Religious culture of Byzantium. Culture of the Byzantine Empire

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium did not experience such a cultural decline as Western Europe. She became an heiress cultural achievements the ancient world and the countries of the East.

1. Development of education. In the 7th-8th centuries, when Byzantium's possessions declined, Greek language became the official language of the empire. The state needed well-trained officials. They had to competently draw up laws, decrees, contracts, wills, conduct correspondence and court cases, respond to petitioners, and copy documents. Often educated people achieved high positions, and with them came power and wealth.

Not only in the capital, but also in small towns and large villages, children of ordinary people who were able to pay for education could study in primary schools. Therefore, even among peasants and artisans there were literate people.

Along with church schools, public and private schools were opened in cities. They taught reading, writing, arithmetic and church singing. In addition to the Bible and other religious books, the schools studied the works of ancient scientists, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the works of Byzantine scientists and writers; solved quite complex arithmetic problems.

In the 9th century, a higher school was opened in Constantinople, at the imperial palace. It taught religion, mythology, history, geography, and literature.

2. Scientific knowledge. The Byzantines preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used it to calculate tax amounts, in astronomy, and in construction. They also widely used the inventions and writings of great Arab scientists - doctors, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks, Western Europe learned about these works. In Byzantium itself there were many scientists and creative people. Leo the Mathematician (9th century) invented sound signaling for transmitting messages over a distance, automatic devices in the throne room of the imperial palace, driven by water - they were supposed to capture the imagination of foreign ambassadors.

Medical textbooks were compiled. To teach the art of medicine, in the 11th century, a medical school (the first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople.

The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry; Ancient recipes for making glass, paints, and medicines were preserved. “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and tar that cannot be extinguished with water. With the help of “Greek fire,” the Byzantines won many victories in battles at sea and on land.

The Byzantines accumulated a lot of knowledge in geography. They knew how to draw maps and city plans. Merchants and travelers wrote descriptions different countries and peoples.

History developed especially successfully in Byzantium. Vivid, interesting works by historians were created on the basis of documents, eyewitness accounts, and personal observations.

3. Architecture. The Christian religion changed the purpose and structure of the temple. In an ancient Greek temple, a statue of the god was placed inside, and religious ceremonies were held outside in the square. Therefore, they tried to make the appearance of the temple especially elegant. Christians gathered for common prayer inside the church, and the architects cared about the beauty of not only the exterior, but also its interior.

The Christian church's plan was divided into three parts: the vestibule - a room at the western, main entrance; nave (ship in French) - the elongated main part of the temple where believers gathered for prayer; an altar where only clergy could enter. With its apses - semicircular vaulted niches that protruded outwards, the altar faced the east, where, according to Christian ideas, the center of the earth Jerusalem is located with Mount Golgotha ​​- the site of the crucifixion of Christ. In large temples, rows of columns separated the wider and higher main nave from the side naves, of which there could be two or four.

A wonderful work Byzantine architecture There was a temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Justinian did not skimp on expenses: he wanted to make this temple the main and largest church of the entire Christian world. The temple was built by 10 thousand people over five years. Its construction was supervised by famous architects and decorated by the best artisans.

The Church of Hagia Sophia was called “a miracle of miracles” and was sung in verse. Inside it amazed with its size and beauty. A giant dome with a diameter of 31 m seems to grow from two half-domes; each of them rests, in turn, on three small semi-domes. Along the base, the dome is surrounded by a wreath of 40 windows. It seems that the dome, like the vault of heaven, floats in the air.

IN X-XI centuries instead of an elongated rectangular building, a cross-domed church was established. In plan, it looked like a cross with a dome in the middle, mounted on a round elevation - a drum. There were many churches, and they became smaller in size: the inhabitants of a city block, a village, or a monastery gathered in them. The temple looked lighter, directed upward. To decorate its exterior, they used multi-colored stone, brick patterns, and alternated layers of red brick and white mortar.

4. Painting. In Byzantium, earlier than in Western Europe, the walls of temples and palaces began to be decorated with mosaics - images made of multi-colored stones or pieces of colored opaque glass - smalt. Smalt

reinforced with different inclinations in wet plaster. The mosaic, reflecting the light, flashed, sparkled, flickered with bright multi-colored colors. Later, the walls began to be decorated with frescoes - paintings painted with water paints on wet plaster.

There was a canon in the design of temples - strict rules for the depiction and placement of biblical scenes. The temple was a model of the world. The more important the image was, the higher it was placed in the temple.

