole numbers, but also knew fractions and knew how to calculate percentages.

For a long time, the Cretans founded their colonies on the island of Cyprus. And here, already in the Bronze Age, as A. Evans established, a special kind of writing arose, called Cypriot-Minoan (“Cypriot” offshoot of Linear A). The texts of the Cypro-Minoan letter have not yet been read. The total number of characters in it is slightly more than 50. And which suggests that the oldest letter of Cyprus was syllabic (perhaps it also had determinants, as in linear A and B). The Greeks who settled in Cyprus reformed these letters. There are no determinatives, let alone logograms in Cypriot writing, it is a purely phonetic system. Only unlike the alphabetic writing system, its signs convey not sounds, but syllables.

Thus, the Cretan archaeological epigraphy includes: a) "pictorial signs" on seals, whose age is 40-45 centuries BC. and a late inscription on the "Phaistos Disc", in its form a stamp letter, which refers to the last phase of the Middle Minoan period (XVII-XVI centuries BC); b) Linear A, which continues to exist in the 16th century. (and even in the XV century / 41 /) BC; c) Linear B of the early Greek period, i.e. this letter dates back to about 1400 BC.

Some of the tablets, written by the island's natives in Linear A, date back to the 19th century. BC. /42/. In the linear letter A - 80 characters, and in its late Greek version - linear B - 89. All these characters convey open syllables: either “pure vowel” (G), or “consonant and vowel” (SG). Some characters in Linear B even convey a syllable of two consonants + a vowel sound (SSG). Linear A and B have 55 common signs; The 5 characters of Linear A have no match in Linear B, and the 10 characters of Linear B have no match in Linear A.

The researchers determined the phonetic significance of the Linear syllabic characters on the basis of the following principles /43, p. 11-13/.

  1. Identity or similarity with the signs of the Cypriot syllabary.
  2. Identity or similarity with Phoenician-Greek-Etruscan letters.
  3. Combinatorial considerations based on inscription data.
  4. Logography, i.e. the identity of the phonetic significance of the sign with the word denoting the object, expressed with the help of a pictogram. acrophonic way, i.e. the identity of the phonetic significance of the sign with the initial syllable of a word denoting an object expressed using a pictogram (ideogram).
  5. Combinatorial-etymological considerations.
  6. Coincidence of opinions among specialists regarding the phonetic significance of signs.

Based on the fact that the most ancient inhabitants of the Aegean Sea of ​​Asia Minor, Sicily, Italy, Spain, France did not speak the languages ​​of the Indo-European group /44, p. 157/, deciphering linguists believed that when trying to read ancient inscriptions from the island of Crete, one should proceed from the fact that this language can be anything, but not “Aryan”, and even more so not Greek. After all, it was the Achaean Greeks who defeated the civilization of Crete and Mycenae.

It should be noted that no scientist in the world has been able to read the Cretan hieroglyphic writings on seals and on clay tablets. Firstly, the hieroglyphic texts are very short - a few characters, and secondly, there are few texts themselves and, consequently, the set of Cretan characters is also small - there are less than 150 of them. It is not yet known in which language these texts should be read.

In 1931, an attempt was made to read the Cretan-Mycenaean writings using the language of the inhabitants of the Iberian Basque Peninsula. Later, other non-Indo-European languages ​​\u200b\u200bare also involved, with the help of which decipherers wanted to read cryptic texts, but all these attempts were unsuccessful. In 1949, the Czech scientist B. Grozny made an attempt to read the Crete-Mycenaean signs, comparing them with the signs of the Hittites, Sumerians, inhabitants of the Indus Valley, Phoenicians, ancient Cypriots; however, it did not lead to success. In fact, Terrible turned out to be a very strange language: the most diverse elements were mixed in it. The content of the texts read by Grozny from the tablets was devoid of a clear meaning. In 1943-1950. American mathematician Alice Kober conducted a study of the mysterious writings of Mycenae and Crete from a new angle: having compiled a table of stable combinations of characters, she was able to detect endings for the masculine and feminine, as well as establish grammatical endings. But she could not read with complete certainty a single word or even a syllable.

In 1951, a young English architect, Michael Ventris, continues the research of Alice Kober. Based on calculations of the frequency of signs and combinations of one sign with another, skillfully using the achievements of other researchers, Ventris managed to create a "grid"; out of 88 different characters, 66 got into the “grid”. Careful research by Ventris showed that the Greek language fits perfectly into the “grid”, although many of the resulting words sounded strange, because the language in which they are written is several hundred years older than Homeric.

Thus, after a long search, conjectures and assumptions, M. Ventris, in collaboration with Jones Chadwick, a specialist in ancient Greek dialects, managed to convincingly prove that the language of the Cretan-Mycenaean inscriptions in Linear B is Greek /45/. Based on the age of the inscriptions, it is assumed that the Greeks settled in Greece quite early - XIV-XIII centuries BC. According to experts, the decipherment of Linear B is the starting point for an attack on Linear A, the Cypriot and ancient Cypriot script. Indeed, the deciphering of the letter by M. Ventris not only made it possible to read the most ancient Greek texts of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, but also created the basis for a fruitful study of the written monuments of the Aegeans of the pre-Greek period.

