Sculpture in modern architecture. Philosophy and scientific knowledge
Architecture
In the field of architecture, the Greeks realized their tremendous talent to the highest degree. They created classical architecture, introduced many innovations into it, embodied in it power, beauty, high spirituality, harmony with nature. Among most important achievements in this area it should be noted: 1) the creation of architectural orders; 2) formation of architectural styles; 3) the construction of many outstanding structures.
Let's briefly analyze them. Since the 7th century. BC. Greek architects create an order system. An order (from Latin ordo - structure, order) is a clearly thought-out composition of the relationship and relationship between the load-bearing and non-supporting parts of the building. In other words, the nature of the upper part of the building (atablement) and, in general, its entire appearance largely depend on the type of column.
It is generally accepted that Hellenic architecture was characterized by three orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. Personification Doric order is a massive column located directly on a stone base (stylobate). The trunk (fus) of the column was decorated with grooves (flutes). Their number varied from 16 to 20. From bottom to top, the column thinned evenly. The diameter of the lower part is equal to 1/6 of the height of the column. Top part ended with a capital consisting of a round stone pillow (echin) and a square slab (abacus) placed on it. The upper part of the building consisted of a smooth beam (architrave), a frieze framed by metopes and triglyphs, as well as a cornice and pediment. Metopes and pediments were decorated with sculpture. The Doric order seemed to express an idea masculinity, strength, power, severity, severity, simplicity. The Ionic order was personified by a medium-light, slender column with a base at the base. The diameter of the lower part was equal to 1/9 of its height. The number of flutes decorating the column, as a rule, was 24. The capital was fundamentally different from the Doric one. It had two graceful curls (volutes), a rich pillow, and a beautiful ornament. The height of the capital was equal to 1/3 of the diameter of the lower part of the column. The Ionic order architrave consisted of three horizontal stripes. There were other differences as well. The Ionic order expressed the feminine principle of nobility, sophistication, delicacy, grace, and intelligence. Corinthian order, which appeared in the 5th century. BC. In many ways it resembles the Ionic. True, its column is distinguished by its lightness, more elongated proportions and a magnificent capital, decorated floral ornament. The height of the capital is equal to the diameter of the bottom of the column. The number of flutes is the same as that of an Ionic column. The column base, architrave, frieze, and cornice are somewhat different. The Corinthian order is ornate, full of morbid fantasies, symbolizing girlhood, tenderness, and purity.
The Greeks created four architectural styles. The architectural style in Antiquity was determined by the arrangement of columns along the perimeter of the building. If the building had columns only on the front facade, then this style was called prostyle. If there was a colonnade on the front and rear facades, then this style was called amphiprostyle. The peripterus looked more complex, in which the entire building was surrounded by columns. And if the columns were located along the entire perimeter of the structure in two rows, then it was a dipter. In the practice of architectural construction, the peripter was applied to the Doric order, and the dipter to the Ionic.
Through the efforts of Greek architects and builders, many masterpieces of architecture were created - such as the Temple of Artemis, Ephesus (architect Cheirocrates), Parthenon (architects Ictinus and Callicrates), the Lighthouse of Alexandria (architect Sostratus), temples of Apollo in Delphi, Didyma and Corinth, Zeus in Olympia, Hera on Samos, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (architect Hermogenes), theaters in Athens and Epidaurus (architect Polykleitos the Younger); built an exemplary city of Antiquity - Alexandria (architect Deginocrates).
In architecture, significant results have also been achieved Romans. Actively cultivating Greek orders, they introduced innovations into them and modernized them. Thus, the Doric order was somewhat modified and made heavier, which allowed researchers to talk about the emergence of a new order - Tuscan. The same thing happened with the Corinthian order. Roman craftsmen added an Ionic echinus and a cushion with volutes above its capital, creating the so-called composite order. In architectural structures, the Romans actively used half-columns and arches, preferring a three-sided colonnade, the so-called. pseudoperipter. Unlike Greek architecture, Roman architecture was more pragmatic. It is no coincidence that the famous Roman architect Vitruvius, who formulated three basic requirements for architecture, put utility first, then strength and beauty. The Greeks considered beauty to be the cornerstone. However, the Romans loved rich decoration and luxurious decoration of buildings. They paid great attention not only the construction of churches, theaters and buildings for socio-political purposes. For them, residential buildings, villas, baths, bridges, aqueducts, roads, and much more were important. The originality of the architecture of the Romans also lies in the fact that they preferred to build on the plain and in the lowlands, and not on the hills like the Greeks.