The eyes and thoughts of those entering the church turned primarily to the dome: it was represented as the vault of heaven - the abode of the deity. Therefore, a mosaic or fresco depicting Christ surrounded by angels was often placed in the dome. From the dome the gaze moved to the upper part of the wall above the altar, where the figure of the Mother of God reminded us of the connection between God and man. In 4-pillar churches, on sails - triangles formed by large arches, frescoes with images of the four authors of the Gospels were often placed: Saints Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Moving around the church, the believer, admiring the beauty of its decoration, seemed to be making a journey through the Holy Land - Palestine. On the upper parts of the walls, artists unfolded episodes from the earthly life of Christ in the order as they are described in the Gospels. Below were depicted those whose activities are connected with Christ: prophets (messengers of God) who predicted his coming; apostles - his disciples and followers; martyrs who suffered for the sake of faith; saints who spread the teachings of Christ; kings as his earthly governors. In the western part of the temple, pictures of hell or the Last Judgment after the second coming of Christ were often placed above the entrance.

In the depiction of faces, attention was drawn to the expression emotional experiences: huge eyes, large forehead, thin lips, elongated oval face - everything spoke of high thoughts, spirituality, purity, holiness. The figures were placed on a gold or blue background. They appear flat and frozen, and their facial expressions are solemn and concentrated. The flat image was created specifically for the church: wherever a person went, he everywhere met the faces of saints turned to him.

IN medieval art there was a special idea of ​​perspective. The masters tried to draw attention to the most important things in the image with their sizes. The figure of Christ was depicted as larger than the rest, and towers, trees, buildings - smaller in size than the people standing nearby.

Icons were placed in churches and dwellings - picturesque images of God, the Mother of God, scenes from the Bible on smooth wooden boards. Unlike mosaics and frescoes, an icon can be moved from place to place, sent as a gift, or taken with you on a hike. One of the most revered icons - “Our Lady of Vladimir” - was brought to Rus' from Byzantium. It was not by chance that paintings, icons and frescoes, and sculptures of churches were called the “Bible for the illiterates”: after all, ordinary people could not or did not know how to read the Bible. This is even more true in Western Europe, where the Bible was copied and read in Latin, and not in the local languages ​​spoken by the people. Only church images and sermons of priests introduced ordinary people to the content of Christianity.

5. Cultural connections of Byzantium. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium was the most cultural country in Europe. Kings, princes, bishops of other countries, and most of all Italy, invited architects, artists and jewelers from Byzantium. Inquisitive young men went to Constantinople to study mathematics, medicine, and Roman laws. Architects and artists from European countries studied with Byzantine masters.

Byzantine culture had a particularly strong influence on the culture of the Slavs. Bulgaria, Serbia and Rus' adopted the Christian faith from Byzantium. Slavic alphabet The Bulgarians who studied with the Greeks brought it to Rus' (see below). Many books have been translated from Greek into Slavic. The first stone churches in Rus' were built and decorated by craftsmen invited from Byzantium. The culture of Armenia and Georgia, where Christianity established itself at the end of the 4th century, also experienced the strong influence of Byzantium. In Byzantium, many manuscripts of Greek, Roman and Eastern scientists and writers were preserved and thanks to this have come to us.

Stages of formation. General information about Byzantine culture. Orthodoxy is the basis of our worldview. The relationship between imperial power and the Orthodox faith. The originality of Byzantine Christianity. Literary activity. The art of Byzantium: architecture, sculpture, mosaic.

Byzantium is a unique cultural entity (330-1453), the first Christian empire. Byzantium was located at the junction of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Its territory included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, the islands of Cyprus, Crete, strongholds in the Crimea (Chersonese), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), and some areas of Arabia. The Mediterranean Sea was an internal lake of Byzantium. The territory of Byzantium reached its greatest size in the “golden age” of Justinian the Great (527-565), who sought to revive the former glory of Ancient Rome, but in subsequent centuries it became smaller and smaller, losing huge territories during the Arab invasion (7th century). The terrestrial spaces of Byzantium were largely mountainous and mountainous regions, cut by small valleys. The varied Mediterranean climate over most of the territory is favorable for agriculture.

Byzantium was a multinational empire, with a diverse ethnic composition of the population, which included Syrians, Copts, Thracians, Illyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. It is not the Greeks or the Romans who play a major role after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. There was no physical continuity between ancient and medieval peoples at all. The immigration of barbarians into the empire (in its northeastern part) is an essential feature separating antiquity from the Middle Ages. The constant and abundant replenishment of the provinces of the empire with new peoples poured a lot of new blood into the remnants of the old population and contributed to a gradual change in the very physical type of the ancient peoples.