Based on the fact that many signs of Linear A and B are the same, one can read almost all texts written by Linear A without understanding almost anything. It is important that there are several Minoan words in Linear B (the same as Linear A; apparently names or place names). Such parallels support the conclusion that the signs of Linear A and Linear B were read the same way.

It is not possible to complete the decipherment of the texts of Linear A, compiled in the "Minoan" language, primarily due to the fact that the relationship of this language with any other known language has not been proven. All attempts to read in Greek (as in the case of Linear B) the texts of Linear A were unsuccessful. P. Kretschmer (according to /46/), in a solid monograph published in 1896, proved that the ancient population of the Aegean spoke a language that had nothing to do with Greek and, in general, with the Indo-European family. Later, the Bulgarian acad. V. Georgiev puts forward another theory: the Pelasgians were not Greeks, but they spoke a language that goes back to the Indo-European language-base /47/ (for details, see below).

However, a large amount of evidence argues against the hypothesis of the Indo-European character of the Minoan language. According to the author /48/, V. Georgiev's thesis that there never was a non-Indo-European population in Greece seems very strange, and his desire to give all pre-Greek onomastics Indo-European etymologies looks extremely unconvincing. In general, V. Georgiev's statements about the genetic links between the individual ancient languages ​​of the Balkans, the Aegean and Asia Minor can be rather difficult to understand. Moreover, statements relating to different, and sometimes even to the same time, by no means the same statements are usually made in the same categorical form.

“The fact is that Linear writing consists of two types of syllabic signs. Some signs convey G (vowel sounds), others - SG (combination of a consonant with a vowel). This means that the creators of Linear writing spoke a language that differed from Indo-European in syllabic structure. In Indo-European languages, there are very often words in which two or more consonants are located in the neighborhood, and many words begin with two or three consonants ” / 49 /. The Cretan linear script is not suitable for the transmission of a language with consonant groups: we find a regular alternation of consonants and vowels, which is quite adequately conveyed by a syllabic script and for which “Cretan linear script seems to have been created” / 50, p. 99 /. It is the nature of the phonetic structure (SHSGSG) of the Pre-Greek Cretan language that should help the successful application of the etymological method for the complete decipherment and interpretation of Linear A documents. In this case, according to A.A. languages ​​of Asia Minor and related to them.

The Aegean script is a group of related scripts of original origin. Originated on about. Crete during the Minoan civilization of the late 3rd - early. 2 thousand BC e. Later, related writings of Cyprus also originated from the Cretan scripts, which lost a number of characteristics (ideograms and numbers), but retained the syllabic character of the letter.

Cretan hieroglyphs - the central and eastern parts of Crete: "Arkhanesian writing" (the most ancient stage, the final pre-palace period) "Hieroglyphs A" (appearance - purely pictorial signs) "Hieroglyphs B" (simplified drawings, developed into linear writing A) Linear writing A (signs mostly lost their resemblance to the pictorial original) - arose in the south of the island and gradually occupied most of Crete, except for the southwest, and also spread to the Cyclades Linear B (a further development of Linear A) - in addition to Crete, it was common in Most of the cultural centers of the Mycenaean civilization Although the form of signs has changed a lot during this period, the composition of the signs and their meanings have not undergone fundamental changes, therefore these scripts can be considered as chronological variants of the same script - the Cretan script.

Discovery and decipherment The Cypriot script has been known since the middle of the 19th century. The main deciphering work was done by George Smith. The writing of Crete was unknown until the end of the 19th century. when they were discovered by A. Evans. During his lifetime, Evans published only a small part of the inscriptions, hoping to decipher them himself. Linear B was deciphered by M. Ventris and J. Chadwick in 1950. The inscriptions on it are made in Greek (see Mycenaean civilization) using numerous ideograms, as well as abbreviations in the Minoan language. With their help, it was possible to partially read the inscriptions made by earlier types of writing, but not to understand them - the language of the Linear A inscriptions and "hieroglyphic" inscriptions (see Eteocretan language) has not been deciphered to date. Cypro-Minoan writing and Cretan hieroglyphs have been studied even worse, where one can speak with relative certainty about reading no more than 20-30 characters for each type of writing.