The best achievements of Roman architecture include the temples of Fortune and Saturn, the Roman Pantheon, the Baths of Caracalla, the Appian Way, the Arch of Constantine, the Roman Aqueduct, and Trajan's Forum. The Romans were especially proud of the Colosseum, which was an ellipse (188 x 156 m) with a height of 48.5 m and a circumference of 524 m. It had four tiers. The first tier is framed by semi-columns of the Doric order, the second - Ionic, the third - Corinthian. The arches of the second and third tiers are decorated with statues of gods. The giant arena (86x54) was filled with water if necessary in order to organize battles between ship crews. The architects Vitruvius and Apollodorus left a noticeable mark on Roman architecture.
Ancient architecture was a true personification of its time, “an era brilliantly captured in stone,” which significantly influenced the architecture of subsequent eras and the entire culture.
Sculpture
Perhaps the highest status in Greek culture occupied by sculpture. The sculpture created by Greek masters can rightfully be called ideal. It embodied the best achievements of human hands and spirit, the idea of harmonious unity of spiritual, material and social culture. Everything that was created by the Hellenes in this area was done with talent, with love, and with a deep knowledge of the objects depicted. What is striking is not only the perfection of forms and details, but also the variety and breadth of themes, their scale, and the variety of materials used. The Greeks showed themselves brilliantly both in monumental sculpture, characterized by the significance of ideas, high degree generalizations, spirituality, heroism, organic unity with environment and easel, which has a very in-depth, specific content, naturally reproducing objects. They had no equal in relief sculpture, where the image is located on the background plane (on the pediment, wall, slab).
Greek sculptures in their work they used the most different materials- wood, stone, clay, plaster, bronze, iron, gold, ivory, marble and used adequate methods of cultivating sculpture - carving, carving, sculpting, chasing, casting, forging. The work of the sculptors had a fundamental public importance, although it was not devoid of an individual, private aspect. Based on the images they created, their contemporaries formed ideas about gods, heroes, outstanding personalities, mythical characters, and animals. Statues of gods and heroes were consecrated, they were worshiped, they decorated temples, squares, places of public meetings and significant events, they even built temples specially for them. Most of the statues are dedicated to Apollo, Zeus, Dionysus, Athena, Aphrodite, Asclepius, and Hercules.
Highest achievements Hellenic sculptures are associated with the names of Phidias, Myron, Polykleitos the Elder, Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippos, Chares. Phidias created the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, amazing in its beauty and grandeur. His statues of Athena the Warrior, Athena the Maiden, and Olympian Zeus are among the immortal creations of human genius. It is no coincidence that Cicero said that the gods of Phidias are the real inhabitants of heaven. The Athenian sculptor skillfully worked with any material. Contemporary Phidias Myron created magnificent images of the discus thrower, the running Ladas, Athena and Marsyas; Perseus killing Medusa; athletes Tymanthos Philip and Heonidas. His works express bodily harmony, rhythm, dynamic movements, power and beauty of the body, vitality. Myron preferred bronze as a material. Another representative of the high classics, Polykleitos created Doryphoros, Diadumen, a huge statue of Hera made of gold and ivory, sitting on a throne and holding a scepter in one hand and a pomegranate apple in the other. Several other remarkable works are also attributed to him - Zeus the Merciful and Zeus Philius, Hecate made of copper, and several outstanding athletes. Polykleitos used marble, copper, bronze, and other raw materials in his work.
Skopas managed to convey the most subtle nuances of the soul - dreaminess, impetuosity, pathos, madness. His works personify the Dionysian principle in culture. He was the first to dare to depict Aphrodite naked. Among the others famous works sculptor - Maenad, Ares. Skopas participated in the sculptural framing of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and the Halicarnassus Mausoleum.
Praxiteles has established himself as a deep connoisseur of proportion, harmony, relaxation, a master who knows how to subtly, in detail, convey the inner and appearance. He was undoubtedly a classic exponent of the Apollonian principle. His most famous statues are Aphrodite of Cnidus, Satyr, Hermes with the child Dionysus. Fruitful work Lysippos was different. He is the creator and Great master portrait in sculpture, able to depict the finest strokes of the characters’ appearance. There is information that Lysippos sculpted 1,500 statues. Among his works are 25 horsemen-companions of A. Macedonian, who died in the Battle of Granicus, statues of Poseidon and Zeus, Hercules sitting on a rock. One of the most significant sculptural works belongs to Lysippos' student Chares. He cast the famous Colossus of Rhodes, 34 m high, in bronze. Talented sculptors there were Leochares, Demetrius, Paeonius, Alexander.