The Byzantine civilization was created by all the peoples who lived on its territory, but it was predominantly a Greek-speaking culture. Greek became the official language of Byzantium from the end of the 6th-7th centuries, displacing Latin from the state and administrative spheres. Greek culture formed its core, and its own deep traditions were combined with tolerance towards the culture of foreigners, with a willingness to use the creative experience of other peoples.

At the same time, the continuity in ideas and views, their different “sounding” in a new spiritual “key,” the close cultural connection between the Ancient World and the Middle Ages largely determined the fact that Byzantine culture became unique from the very beginning. She did not have to choose herself, but the development and implementation of initially given opportunities, as a result of which in Byzantine culture it is impossible to see a dynamic change of eras that differ from each other in their deep idea. The entire Byzantine millennium must be considered as one great era the history of culture, the comprehension of which cannot but amaze with its unity.

Byzantine fortress in Gaidra, North Africa 9th-11th centuries. Reconstruction.

The culture of Byzantium did not have an ascending line of development. Generally accepted and strictly justified periodization up to today does not exist. Byzantine culture has another specific trait. More than thousand-year history Byzantium appears as an almost continuous series of crises, often bringing the empire to the brink of disaster. The onslaught of external enemies is endless: IV century, - Goths, V century. - Huns, Vandals, 6th century. - Slavs, starting from the 7th century. - Arabs, Persians, Avars, Cumans, Pechenegs, Bulgarians, Seljuk Turks, Ottoman Turks, Western Christians (Latins). This determined the sophisticated craft of Byzantine diplomacy and the high degree of military art.

Nevertheless, the periodization of Byzantine culture can be outlined. Early Byzantine culture developed in the period from the 4th century. to the first half of the 7th century. The name of Constantine the Great (327-337) is associated with a turn in religious politics, the transfer of the capital from Rome to Constantinople, and the beginning of Byzantine culture. During the “golden age” of Justinian the Great (527-565), the empire acquired its maximum territorial size. The time of Heraclius (61-641) is associated with the victory over Sasanian Iran and defeat in battles with the Arabs, the loss of Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. This period is characterized by a general cultural crisis.

The central period of development of Byzantine culture, which began in the middle of the 7th century. and ending at the beginning of the 13th century, was marked by the Seventh Ecumenical Council (787), a victory over iconoclasm. The largest personalities of this era are Patriarch Photius, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Michael Psellus, Leo the Deacon.

Late Byzantine culture: XIII - mid-XV centuries. In 1453, Constantinople was captured by the crusaders and Byzantium found itself isolated. Under the Palaiologos (1261-1453), the country experienced a decline in state power with a revival of theological, literary, artistic forces. In the XIV century. historians John Cantacuzene, Nikephoros Gregoras, theologians St. Gregory Palamas, Nicholas Kavasila, philosophers Dmitry and Prokhor Kydonis glorified Byzantine culture.

Byzantine ship. IX-XV-ee.

Byzantium is a country of monasteries and monasticism, seven Ecumenical Councils, the most revered fathers and teachers of the church, the homeland Christian mysticism St. Dionysius the Areopagite, Maximus the Confessor, Symeon the New Theologian, Gregory Palamas. Byzantium is famous as a mentor Slavic world, a stronghold of Christianity against Islam, a protector of culture from barbarism. Byzantine culture was born from the spirit of the Gospel revelation, it is characterized by the features of a temple, the life of which is sanctified by prayers and sacraments; it appears like the most valuable gold-woven brocade, like a beautifully crafted miniature decorating the title page of some ancient church book like the indescribable beauty of the mosaic in the apse ancient temple, like the intricate melody of an ancient church prayer (Archimandrite Cyprian Kern).

The essence and strength of the Christian Middle Ages was that life was not separated from religion.

Orthodoxy was the main element of people's life, the main and determining factor in the integrity of the Roman state. The sacred goal of preserving the purity of Orthodoxy permeated all spheres of culture Byzantine world. Loyalty to the church constituted the highest virtue for the Byzantine, who sinned and fell, but always remembered his spiritual homeland. The ideal of churched culture and statehood, which brought into world history Byzantium did not at all mean the implementation of the gospel kingdom on earth.