Language. The inscriptions in hieroglyphs and Linear A are read only in fragments, so it is currently impossible to establish how much their language changed as the writing system changed. The Trojan appears to be an imported Linear A text, not a local script. The Phaistos disk has not been deciphered, however, according to the structural characteristics, according to G. Neumann, its language could be the same as the language of Linear A. At first glance, the text of the ax from Arkalohori has the same characteristics. The inscriptions in Linear B are written in Greek, but this writing system has a number of features that are completely alien to the Greek language, but, apparently, reflecting the morphological phenomena of the language for which Cretan writing was originally created: voiced and voiceless consonants did not differ (perhaps in the Eteocretan language they alternated during inflection) the consonants l, m, n, r, s at the end of closed syllables were not displayed in writing; to other consonants at the end of closed syllables, an "empty" vowel of the subsequent syllable was added (for example, Ko-no-so = Knossos). The inscriptions in the Philistine Linear script have not been interpreted in any way due to their exceptional brevity. The language of the Cypriot-Minoan writing, apparently, has nothing in common with the languages ​​of Crete, since the writing was borrowed by carriers of a completely different, unrelated culture. The Cypriot script was mainly used for the Greek language, however, a few inscriptions in the south of the island are in Eteocypriot, the relationship of which is unknown.

Late Monuments and Disappearance In the Eteocretan Greek alphabet inscription from Psychro III, the word επιθι is duplicated in Linear A Cretan characters as i-pi-ti. At present, most researchers consider the inscription to be a forgery; other evidence of the existence of the Aegean script in Crete and in mainland Greece after the "bronze collapse" is absent. Tablet with an inscription in Cryptominoan script.

It is lost in the mists of time and, apparently, is associated with signs used from time to time to identify and register a wide variety of objects. One of the varieties of such signs were, for example, the so-called pottery marks, already attested at the end of the Neolithic not only in Crete and other islands of the Aegean Sea, but also in mainland Greece, in particular in Lerna, the other - the so-called marks of stonemasons, related to the beginning II millennium BC. e. and later, mainly in Crete, the third and most important variety - pictographic (i.e., pictorial) signs on seals and their impressions. The latter are found on Crete already in the early period of the Bronze Age and increase in numbers around the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Since the time of A. Evans, they have been called Cretan hieroglyphics or, more precisely, pictography. In this case, as a rule, it is impossible to establish the degree of relationship not only between images cut out on different sides of the print, but even between images located on the same side (or on the same print). A number of combinations are particularly common; according to A. Evans, they convey widespread proper names with titles. There are also inscriptions on objects with holes. In this case, apparently, we are talking about stable formulas of talismans or amulets that were worn hanging around the neck.

A further stage in the development of images that give the impression of a coherent text is noted on Cretan seals (so far only as an exception, moreover, on one oblong seal). With regard to signs of this type, here, of course, a decisive step has been taken from a simple image of an object to written symbolism, within the framework of which its image becomes a symbol of a word as a carrier of a definitely phonetic, i.e., sound, quality. Without a doubt, these functions were already performed by combinations of signs inscribed side by side on a wide variety of clay objects that appeared around the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e., and above all on clay tablets, which are among the most significant monuments of the Aegean writing of the Bronze Age.

On Cretan seals, pictographic signs are presented in their traditional, still fully pictorial form and later - throughout the entire 2nd millennium BC. e., while on clay figured images are already transmitted only by simple contours, consisting of straight and curved lines, either drawn with a brush dipped in ink paint, or drawn on wet clay with a chisel. This method of writing records indicates that it was also widely used when writing on soft material - mainly papyrus, dried palm leaves or dressed animal skins. However, samples of recordings on such material have not survived to our time due to its fragility.


Aegean and Cypriot scripts on the time axis

In the Aegean epigraphy for the mentioned contour writing style, since the time of A. Evans, the name proposed by him “linear writing” has been used, the earliest examples of which, due to the close relationship of its signs with pictographic signs on seals, Evans attributed to hieroglyphics. Today, when the number of found early linear texts has increased, it is preferable to speak of hieroglyphic or pictographic cursive or simply about the so-called Cretan protolinear writing. However, the question of whether in some cases we are already dealing with samples of a later writing system, the so-called Linear A, is often the subject of discussion.

Among the most significant examples of pictographic protolinear cursive is a small group of very early clay tablets from Phaistos, some of which should probably be dated back to the 19th century. BC e., as well as several inscriptions on vessels from Knossos of the first centuries of the 2nd millennium BC. e. These texts are mostly short, but on the tablets it is sometimes already possible to distinguish words written according to the phonetic principle using syllabic signs (about 60 in total), from concepts expressed through symbols (ideographically) and often accompanied by special numerical or metric designations. The direction of the letter is also not yet strictly fixed. The texts show signs of inflection, but the language of writing remains unknown.

The number of surviving Cretan hieroglyphic texts (including protolinear ones) is rather small. In addition to seals and their impressions with very brief inscriptions totaling about 200, we have about 30 more clay tablets and 60 inscriptions on other clay objects containing from two to 30 characters in the text, i.e. a total of approximately 300 samples of the period from 2200 to 1470 BC e.

In the 17th century BC e. the pictographic proto-linear cursive disappears in Crete, and the linear letter A comes to replace it. e.