Roman sculpture does not have such outstanding creations and talented sculptors as the Greek one. But the Roman masters (however, many of them were Greeks by origin) not only tried to create a beautiful, absolutely perfect image, how much to make it close to reality, to convey in it a diverse range of qualities, character properties of its real bearer. Suffice it to say that the statues of many emperors, consuls, generals, and noble Romans are not at all beautiful. But these people themselves did not possess it. They did not differ in their powerful physique. In terms of the realism of the works and their historicity, Roman sculptors were closer to the truth.
Significant works Roman sculptures include busts of Brutus, Pompey, Roman women, statues of Augustus, Claudius, Nerva, Marcus Aurelius.
Copying of outstanding works of Greek masters was widespread in Rome. It is mostly copies, not originals, that have survived to this day, for which the Romans should be given credit.
Painting
Ancient masters also showed their talent in the field of painting. It was they who created her perfect appearance. Unfortunately, due to the vulnerability of works of painting, there are very few of them left. But even from those “pitiful crumbs” that have survived, as well as from the research of Pliny and Pausanias, it is appropriate to talk about the essential significance of this element of culture in ancient life.
Greek painting is characterized by an extraordinary breadth of genres and ideas. The artists were interested in mythological and historical subjects, the beauty of nature and still life, miniatures and portraits. They created both monumental and easel works, as well as works of a purely applied nature.
The most famous artist of the pre-classical period was Polygiotes. His brushes belong big number paintings Polygiots became especially famous for painting a public building in Delphi, where he reproduced Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. He created delightful images and sublime characters. Plato and Aristotle considered him the best painter.
Outstanding artists of the classical and Hellenistic periods were Apollodorus of Athens (who is credited with the invention of painting based on the play of light and shadow and the active use of perspective), Micon, Zeuxides, Parrhasius, Philoxenus Tymanthos, Nicias, Protogenes, Melantius, Asklepiodorus, Apelles. Zeuxis painted the paintings “Bound Marsyas”, “Family of Centaurs”, “Child with Grapes”. His work “Elena” marked the beginning of exhibitions of paintings. Parrhasius specialized in depicting everyday scenes, curtains, wrote famous painting“Theseus.” He introduced symmetry, expressiveness and beauty in the face, grace in the hair into painting. Perhaps the most famous artist In antiquity, who is considered the creator of the portrait genre, was Apelles. The work “Alexander with Lightning in His Hand,” painted by him, shocked the imagination of his contemporaries. As Pliny reports, for it he received the largest fee that any painter received. The names of several more of his remarkable works are known: “Gabron”, “Anteus”, “Hercules”, “Hero”, “Aphrodite” and “Slander”. “Not a day without perfection!” - that was the slogan creative life Apelles. His works were famous for their amazing charm and charm, beauty and expressiveness. Apelles often displayed his unfinished creations for passersby to see, listened to their criticism, and then finalized the paintings taking into account public opinion. In addition, the artist was one of the first theorists of painting; he wrote several books in which he outlined his own teaching about it. The artist Philoxenus painted the painting “The Battle of Alexander the Great with Darius.” Its mosaic copy has survived to this day; it was discovered during excavations in Pompeii.
The Greeks had art galleries(pinakotheks), where works were stored best artists. The most famous were the Athenian and Heraion pinakotheks.
Story roman painting I didn’t know such outstanding masters and such significant works as the Greek one. Gaius Fabius Pictor is considered the founder of Roman painting; the names of such painters as Pacuvius, Labeo, Turpilius are also known. In Rome, decorative wall paintings, funeral portraits, wall paintings, mosaic compositions, historical battles, landscapes. The Romans loved to make copies of the works of outstanding Greek painters. They, like the Greeks, created art galleries, mostly private ones. True, the famous politician and commander Marcus Agrippa insisted that all paintings and statues should become public property, and not be kept in exile in villas. Paintings by talented artists were extremely highly valued. Many wealthy Romans sought to purchase them for fabulous money. Sometimes they even got sued because of this.