The Byzantine moral ideal was always characterized by a tendency towards disappointment in everything earthly. Unlike the Romans (and Romanized peoples), the most political-state people in the world, the creator of exemplary law, the Byzantines, the Hellenized peoples of half the empire - in accordance with their national character, pronounced mystical talent, understood Christianity primarily as a revelation of God, as a path to salvation of the individual and his spiritual perfection in Christ. It is the Byzantine personality type - homo byzantinus - that represents the meaning-forming and culture-creating center.

Byzantium in the V-VI centuries.

Walls of Theodosius in Constantinople. X century

Constantinople is the center and eye of the Universe, incomparable with anything (Gregory the Theologian), the highest support and focus of the Orthodox world. The very unique geographical position of Constantinople, as if connecting Europe, Asia and Africa in the highest spiritual unity, is the brightest symbol of the Orthodox faith. In Christian political theory, the capital of Byzantium became the natural capital of the entire Eastern Christian world. The future of the empire was forever connected with the East. A harbinger of this is the reign of the last pagan emperor Diocletian (285-305), who managed to take Rome away from imminent destruction, a brilliant and in many ways mysterious ruler, who moved his residence to eastern region empire, to the city of Nicomedia.

During the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages, the hitherto united Roman Empire was divided into two unequal parts. Initially, the empire, while remaining united, was divided (395) into two administrative regions, in accordance with the will of Emperor Theodosius the Great, between his sons Honorius and Arcadius (Western and Eastern Empires). In 410, Rome was taken by the Goths, led by Alaric, in 451 it was besieged by the Huns, who were led by the “scourge of God” Attila, in 455, Rome was given over to the Vandals led by King Geiseric for plunder for two weeks, and in 476 The military leader Odoacer, having raised a rebellion, deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus. Byzantium lived after that for another thousand years.

Basilica of Constantine in Rome

The baptism of Byzantium in Constantinople marked a turn in religious policy, which consisted of the first alliance between imperial power and the Christian faith. The first and most important step towards this was taken on September 1, 313, when co-rulers Constantine and Licinius Augustus proclaimed the Edict of Milan, which granted Christians freedom to practice their faith. In memory of this event, the fathers of the first Ecumenical Council (325, Nicaea) decided to begin the church year on September 1. Two forces in their unity constitute the formative principle of Byzantine culture - imperial power and the Orthodox faith. Their relationship is built on the principle of “symphony”: the divided unity of priesthood and kingdom, spiritual and secular authorities with the superiority of the church canon over civil law.

The love of the Antians for magnificent ceremoniality was manifested in the names of the emperor and the external forms of expressing respect for his rank. It should be noted that the Byzantine is faithful not to the individual, not to the person of the sovereign, but to his Divine dignity. As a result of this, the phenomenon of imposture could not arise in Byzantium, the phenomenon of imposture did not exist, for on the throne there was always the one who was pleasing to God. The emperor was called a saint, the son of God, the ruler of all Christians; his veneration was expressed in worship (bowing his head to the ground), in kissing his hand, in glorifications (many years and laudatory epithets). Accession to the throne was accompanied by a church coronation ceremony. The rite of coronation took shape gradually. The first time the church coronation ceremony was performed in the 5th century, in the 14th century. The coronation rite reached the highest degree of development, the church side acquired predominant importance in it.

Armchair. VI century

Although the title of the Byzantine emperor included the name “saint” (agio), for the very presence on the throne is already evidence of God’s chosenness, the veneration of emperors as saints in Byzantium was also associated with their personal righteousness and was determined by the requirements of the biblical tradition, primarily by the working of miracles. Of the 116 Byzantine emperors, only 14 were glorified as saints (among them Constantine the Great, Justinian the Great, Theodora, Irene, etc.).

After Emperor Constantine the Great accepted the Christian faith under his protection, an experience was experienced that was never repeated subsequently and powerfully determined the medieval consciousness in general and forever shaped the Byzantine consciousness. History has recognized Constantine the Great, and the Church has recognized him as a Saint and Equal to the Apostles. Modern historians compare him with Peter the Great and Napoleon again Byzantine culture constitutes an organic combination of the Roman imperial idea, the Orthodox faith and Greco-Roman cultural heritage. In Byzantium there was not such a deep gap between antiquity and the Middle Ages, which was characteristic of the West. Byzantium absorbed all the knowledge acquired in Ancient world, being the guardian of the ancient heritage, creatively transforming it with the Christian spirit.