2. The second Cretan script, the so-called linear A, represents a further stage in the development of pictographic protolinear cursive. Essentially, it is syllabic in nature. The number of phonetic signs has increased, and some of them have been replaced by new ones, so that only a third of the phonetic signs of Linear A coincide with the signs of pictographic writing. There is a stabilization of the ideograms that complement the syllabic text, and the system of numerical and metric notation is streamlined, undergoing simplification. Writing is now read almost always from left to right. Separate words are (primarily on tablets) separated from each other by dots or vertical lines. The examples of Linear A known to date represent a whole complex of variant written subsystems that differ from each other in individual details depending on the time and place of distribution of one or another subsystem. Accurately established and amenable to reliable deciphering of Linear A syllabics, there are currently about a hundred.

The total number of Linear A samples is approximately 2000, including about 320 clay tablets, 1500 very short inscriptions on clay labels, pendants and the like, and about 100 linear texts on other materials (metal, stone, wall paintings, ceramics) . However, of this total, only a little over 600 inscriptions have epigraphic significance. If we do not take into account the already mentioned very early tablets from Phaistos, the signs of which for the most part should be considered as protolinear pictographic cursive, then the oldest examples of Linear A can be considered inscriptions made in ink on two clay goblets from Knossos, dated approximately to the middle of the 17th century. . BC e.

To date, examples of Linear A have been found in thirty places on Crete and at least five other islands in the Aegean, indicating a significant spread of this script among the Cretan population between 1650 and 1470. BC AD: Clay tablets alone have been found in eleven different places in Crete. Recently, the recently opened tablet archives in Zakro in the eastern part of Crete (about 30 copies) and in Chania in the west of the island (about 85 fragments of tablets) have attracted special attention, but the archive of tablets continues to be the most significant collection of samples of this writing today. discovered during excavations at Agia Triada in southern Crete and dated to the beginning of the 15th century. BC e. In this place, closely connected with the nearby palace in Phaistos, over 150 clay tablets with records of clearly economic content were found. Along with them were found hundreds of small clay labels and seal-imprinted pendants with only one or no more than a few Linear A characters, undoubtedly denoting the name of the item or the name of the owner.

The tablets from Agia Triada represent the most developed and at the same time the most studied repertoire of Linear A characters. As a rule, these tablets have the shape of a rectangle, the height of which varies from four to nine lines of text. Linear signs were drawn on still wet clay, after which the tablets were dried in the sun. The archive tablets from Agia Triada are among the latest monuments of Linear A and are dated, like some single samples from other Cretan areas, around 1470 BC. e., when the whole of Crete suffered the terrible catastrophe mentioned above. The only very important evidence of the use of Linear A in Crete at a later time is an inscription of three characters on a vessel found in a layer of the 14th century. BC e. in Knossos.

There are known cases of finds of individual samples of Linear A writing outside Crete, especially on those islands of the Aegean Sea, which, as can be judged on the basis of the monuments of material culture found here, around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. were under Cretan influence or even directly part of the Cretan maritime power (Thera, Melos, Rhodes, Keos, Cythera). Some researchers consider certain written monuments from the mainland to be the same. Thus, the opinion is sometimes expressed that at least part of the signs inscribed on Mycenaean vases dating back to the 13th century. BC e. and found in mainland Greece, belongs to Linear A rather than Linear B. However, only two Cretan signs from the Mycenaean tholos in Peristeria in the western Peloponnese (15th century BC) are of any significant importance, to one of which there is a later analogue in the “treasury of Atreus” in Mycenae (XIII century BC), and, in addition, a sign on a small copper cauldron found by Schliemann in Mycenae during excavations of shaft tombs of the 16th century. BC e. As for the more isolated finds, which rather continue the traditions of the ancient Cretan signs of potters and masons, their external form and chronological dating indicate the existence of some other epigraphic source rather than the iconic repertoire of Linear A.

At the same time, we point out that in Enamel (a region of Lycia in Asia Minor) a written monument was found with four imprinted linear signs, one of which, of course, is a numerical designation, and the other three, in all likelihood, designate the name of the owner. In addition, an inscription of three characters inscribed on a votive silver dish from the Syrian city of Ugarit is sometimes referred to as a Linear A text.