Both Greek and Roman artists painted on canvas, wood, marble, clay tablets, walls, crypts, ivory, parchment and papyrus. Painting was widely used for painting shields, amphoras, vases, kylixes, jewelry and many other objects.
Ancient architectural, sculptural, and painting creations largely remained inaccessible to the masters of subsequent eras. They are still the ideal of perfection, beauty, harmony, deep understanding and refined image of man and nature. Five masterpieces of ancient masters - the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the statue of Olympian Zeus (along with Egyptian pyramids and the hanging gardens of Babylon) are ranked among the most amazing creations human culture, so-called seven wonders of the world.
Philosophy and scientific knowledge
Philosophy
The Greeks are rightfully considered the founders of philosophy - essential element culture that changed people's lives radically. The “discovery” of philosophy is akin to the formation of language, the taming of fire, the creation of the wheel, and the emergence of agriculture. Philosophers created new language culture, discovered and explained the meaning human existence, tamed the spontaneity of thinking, separated it from feelings and made it abstract, began to cultivate the human mind, liberated it and forced it to “move” with extraordinary audacity and speed both in the depth and breadth of the Universe. Thanks to philosophy, man has become an active subject of knowledge. Ancient thinkers persistently sought the truth and also passionately defended it; they had a brilliant command of words. But if the word did not help, then it came to assault. Philosophy for them was not only the love of wisdom, the theory of being, the science of existence, but also the art of personal life. Philosophy appeared in Greece at the turn of the 7th - 6th centuries. BC.
For early stage philosophizing is characterized by the desire to find a non-mythological explanation of the world, real basics of things. Solon, Pittacus, Periander, Cleobulus, Bias, Chilo, Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes single out nature, society and man as objects of study, raise the question of the essence of the world, the origin and primary cause, order and law, study the problem of values, strive to understand the essence of the state and man. Thus, the sacredness of the world was overcome. The first philosophers looked for meaning in everything, explored reality from the standpoint of nature, and meaningfully processed the previous culture.
The next step of the philosophical movement is taken by representatives of the Eleatic (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus) and Pythagorean (Pythagoras, Alcmene, Archytas, Polycletus) schools. They reflect on questions of being, knowledge, movement, variability and inconsistency of existence, the infinity of space. Mathematical principles and dialectics are being developed; philosophy becomes a subject of education. Pythagoras coined the very term “philosophy”. Around this time, the active philosophical search of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus dates back. They explore the relationship between the spiritual and material principles, the problem of the origin of the world, its structure, uncreateability, regularity and chance, materiality, causality, fluidity, variability, inconsistency of knowledge, the complexity of the search for truth, the problem of Logos. Culture begins to be viewed as a “second nature” created by people themselves (Democritus).
The further stage of philosophical ascent is associated with the sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Antiphon) and Socrates, who focus on the problems of man, his soul, spirituality, humanism, knowledge, truth, self-creation, responsibility. Man is considered as a self-determining free cognizing being, as the measure of all things and highest value, as the central link of the world. Human knowledge and self-knowledge act as fundamental ideals. Problems of moral responsibility, criticism, relativism, the need for widespread dissemination of philosophical knowledge, the relationship between politics and morality, and the fight against prejudice are posed. The sophists are dominated by the subjective principle. For Socrates, the subjective and objective are balanced. Philosophical problems are discussed not only in a narrow circle of experts, but also on the streets and squares; philosophy is taught. In short, philosophy becomes a common matter, and in a sense, a subject of speculation (among the sophists). For the sake of truth, their own rightness, philosophers are ready for self-sacrifice, capable of even going to death.