The dual unity of the Roman Empire and the Orthodox Church is a world unto itself. The Roman Empire, which united all the lands of the Mediterranean, was indeed, in a sense, the world.

The Universal Roman Empire (Byzantium) is an earthly, state frame for sacred history. For the Christian consciousness, Byzantium is the world that stands under the dominion of the “prince of this world,” but which must be saved and sanctified.

Byzantine Empire in the VI-VII centuries.

The term “Byzantium” arose after the fall of the Roman Empire, around the 16th century, among Italian humanists, who proposed the division of history into “ancient”, “middle” and “new” and gave the Middle Ages a derogatory name in their eyes - Byzantium (although Byzantium not a medieval, but an ancient city, which ceased to bear the ancient name in the year of the founding of Constantinople - 324). The Byzantines in their identity were Romans - Romans in the Byzantine accent.

In the internal political life of Byzantium, an element of destabilization permeates its entire history. So, in the period from 395 to 1453. out of 107 sovereigns, only 34 died a natural death, fell in war or became victims of chance, the rest died as a result of palace intrigues and coups (S. Dil).

At the same time, the history of the Roman power amazes with its complete integrity and internal organicity, which is based on the Byzantines’ loyalty to the highest spiritual Orthodox ideal.

The most important feature of Byzantinism is the church-religious nature of Byzantine education, science, and art. Theology was the central subject literary activity. Theological disputes shook the empire, for these were disputes about the foundations of culture and reflected the need of Greek thinking to express Christian truth in the language of philosophy. The confrontation between Hellenic philosophy and church experience turned into a fruitful synthesis, the creators of which were the Greek church fathers from the 2nd to the 15th centuries: Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus of Lyons, Athanasius of Alexandria, the great Cappodocians (Basily the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Gregory of Nyssa, Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus , Photius the Great). The peak in the development of Greek theology occurred in the 14th century. . and is associated with the names of Gregory Palamas, Nile of Constantinople, Nicholas Kabasila. In Eastern Tradition, theology and mysticism are by no means opposed, but support and complement each other. The first is impossible without the second. “Mystical experience is a personal manifestation of a common faith. Theology is the general expression of what can be experienced by everyone.” *

* Lossky N. God and world evil. M., 1994. P. 125.

Historical works also became widespread: history and chronography were very popular. The philosophical tradition has never died down. It was created by John of Damascus, Michael Psellus, Nikephoros Vlemides, Pletho, Gennady Scholarius.

Poetry developed primarily on church soil, reflecting the needs of worship. In the VI century. Roman Sladkopevets created the kontakion genre. He was the greatest church poet of all time. The songwriting heritage was left by Patriarchs Sergius and Sophrony, Rev. Maxim the Confessor.

Byzantine Empire in the 7th-10th centuries.

At the end of the 7th century. arises new form religious creativity - canon (creator Andrei Kritsky). The largest authors are John of Damascus, Cosmas of Jerusalem.

The distinctive features of Byzantine art are represented in architecture, music, visual arts, literature and Christian historiography. Already in the “golden age” of Justinian the Great, the Cathedral of St. Sofia, Code of Civil Law, mosaic of Ravenna.

The art of Byzantium as a whole has an orthodox Christian, doctrinal character. In its own way inner essence it is free ascetic obedience. Medieval artistic realism is ontological, because it reveals the highest spiritual beauty, the eternal laws that govern the world. Church Byzantine art can be considered as “dynamics in statics,” “the motionless movement of love.” Single art style inspires the entire Byzantine millennium. In Byzantine art they were combined into a single artistic system refined spiritualism and lush showmanship.

Mosaic of the dome of the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Ravenna.

Hagia Sophia of Constantinople is a miracle of Byzantine art. The Great Church is the universal symbol of the Incarnation. The temple was built in the 6th century. Asia Minor architects Anthimius and Isidore. Of the two main types of medieval temples - basilica and dome-centric - the second established itself in Byzantium. However, the Sophia of Constantinople is an example of a rare and brilliant combination of both types of temple.

Byzantium is characterized by the so-called “striped architecture”: the design of external walls was reduced to horizontal stripes, resulting from relief brickwork or alternating layers of plinth brick and white mortar.

The sculpture consists mainly of decorative reliefs on bones and reliefs on sarcophagi. The main forms of Byzantine painting are monumental temple painting (mosaics, frescoes), icons, and book miniatures. The oldest Byzantine mosaics are well preserved in the temples and tombs of Ravenna (V-VII centuries). The art of Byzantine mosaics arose from the idea of ​​a precious stone. The craftsmen meticulously achieved the shimmer of the background, placing the smalt at different angles. The motif of arcades with an open colonnade first appeared in Byzantium. The Byzantines invented a new type of capital, entirely covered with deep stone carvings. Jewelry art reached an unprecedented flourishing: the art of enamels, bone carving, and inlay with precious stones flourished.

Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Incision.

Cathedral of St. Sofia in Constantinople.

Architects Anthymius and Isidore, IV century. Plan.

The historical role of Byzantium in the destinies of Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus is enormous, the significance of its culture in the development of world civilization is enduring and certainly fruitful.

In the history of world culture, Byzantium is the first Christian empire, an Orthodox power, opening the era of the European Middle Ages. The most ancient and durable medieval state, Byzantium for many centuries was the most powerful country in the Christian world, the center of a multifaceted, outstanding civilization.

Byzantine civilization occupies a special place in history. Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantine culture surpassed Western European culture in its level of development; The Byzantines preserved the heritage of antiquity, thanks to which the Renaissance became possible, and the role of Byzantium in the formation of Russian culture was simply enormous.

Byzantium, i.e. The Eastern Roman Empire was formed in the 4th century: in 324, the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of his state to the Bosporus, to the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which a new imperial center was erected - Constantinople, and in 395 the Roman Empire was finally divided into Eastern and Western. Half a century later, the Western Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of barbarians, and the Eastern Empire entered a new era. medieval period its history as an independent state of Byzantium. However, until the 7th century. the new state remained, in fact, a fragment of ancient Rome, and a fragment of very respectable dimensions: the territory of Byzantium at that time exceeded 750 thousand km 2, the population reached 65 million people. The inhabitants of Byzantium continued to call themselves “Romans,” i.e. by the Romans (although the official language was Greek), the empire itself was called Roman, i.e. Roman, and its capital Constantinople was called New Rome; until the beginning of the 9th century. and the barbarian kingdoms that formed on the territory of the former Western Roman Empire nominally recognized the power of the Byzantine - i.e. Roman, emperor. Socio-economic institutions did not fundamentally change: developed cities, crafts, trade, slavery, Roman law - everything remained the same as in the late Roman Empire. However, from the second half of the 6th century. the situation begins to change: from the north, Slavic tribes invaded the territory of the empire, which soon populated the entire Balkan Peninsula, then the Muslim Arabs took the entire East from the Byzantines, and almost nothing remained of their possessions in Italy; as a result, the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire was reduced by 3 times. An economic decline began, expressed in the naturalization of the economy and the transfer of the center of gravity of the economy from the city to the countryside, which resulted in a radical restructuring of socio-economic relations: the place of a developed urban system and large land ownership is taken by rural communities and stratio colonists receiving land plots for military service; in other words, the slave system is gradually being replaced by a feudal system.

During the period under review, the formation of Byzantine culture took place, the main feature of which was the synthesis of the heritage of antiquity with a new, Christian worldview. This synthesis occurs in all spheres of culture, from politics to art. Byzantium becomes the center of the Orthodox ecumene, its emperor becomes the protector and patron of all Christians; What is now required from the emperor is not only strength and courage, but also justice, Christian piety and mercy, so that political life Ideally, it should now be built on Christian foundations, and the state should be a kind of alter ego of the church. The church and state spheres of public life merge into one: the monarch takes care of the church, the church serves the interests of the state; reverse side The Christianization of politics becomes the politicization of Christianity, as a result of which theological disagreements result in real civil wars between the Orthodox and supporters of numerous heresies. Disputes about the nature of Christ, about his place in the Trinity, about the veneration of icons, etc., set in motion hundreds of thousands of people who go to their death for the sake of the victory of one point of view or another; intense spiritual life is extremely characteristic of this and other periods in the history of Byzantium.

The very picture of the world is changing - people now perceive space and time, life and death, the natural world and the human world differently than in ancient times. Instead of the ancient theory of cyclical historical development, the concept of linear time, counted from the creation of the world, is affirmed; the opposition between Greeks (Romans) and “barbarians” disappears (replaced by the opposition between Christians and pagans, as well as Orthodox and heretics), the idea of ​​world-historical development is born; ethical and aesthetic ideals are changing - the ancient ideal of a citizen is being replaced by the medieval ideal of a true Christian, beauty is now seen not in a beautiful body, but in deep internal movements human soul, the spirit celebrates victory over the body. Man now sees himself not as a hero, fearing nothing and hoping for nothing in a world ruled by blind fate, but as a humiliated and weak sinner, who, however, was created in the image and likeness of God, who can hope for salvation and eternal life; freedom from fate, from inevitable causality and soulless necessity, hope in the mercy of the Lord, freedom and hope in general - this is what distinguished the new Christian vision of the world from the old ancient one.