Despite intensive searches, all efforts to unravel the language of Linear A are still halfway there. In essence, here we are talking about solving two problems: first of all, to decipher the writing itself, that is, to determine the syllabic meanings of individual characters, and then to give an interpretation of the language of the texts, that is, to establish their content on the basis of a detailed grammatical analysis. The first stage was completed quite successfully. Significant help here was provided by the external similarity of Linear A with the later Linear B, deciphered in 1952. The latter was, in essence, a special variant of Linear A, which arose around the 15th century. BC e. (if not earlier) based on a modification of an older writing system. After comparing the individual signs of both writing systems, the Swedish researcher A. Furumark in 1976 came to the conclusion that out of approximately 75 signs of Linear A, contained on the monuments from Agia Triada, 33 are completely identical and 31 signs are very similar to the signs of the Linear syllabary letters B. And since the latter has already been deciphered and the syllabic meaning of its signs is known, we are able to phonetically read the graphic signs of the texts of linear letter A with the same degree of reliability with which a modern Greek can read a text written in Cyrillic, having no idea about the basics of Russian writing and not knowing Russian. By itself, reading a text written in Cyrillic would have been only partly difficult for him. For example, he would read the word "cancer" correctly, while, for example, in the word "wife" he would not be able to identify the first letter at all. But he also would not be able to read the word “window” correctly, since he does not know that the Russian pronunciation of this word is “akno”. Researchers today are in a similar situation when they try to read texts written in Linear A characters. They read some of them correctly, but some of the Linear A characters remain incomprehensible. However, even those signs whose graphic representation is identical in both writing systems do not necessarily have the same phonetic meaning. And a completely insurmountable obstacle is the fact that the language of Linear A was definitely not similar to any of the currently known languages ​​of antiquity. This means that even if the texts could be read correctly, their content would be no more intelligible from this than it is known at the present time thanks to the accompanying ideograms. All attempts to date to link Linear A with one of the ancient languages ​​known to us are based on isolated and accidental analogies that are alien to the language system as a whole. Thus, the American researcher J. Gordon, apparently, successfully identified (in 1966) a number of Semitic words in the texts of Linear A, but his conclusion about the Semitic character of the language is not convincing, since here we are talking about concepts that, undoubtedly, entered the language of the ancient Cretans as a borrowing of cultural vocabulary denoting certain objects of oriental origin. If the Czech language has the word hřrbitov (“cemetery”), this does not mean at all that the Czech language belongs to the Germanic group, since in this case we are talking about just one of the words that the Czech language once borrowed from German (cf. German Friedhof).

It is very likely that the pre-Greek population of Crete belonged to the oldest Mediterranean ethnic community, the language of which was very different from the languages ​​of the Indo-European family, characterized by the presence of inflections or endings (for example, lord, -a, -u, etc.), including and from Hittite, which is sometimes regarded as the language of Linear A. Obviously, this is one of the languages ​​of the agglutinating type that are attested among the pre-Indo-European languages ​​of ancient Anatolia, i.e., present-day Asia Minor (in particular, Proto-Hattian and Hurrian). Therefore, attempts to decipher Linear A that have taken place so far seem premature.

A number of Cretan epigraphic monuments, standing aside from the main direction of the development of Cretan writing, also belong to the time of the greatest distribution of Linear A. This includes, in particular, the Feetsky disk (circa 1600 BC - a round clay plate, covered [more precisely, imprinted] on both sides with 241 prints of 45 pictographic figure matrices). The text of the Phaistos Disc is decidedly indecipherable, despite repeated attempts by dozens of serious and less serious decipherers. Some consider it to be an object brought from Asia Minor, however, without giving serious evidence in favor of this assumption. Some other monuments also stand apart, including the inscription on a bronze ax from Arkalohori and on a sacrificial stone from Mallia (also around 1600 BC).

More than 400 Cypriot-Minoan inscriptions are attested in Bronze Age Cyprus, representing a wide time range (about 1525-1050 BC) and not forming any coherent writing system. All of them can be divided into four following groups:

a) The archaic stage in the development of writing is represented by an inscription on a fragment of a tablet from Enkomi at the end of the 16th century. BC e., further - an inscription on a fragment of a tablet made of baked clay, also from Enkomi, dating from about 1500 BC. e., and two other fragments of tablets. It is the texts on the tablets that show a significant similarity with similar monuments of Linear A.

b) The evolutionary line, the beginning of which is represented by these tablets, reaches its climax in a number of inscriptions of the XIV-XII centuries. BC e., contained on a variety of objects, and in particular on fragments of vessels, on stone and metal objects, and above all on a special kind of clay discs of unknown purpose, found mainly in Enkomi (a total of more than 80 copies). However, the most extensive monument of this type is a large roll of baked clay, presumably dated to the 14th century. BC e. The roller contains 27 lines of a well-read text and resembles similar Babylonian objects, although the latter are inscribed in cuneiform. This monument allows us to characterize today this evolutionary line of Cypriot writing (abbreviated as KM 1) as a complex of more or less variant writing systems containing several dozen syllabic signs and, unlike the Aegean systems, essentially having no ideograms (however, numerical designations are sometimes found here). Monuments of this letter, the latest of which date back to the middle of the 11th century. BC e., fix, in all likelihood, one or more "Eteocypriot" (i.e., Proto-Cypriot) languages ​​spoken by the pre-Greek population of Cyprus, about whose ethnicity, as well as about the Minoan Cretans, it is impossible to say anything definite.

c) Around the middle of the thirteenth century. BC e. in ancient Ugarit on the opposite coast of Syria, a variant of KM 3 develops from type KM 1, attested by four more or less fragmentary tablets and several inscriptions on fragments of clay and metal vessels.