The highest stage of development of philosophical culture, which logically completes the development ancient culture in general, associated with the activities of Plato and Aristotle. They create centers of philosophical knowledge - the Academy and the Lyceum. Through the efforts of these outstanding thinkers, a deep theoretical understanding of philosophical, scientific and socio-political ideas was undertaken, fundamental systems of knowledge were developed, in which the possibilities of true knowledge of the world, systematization and classification of what was known were determined, problems of the material and ideal were touched upon, a conceptual apparatus was created, the beginnings of a methodology of knowledge were laid, The idea of pluralism is expressed, issues of state, person, politics, economics, laws, ethics, aesthetics, education, upbringing and others are developed. Plato raises to the utmost heights the role of ideas and the ideal in human life, indicates their absolute significance and perfection. He extends the problem of the ideal to the state and constructs its “perfect” model. Real world the Athenian philosopher considers the world of ideas as a copy; ideas are the original, they give rise to things, not the other way around. The path to the world of ideas lies through knowledge and self-knowledge, dialogue with one’s own soul, and philosophizing. Plato reflects on the soul, its immortality, and on ways to improve human culture. But Plato's philosophy is anti-personal in nature; the state is higher than the individual. Aristotle, unlike Plato, relies on facts and strives to create an ideal (philosophical, scientific) world from the real. His principles of knowledge are based on the principles of being. The ecumene of Aristotle’s knowledge was the whole world; the thinker was interested in everything - from small insects to the structure of the Universe. With the help of the laws of logic, the thinker strives to survey what exists and realize the synthesis of all knowledge. In everything, Aristotle tries to observe moderation, considering it as the “golden mean.” He treats man as a social, “political” being, but in the question of the priority of the individual or the state, he gives preference to the individual. Aristotle's rationalism played a fundamental role in European culture. Plato and Aristotle wrote many classical works: “State”, “Laws”, “Politician”, “Timaeus”, “Parmenides”, “Critius”, “Sophist”, etc. (Plato); “Politics”, “Athenian Polity”, “Nicomachean Ethics”, “Metaphysics”, “Physics”, “Organon”, etc. (Aristotle).
Along with what is called the philosophical classics, there were movements in Greece that preached the philosophy of nihilism. It was a kind of opposition to existing cultural foundations. Cynics (Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates), Epicureans (Epicurus, Metrodorus, Ermarchus), skeptics (Pyrrho, Arcesilaus, Carneades), to some extent Stoics (Zeno, Clean, Chrysippus), strongly criticize the existing order, calling either for natural limitations , simplicity of life, disregard for moral norms, or to pleasure, bliss, liberation from suffering, isolationism, individualism, equanimity, serenity. Skeptics tried to teach even ignorance, i.e. They preached a kind of anti-philosophy, denied the knowability of the world, and carried doubts to the absolute. In the views of representatives of the named schools, of course, not everything has negative character; There were also profound ideas: about the priority of reason, the equality of people, freedom of choice, the need to live in harmony with nature.
The Neoplatonists (Ammonius, Plotinus, Iamblichus, Porphyry, Proclus) complete the more than thousand-year philosophical marathon. Ancient philosophy, and culture as a whole, are heading towards their decline, and strong pressure from Christianity is felt. Representatives of Neoplatonism make the first significant attempt at a critical analysis of the entire previous culture, its value, and real significance. The conclusions they draw are disappointing. Everything that was, although beautiful, was useless, so they think. Neoplatonists preach mystical-intuitive knowledge of the Supreme, the liberation of man from material burdens for pure spirituality through asceticism or ecstasy.
Concerning Roman philosophy, then it cannot be compared with the Greek. We can say that the Romans were far from philosophy. In the Roman intellectual environment, not many people knew, understood philosophy, and themselves philosophized thoroughly. The most famous of them include Cicero, Lucretius Carus, and Seneca. Through the efforts of Cicero, Greek philosophy was transferred to Roman soil and interpreted in a unique way. It was philosophy that he considered the soul of culture. From a philosophical position, Cicero tried to comprehend the problems of humanism, morality, culture of life, a perfect state, law, the ideal of a politician, the ideal of a citizen and other issues. He elevated philosophy with eloquence and gave his literary, oratorical and legal creativity a philosophical character. The most significant works of Cicero: “Tusculan Conversations”, “On Duties”, “On Friendship”, “On Old Age”, “Speeches”, “On the State”.
Lucretius Carus wrote philosophical poem“On the Nature of Things,” where he describes the formation and development of the world, analyzes the forces and causes operating in it, and seeks to understand the relationship between fatalism and the subjective aspirations of people. Although the significance of fate is great, nevertheless, a person overcomes many obstacles and hardships, creates a culture and constantly improves it.
Seneca views philosophy as a moral and religious guide for man. He understands human life itself as a set of strict moral norms. The dominant feature of human life is the spirit, according to which a person must build himself. The highest human virtues are self-loyalty, strictness towards oneself. In relation to others, the Roman philosopher advises to be forgiving, free from compassion and spiritual dependence. Great importance have: “Letters to Lucilius”, “Natural Scientific Questions”.