However, the ancient heritage was not discarded and forgotten; on the contrary, it was preserved and used, because antiquity was perceived in Byzantium as its own past, and the traditional nature of Byzantine culture meant, first of all, the preservation of ancient traditions. In literature, philosophy - more precisely, theology, the educational system, science, art - in all spheres of culture, Byzantine Christianity absorbed the experience of previous centuries. It cannot, of course, be said that this process was conflict-free and painless: much was discarded, a fierce struggle was waged against much, and in some areas, such as geography and other natural sciences, regression occurred; Late antique individualism is being replaced by medieval collectivism and corporatism, and the role of the author's principle in cultural creativity is decreasing. In addition, Christian culture itself was still new, original, consisting not only of the reinterpreted heritage of Rome and Greece: new genres arose in literature (liturgical poetry, hagiography, etc.), historians began to write world chronicles, architects and artists created a special Byzantine style of art, characterized by aristocratic sophistication and ascetic spiritualism. But Byzantine culture still represented a special phenomenon in the Middle Ages: it did not become completely ecclesiastical and until the end of its existence maintained continuity with antiquity.

In the VIII – IX centuries. In the Byzantine Empire, the feudalization of socio-economic life takes place: peasants from small owners turn into hereditary holders of the lands of the nobility, crafts and trade of small producers united in corporations develop in the cities, and in the state apparatus the landed aristocracy fights against the bureaucratic nobility. In the next period, in the X – XII centuries. Byzantine society becomes completely feudal, although the power of large feudal lords is still limited by the still centralized state apparatus. In foreign policy, Byzantium is fighting with Bulgaria, Seljuk Turks, Normans, and steppe nomads; success accompanies one side or the other, but the Eastern Roman Empire manages to maintain independence.

One of the main foundations of the Byzantine Empire was a developed system of science and education. The Byzantines treated education, science, and knowledge in general with great respect; True, in all this they valued primarily the theoretical, speculative side, and considered applied and technical knowledge to be handicraft. TO theoretical sciences included theology, mathematics and natural science, practical ethics and politics; Grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, astronomy, music and jurisprudence were also considered sciences. Children aged 6–7 years old entered primary school, where they learned reading (according to the Psalter), writing and arithmetic; There were many primary schools - private, church, monastery, city, and the general level of literacy was very high for that time. Those who wished could continue their education in grammar schools, where, as in ancient times, they studied Greek authors, and later enter a higher school - for example, the capital's university with its three faculties - law, philosophy and medicine. The study of philosophy was considered as preparation for studying theology, but even in this capacity, philosophy provided knowledge of the most important ancient systems, primarily Plato and Aristotle. In addition, Byzantine theology itself, represented by such representatives as John of Damascus and others, organically included elements of ancient Greek philosophy. In the theological and philosophical thought of the period of its heyday, two currents stood out: one was interested in the structure of the natural world, asserted the power human mind and constantly turned to the heritage of ancient thought (Michael Psellus, John Italus, etc.), others focused on the inner world of man and strived for Christian self-improvement with the help of various mystical practices (Simeon the New Theologian, etc.).

In the natural sciences, mathematics and astronomy, Christian speculative concepts also collided with a rationalistic, technically applied approach; Along with commentary on ancient authors, original scientific creativity also developed. Scientist Leo The mathematician laid the foundations of algebra and designed many mechanisms; He also created the light telegraph. In geography, Cosmas Indicoplov's ideas that the Earth is a flat quadrangle surrounded by water and covered by a dome of the sky could not seriously compete with the preserved and commented on works of Hellenistic and Roman scientists. Astronomy was also built on ancient developments, primarily on the works of Claudius Ptolemy, while being closely connected with astrology (it must be said that astrology was also created and widespread in antiquity, and the church in the Middle Ages fought against this “science” - true , unsuccessfully).