d) A completely independent group of Cypro-Minoan writing (group KM 2) is represented by signs on four fragments of tablets from Enkomi, found in layers of the late 13th - early 12th centuries. BC e. Two of these texts are quite extensive. On all four tablets, there are a total of more than 1300 images, consisting of 58 different signs. This system is connected with the main evolutionary line of Cypriot writing, however, it deviates from the KM 1 line not only by a number of epigraphic features (compared to KM 3, it has a different, closer to cuneiform inscription and a number of new characters), but also reveals some differences. in the internal structure of individual words. The latter circumstance, in all likelihood, must mean that the language of the KM 2 version differed from the language of other Cypriot texts. First of all, there are undoubted signs of linguistic inflection. Type plates KM 2/3 deserve attention for a number of other reasons. As well as the archaic Cypriot tablet, dating from about 1500 BC. BC, these tablets, unlike the unfired clay tablets from the Aegean, were fired immediately after writing. Therefore, there is reason to believe that they were intended for records, the content of which retained its significance for a longer time. These tablets are characterized by the complete absence of ideographic signs.



Samples of various types of Cypro-Minoan writing: 1 - KM 1: clay roller from Enkomi (XIV century BC);
2 - KM 2: a large clay tablet from Enkomi (circa 1200 BC);
3 - KM 3: clay tablet from Ugarit (circa 1250 BC)

The fact that the KM 2 tablets refer to the period of the migration to Cyprus of the bulk of the Greek-speaking Mycenaean Achaeans (after 1230 BC) means that we could talk about records compiled in Greek. However, the tablets have not yet been deciphered. Therefore, this hypothesis, quite acceptable in historical terms, remains so far devoid of any linguistic justification. The end of the XIII and the entire XII century BC. e. in the Eastern Mediterranean is characterized by such complex movements of various peoples (the Dorians in Greece, the Phrygians in Asia Minor, the so-called "peoples of the sea" throughout the indicated region), that the mentioned group of tablets from Enkomi can equally well record any non-Indo-European language of one of Asia Minor or the Central Asian peoples, for example, the so-called Hurrian. This hypothesis can be confirmed, first of all, by the fact that the so-called classical Cypriot script, which appeared as a result of the further development of Cypriot-Minoan writing, resembles a linear version of the main evolutionary line of Cypriot-Minoan writing - KM 1, but by no means the “cuneiform” form of KM 2 the mentioned four tablets from Enkomi.

5. Classical Cypriot writing attested in Cyprus from the 8th to the end of the 3rd century. BC e. a total of more than 700 written monuments of the most diverse nature, often very extensive. This letter was used both by the bulk of the population of Cyprus at that time, and by the remnants of the native pre-Greek population (however, few non-Greek inscriptions have survived). In 1871, the Englishman J. Smith laid the foundation for the decipherment of writing, and an analysis of the classical Cypriot texts written in Greek soon showed that they were based on a Greek dialect close to the Arcadian dialect of the Peloponnese. Currently, there are two main variants of the classical Cypriot script - Eastern, or common Cypriot (55 syllabic characters), and Western, or Paphos (less than 50 characters have been identified to date). This letter does not contain ideograms, its direction in the Paphos region is usually from left to right, and in other areas, as a rule, from right to left.

During the III century. BC e. the classical Cypriot script - the last relic of the Aegean-Cypriot syllabic writing systems of the Bronze Age - was finally supplanted by the Greek alphabet.

Indisputable evidence of the spread of the Aegean writing systems as a result of cultural exchange exists further to the east. The oldest of these is considered to be the Cretan sign inscribed over the cuneiform text of a vessel from Gazer in Palestine (XVII century BC). Somewhat later, an inscription was made on a bronze dagger from Tel ed-Duver (Lachish, circa 1600 BC), containing four characters, of which at least the last has an exact analogue in all Aegean and Cypriot writing systems. Indisputable proof of the familiarity of the local population with the writing of the Aegean-Cypriot type is the aforementioned group of four inscriptions on clay tablets from Ras Shamra (Ugarit) in Syria, made with signs of a special variant of the Cypriot-Minoan writing KM 3, close in its "cuneiform" style to four later tablets from Enkomi. These Ugaritic samples do not lose their cultural and historical significance even if they are only fragments of inscriptions composed in Cyprus and brought to Ugarit. These documents were compiled around the middle of the 13th century. BC e., because shortly before Ugarit was destroyed as a result of the invasion of the "peoples of the sea" around 1190 BC. e.

Also of interest are "linear" signs on bricks from Bet Shaan (west of the middle course of the Jordan River), which were found there along with signs on Mycenaean vessels of the 12th century. BC e., and especially three longer texts on clay tablets from the area of ​​Tel Deir Alla in Jordan. They date back to around 1200 BC. e., and the script presented on them gives the impression of a simplified version of Linear A without ideograms and at first glance resembles the classical Cypriot script. However, a closer connection with the Aegean writing systems cannot be traced here.