So, ancient philosophy can be considered as exclusively important step in the development of culture. It was thanks to the titanic efforts of ancient thinkers that man, figuratively speaking, rose from the underground to cosmic heights, opened his eyes to the world, admired it, doubted many things, great amount questions and found some answers to them. Philosophers acted as defenders of rational culture, its generators and experimenters; they, perhaps, became her intellectual therapists, and partly surgeons.
Scientific knowledge
Humanity owes the Greeks such an element of culture as science (Greek - episteme). Despite the fact that the first scientific knowledge originated in the cultures of the Ancient East, it was only among the Hellenes that it acquired a systematic character, based on judgments, observations, evidence, analysis and synthesis. The first approaches to the experiment are outlined, and an attempt at scientific foresight is made. Exploring the foundations and principles of things, the Greeks, in contrast to the eastern sages, are not content with only the question “what?”, but also ask the questions “why?”, “where from?”, “how?”, They strive to comprehend the world in concepts. Science among the Greeks is inextricably linked with philosophy and represents holistic knowledge. Since Aristotle and Hippocrates appear rudiments private scientific knowledge. More obvious contours of the sciences emerge in the works of Stagirite. The first historian of science was Theophrastus.
Ancient science had no outlet for practice and had no influence on the economy. Even outstanding achievements in architecture, sculpture, shipbuilding and military affairs, with rare exceptions, did not depend on scientific data. The Greeks strove for knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself, which indicates the high intrinsic value of ancient science. The Hellenes stood at the origins of physics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, logic, biology, botany, zoology, geology, geography, mineralogy , ethics, aesthetics, rhetoric, poetics, history, jurisprudence, political science and others.
Astronomy. Here the Hellenes achieved major results, anticipating discoveries that would be recognized many centuries later. Eudoxus built the first scientific model of the Universe and stood at the origins of astronomy. Although even earlier, Thales learned to predict solar eclipses, and Empedocles and Anaxagoras explained their reasons. Pythagoras suggested that the Earth was spherical. Aristotle believes that the Earth is a sphere. Meton sets the length of the year at 365 days. Anaxagoras considers the Moon as a satellite of the Earth. Aristarchus of Samos creates a heliocentric system of the world, determines the solar diameter and the approximate distance from the Earth to the Moon. Hipparchus creates precision observational astronomy, accurately determines the position of the center of the solar orbit, formulates the theory of epicycles, discovers the phenomena of precession (precedence of the equinoxes), establishes the exact length of the year (with an error of 6 minutes 20 seconds), develops a theory of the movement of the Moon, and determines with an accuracy of one second periods of its revolution, compiles a star catalogue; determines the exact distance from the Earth to the Moon. Ptolemy composes the “Great Mathematical Construction of Astronomy” and creates a geocentric system of the world.
Mathematics. Among the most significant achievements are Thales's theorems on the equality of angles at the base of an isosceles triangle; that the diameter divides a circle into two equal parts. Democritus discovers a formula for the volume of a cone and a pyramid. Pythagoras - the multiplication table and the famous theorem on the relationship between the sides of a right triangle. Eudoxomus lays the foundations of geometric algebra. A systematic presentation of geometry is given by Hippocrates of Chios. Stereometry develops. Eudoxus develops a theory of relations and a method of exhaustion. Euclid creates the classic work “Elements,” which is the first scientific paradigm. Archimedes develops methods for calculating areas and volumes, as well as a method for determining the tangent to a curve. He also sets the approximate value of the number p. Apollonius of Perga creates the theory of conic sections. Diophantus composes the work Arithmetic. Pappus proves theorems related to the study of curves on the torus and other surfaces. Greek thinkers were inclined to believe that without mathematics there is no science. The very term “mathematics” meant “science”.
Physics. Parmenides expresses the idea of the multiplicity of things, their birth, change, death. Anaxagoras formulated the idea of evolutionary cosmology, according to which the cosmos is once born and develops in one direction, there is nothing divine in it, but everything consists of everything. He also expresses the idea of infinitesimal physical quantities and the proposition that “speed generates force.” Truly revolutionary significance for the development of physics was atomic theory world structure of Leucippus-Democritus. Euclid formulated the idea that rays of light travel in straight lines.