There is also a number of other, less certain, evidence for the spread of Aegean writing through cultural exchange, both in the east and west of the Mediterranean. On this issue, as well as on the issue of the penetration of the early Mediterranean writing systems into the depths of Southeastern and Central Europe, the author of this book dwells (in collaboration with I. Vladar) in an article published in the journal Slovenská archeológia (1977, no. 25, pp. 391 et seq.). The reader can get more detailed information from this article, but here we will only mention two extremely interesting monuments discovered on the territory of Yugoslavia (in Vatin, northeast of Belgrade), the possible connections of which with the Aegean were pointed out to us at one time by I. Vladar , thus giving a stimulus to their epigraphic interpretation in the mentioned article.

The first of these finds is a disk-shaped ceramic object, flat on the reverse side, the thickness of which increases on the obverse side towards the center, where a small round face protrudes. On both sides, the disk is bordered by a series of rounded dashes (28 on the reverse side and 26 on the front). On the reverse side, inside a double circle, an ornament is drawn, and on the edge in the middle there are several asymmetric images formed by horizontal and vertical lines and giving the impression of written characters.

The second find has the shape of a spindle, along the circumference of which there are a number of images on one plane, also formed by horizontal and vertical lines. Both items belong to the Vatina-Vršac culture, named after its discovery in the eponymous locality in northeastern Yugoslavia. The archaeological culture to which these finds belong is undoubtedly connected with the Mycenaean culture of the time of the greatest development of shaft tombs.

In the XVI century. BC e. the strong influence of the Mycenaean culture, emanating from the Helladic region, can be traced far north near the Danube and from there through southwestern Romania and adjacent regions of northwestern Bulgaria to northern Yugoslavia (the classical phase of the Vatin-Vrsac culture) and further to the Carpathian basin. On the territory of Czechoslovakia, this influence is represented by the classical phase of the "Otomani" (Barca 1) and "Magyarovskoy" (Nitrianski Hradok) cultures, as well as the early Vetezhov culture (in Moravia), with which the subsequent phases of these cultures are associated ("Otomani": Spisski -Shtvrtok, Streda nad Bodrogom; Magyarovskaya: Nitra, Vrable, Vesele; Vetezhovskaya: Bluchina, Hradisko-u-Kromerizhe, Olomouc). In these cultures, the influence of the geographically distant Mycenaean Greece is most pronounced around 1500 BC. e., then over the next few decades, its traces quickly disappear and reappear - but in a different form - only in the XIII century. BC e.

A careful analysis of the items from Batting led us to the conclusion that the images on them definitely give the impression of not a simple ornament, but rather a chain of written characters. Coincidences with the repertoire of signs of Linear A and B indicate a clear similarity between the Vata images and the signs of both systems; however, taking into account that the finds from Vatin date back to the 16th century. BC e., the source of their origin should rather be seen in Linear A. The latter is known in the Aegean primarily as a written reality of Cretan culture, although there are some indirect indications of acquaintance with it in the circle of Mycenaean culture. The positive results of comparison of the Vatine images with the signs of the Aegean linear writing systems do not mean, however, that the totality of images on the Vata disk or spindle can be literally read with the help of linear signs. In both cases, we are undoubtedly talking about highly stylized "written" signs, the appearance of which became possible due to only a rather superficial acquaintance with the Aegean writing systems. The signs of these systems from time to time penetrated into the depths of Europe, where they easily became a decorative element, especially if the object they decorated itself resembled some Aegean product. This applies in particular to the watin disc. If it was an imitation of the pommel of a Mycenaean sword or dagger, as J. McKay believes, then the use of linear writing motifs in its decoration is quite understandable. And although until now linear signs directly on the hilts of Mycenaean swords have not been attested, it is quite possible to assume that they could be used there to indicate the name of the owner and one of such specimens could serve as a model for the Vatin master. The latter could use the Mycenaean model simultaneously to achieve two goals: on the one hand, to imitate the very pommel of the sword in a material alien to it, i.e. in clay, on the other hand, to imitate a linear inscription on the protruding face of this top, made by quasi-linear images, devoid of their communicative functions.

In both cases, we are probably dealing with a curious consequence of the intense influence of the Aegean written culture. True, this is just a highly stylized artistic phenomenon, devoid of any specific communicative meaning. But, despite the latter circumstance, both objects are for us valuable evidence of the intensive influence of the Aegean culture on other areas around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e.

See for example: Vladar J., Bartonek A., 1977, p. 391 et seq.; Bartonek A., 1981; 1969; Grumach E., 1969; Buchholz H.-G., 1969; hiller st., 1978; Heubeck A., 1979. A systematic review of the bibliography is given by the special periodicals "Nestor" (USA) and "Studies in Mycenaean Dialect and Inscriptions" (UK). (For Aegean scripts, see also: Friedrich I. Deciphering forgotten scripts and languages. M., 1961; he is. History of writing. M., 1979; Secrets of ancient writings. Decryption problems. M., 1976; Gelb I. E. Experience in writing; When the letters are silent. M., 1970; Molchanov A. A. Mysterious letters... - Note. trans.)

There is still no complete edition of the texts composed by pictographic characters. The work of A. Evans, published in 1909, continues to be fundamental here (see references).

Various researchers give a different number of signs of linear writing A (the maximum is 120). Cm.: Heubeck A., 1979, p. 14.

There is now an excellent edition of the Linear A texts: GORILA, 1976. Cf.: Brice W. C., 1961.

Cm.: Grumach E., 1969, p. 254. So far we are talking only about single finds.

An example of an agglutinating language is Hungarian. (Grammatical relations and word formation in languages ​​of the agglutinating type are realized through internal affixes. - Note. trans.)

There have already been repeated attempts to interpret Linear A as Greek, Hittite, Luwian, Northwestern Semitic, and others, but they have all been unconvincing. See for example: Bartonek A., 1964b p. 201 et seq.; 1969, p. 140 et seq.; Vladar J; Bartonek A., 1977, p. 399 et seq.; Heubeck A. 1979, p. 20 ff. (From works published in Russian, see the articles by A. F. Deyanov, M. Pope and G. Neumann in the collection Secrets of Ancient Writings. For a popular presentation of the subject, see: Kondratov A. M., Shevoroshkin V. V. When the Letters Are Silent, p. 51-73. For the ancient languages ​​of Western Asia and Asia Minor, see: Dyakonov I. M. Languages ​​of ancient Western Asia. M., 1967; Ancient languages ​​of Asia Minor. M., 1980; Gamkrelidze T. V., Ivanov V. V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. T. 1-2. Tb., 1984. - Note. per.).

The last critical edition of the text of the Phaistos Disc was prepared by J.-P. Olivie. Cm.: Olivier J.-P., 1975.

Editions of texts and studies on this problem are given in the notes to chapter 6.

Initially, there were naturally much more individual fragments. The edition of A. Hoybek counts 6000 of them for Knossos, and 1445 units for Pylos, many of which were subsequently connected to each other. Cm.: Heubeck A., 1979, p. 24 ff.

Popham M. R. - Kadmos. 1966, p. 17 et seq.; AJA. 1975, no. 79, p. 372 et seq. (about 1375); Hood M.S.F.- Kadmos. 1965, no. 4, p. 16ff.: SMEA. 1967, no. 2, p. 63 et seq. (about 1350); Smith C. H. 1961.

Smith G., 1872, p. 129 et seq.; Thumb A., Scherer A., 1959, p. 141 ff.

Recently, an inscription from the 11th century has been found in Paphos. BC e., composed in Greek with syllabic characters, which undoubtedly represents a transitional stage from Cypriot-Minoan to classical Cypriot writing. Cm.: Soesbergen R. G.,- Glotta. 1981, no. 20, p. 486.

Masson, E. 1974b; Buchholz H.-G., 1969, p. 128 et seq.

Makkay J., 1968, p. 96.

"The Art of the Aegean World" - The Image of the Minotaur. Goat check. Northern propylaea. Palace at Knossos. Get to know Cretan-Mycenaean art. Lion Gate. Sincwine. Applied technologies. Time Machine. Antique vase. Mycenaean art. Priestess. Vases. Mystery of the Minotaur. Aegean art. Practical work. Name. Knossos palace.

"The Artistic Culture of the Ancient World" - A bell-shaped vessel. Willendorf Venus. A special area of ​​primitive fine art is ornament. Stonehenge. Dolmens. Salisbury. Bison. People made up stories about these animals. What did primitive artists paint with? Goat. ancient civilizations. Work plan. From what sources do scientists learn about primitive culture.

"Culture of Babylon" - Mesopotamia. Culture of Mesopotamia. Ladder. Hanging gardens. Old Babylonian period. City. Art of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom. Ishtar Gate. Geographic features of Mesopotamia. Pillar of black basalt. Bible prophecies. Akkad. Assyria. Herodotus on Babylon. Palace decorations. House. The gates were lined with blue tiles.

"Lion's Gate" - The pediment crowning the gate is made of solid limestone and decorated with a relief image of two lions. The heads of the lions have not been preserved. In the strictly symmetrical drawing of the bas-relief, lions rise to the facade of a certain building, surrounding the column. Lion Gate - the entrance gate of the Mycenae acropolis Built in the middle of the XIII century BC. e. along with the expansion of the fortress wall of the city.

"Culture of Ancient Asia" - Towers. City dwellers. The invention of writing. External part. Golden helmet. Standard of Ur. Gate ruins. Babylon. Tower of Babel. Relief of the palace. Statue of Gudea. Mesopotamian architecture. Sumerian cuneiform. Cylindrical seal. Art. Stele with the goddess Ishtar. The hero taming the lion.

"Culture of ancient civilizations" - Sumer is gradually declining. Ishtar Gate (VI century BC). ancient civilizations. Frieze with archers. Clay Babylonian tablet with a map of the world. Ruins of the White Temple. Clay tablet from the library of Ashurbanipal. Copper sculpted head of King Sargon the Ancient. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is one of the seven wonders of the world.

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