Mechanics. Amazing discoveries also took place in this area. Ctesibius invented a two-cylinder water pump, a water organ, a water clock, and military throwing machines. Archimedes substantiated the laws of leverage and hydrostatic weighing (Archimedes' law); explored the laws of mechanics and the principles of statics; invented spherical mirrors crane, catapults. Heron invented a pneumatic device, a steam engine, and a pump.
Biology and Botany. Aristotle is considered to be the founder of biology. He divided nature into organic and inorganic, collected material about several hundred species of animals and classified it. But even earlier, some biological ideas were expressed by Anaximander, according to which living beings arose in wet silt. Theophrastus described 500 plant species.
Medicine. Alcmaeon was the first to practice dissection of animal corpses to study the functions of their organs. He is credited with the discovery of nerves and the recognition of the brain as an important human organ. Hippocrates studies the natural causes of diseases and substantiates the features of their treatment, formulates the provisions of medical ethics. Hippocrates is considered the father of medicine. Herophilus explores the structure nervous system, makes a distinction between arteries and veins, explains the pulse, gives a description of the eye, liver, genital organs, compares the anatomy of humans and animals, and studies the effects of drugs. Erysistratus establishes the difference between the brain and the cerebellum and describes the structure of the heart.
Geography. Anaximander was the first to draw geographical map Earth. Eratosthenes determined the circumference of the Earth at 39,690 km, compiled a map of the world, described Europe, Asia and Africa. Ptolemy composes a manual on geography, where he gives about 8000 coordinates of various points in latitude and longitude. Strabo writes a fundamental general work “Geography”.
Historiography. Herodotus, founder historical science, in his work “History” gave a description of many events, countries and cultures. True, it is far from the actual scientific presentation of the material. Thucydides described contemporary events in his work “History”. He uses the method of observation and strict chronology, strives for accuracy and critical analysis. Xenophon in his works “Anabasis”, “Cyropedia”, “Greek History” demonstrates the observational powers of a historian, the philosophical sharpness of thought, and the skill of an artist. Valuable information historical nature left in their writings Polybius, who wrote “ World history”; Diodorus, who composed the “Historical Library”; Plutarch, who created the famous Lives. An outstanding historical and cultural popular work called “Description of Hellas” was created by Pausanias. From it you can glean valuable information about personalities, events and monuments of Hellenic culture.
Roman scientists have proven themselves in the fields of jurisprudence, rhetoric, medicine, historical, political and agricultural sciences, i.e. in applied sciences. The historical thought of the Romans deserves attention. Through the efforts of Cato the Elder, who composed “Origin”, Titus Livy (“History of Rome from the foundation of the city”), Cornelius Tacitus (“Analles”, “History”), Appian (“Roman Wars”), Ammianus Marcellinus (“Roman History”), Suetonius (“The Life of the Twelve Caesars”), Sallust (“The Jugurthian War”, “The Conspiracy of Catilini”), Patercula (“Roman History”) an attempt was made to reconstruct the history of Rome and describe modern events. Almost all works show the greatness of the Roman state, the heroism of the past and present, patriotism, and the sublimity of morals. If Cato and Livy do not disdain mythology, then the rest are more strict in their presentation of the material. A very important historical work is “Notes on Gallic War"Julius Caesar.
Research in the field of agricultural science was very popular among the Romans. Cato the Elder writes the famous “Agriculture”, in which the term “agricultura” appears for the first time. Varro and Columella compose works called “Agriculture” and actually create the theory of agriculture.
In the field of natural science, a huge compilation of work stands apart “ Natural history” written by the Roman scientist Pliny the Elder. Having studied more than two thousand sources, he provided valuable information on a variety of branches of knowledge, while Pliny himself did not make any important new discoveries.
It is impossible, of course, not to mention the scientific and practical activities physician, anatomist, physiologist Claudius Galen. He not only systematized knowledge in the field of medicine, but also carefully studied the anatomy of humans and animals, noticed great similarities in the body structure of humans and monkeys, sought to establish the connection of the spinal nerves with the processes of breathing and heartbeat, and worked on the creation of medicines.
In the IV - V centuries. AD the decline of ancient science occurs. Its decline was due to general historical reasons the death of ancient culture, lack of socio-economic incentives, resurgent myth-making, mysticism, and occultism.
To summarize, we can say: Through the efforts and talent of ancient researchers, a demythologized and desacralized image of the cosmos, nature, state and man, a new idea of reality was constructed, which played an exceptional role in the intellectual progress of mankind.