Byzantine historiography is very rich: one should name such works as “Chronography” of Theophanes, “Breviary” of Patriarch Nicephorus, “Chronicle” of George Amartol, “History” of Leo the Deacon, etc. Works of an encyclopedic nature were widespread - both on history and on other sciences and branches of knowledge. Patriarch Photius created the “Mirobiblion”, where characteristics of the work of 280 ancient and early Byzantine authors were given, along with extensive excerpts from their works. The works “On State Administration” and “On the Ceremonies of the Byzantine Court” belong to the pen of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Suda's Lexicon was a huge dictionary, the articles of which contained excerpts from the works of ancient and Byzantine authors on literature, history, grammar and philosophy. Interesting monuments of memoir literature written by different authors - “Advice and Stories” by the commander Kekavmen, “Historical Notes” by Empress Anna Komnena, etc.

Byzantine literature is represented, on the one hand, by ecclesiastical works and the works of secular authors who followed the ancient tradition, on the other hand, popular works, reproducing forms of oral folk art. A very common genre were the lives of saints who were in the 10th century. collected into one gigantic vault by Simeon Metaphrastus. The poems of John Kiriot are distinguished by exquisite metaphors and complex allegories; the ancient tradition lives on in the works of Michael Acominatus and Theodore Metochites, as well as in the numerous works of Theodore Prodromus, who resurrected the genre of the ancient novel. The pinnacle of Byzantine folk literature is the poem about Digenis Akritos - an epic free from ancient book reminiscences and therefore reflecting the thoughts and feelings of the people of genuine medieval Christian Byzantium.

Byzantine culture had the highest achievements in the field of architecture and fine arts. In architecture, the Byzantines created an original type of cross-domed church, one of the earliest monuments of which was the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople with its huge dome soaring in the sky with a diameter of over 30 m. No less significant were the successes in the field of secular architecture - the imperial palaces in Constantinople - the Great Palace, Vukoleon, Blachernae Palace, amazed the imagination of contemporaries. Byzantine fine art was subject to the strict norms of the church canon, which enshrined in its rules the deeply spiritualistic aesthetics of Byzantium. Byzantine art glorified not physical beauty in man, but spiritual greatness and ascetic purity; the artist strives to capture not so much the body as the soul, not so much the external appearance as the inner spiritual life. This art is designed for detached contemplation; the images here serve as symbols, apparently speaking about what is inaccessible to the eye; The faces of the saints with their high foreheads, thin dry lips and huge eyes with ecstatically dilated pupils are truly capable of convincing the viewer that another world is much more real than this one.

The Byzantines perfected the art of mosaics, the beautiful monuments of which are the mosaics of Sophia of Constantinople, the New Monastery on the island of Chios, the Daphne Monastery near Athens, etc.; Magnificent examples of fresco painting are also presented here, the pure and delicate shades of which, combined with silver and gold, give an exquisite color palette. Byzantine icon painting, book miniatures, wonderful monuments applied arts- jewelry, bone and stone carving, glassware, ceramics, artistic textiles - all these types of Byzantine art were at the highest level of development, unattainable for the countries of Western and Eastern Europe until the 13th century.

It is difficult to overestimate the contribution that Byzantium made to the formation of Russian culture. Political relations between Russia and Byzantium were often quite tense, especially in the second half of the 9th - first half of the 10th centuries, when they were just being established. However, even the wars that took place between Russia and Byzantium were not aimed at capture or subjugation, but at achieving acceptable conditions in trade: Byzantium was the main trading partner of Kievan Rus. However, in that era, trade relations had not yet led to serious changes in the cultural sphere: the economy had not yet come first in the system of public interests and priorities. This place was then occupied by religion, and therefore the decisive role in the development of Russian-Byzantine cultural ties was played by the baptism of Rus', i.e. conversion of the East Slavic tribes subordinate to the Kyiv princes to the Orthodox faith.

The significance of this step is enormous: in terms of the scale of changes in culture, Russia’s adoption of Byzantine Orthodoxy surpasses all later socio-cultural changes, including the consequences of the Mongol yoke and the reforms of Peter I. The conversion of the Byzantines determined the very type of Russian culture for the entire thousand-year period of its historical existence; in fact, Rus' became part of a single Eastern Christian civilization - together with Bulgaria, Serbia and Byzantium itself. It was a special historical and cultural type, different from both the non-Christian civilizations of the East and the Catholic civilization of the West: the Byzantines, Russians, Bulgarians and Serbs, right up to the Mongol conquest of Rus' and the Turkish conquest of Byzantium and the South Slavic countries, constituted a kind of superethnos, historical, geographical and a cultural community similar to Western Europe, the Levant or Mesoamerica.

It is difficult to name such a sphere of the socio-cultural life of ancient Rus' in which a significant influence of Byzantine culture would not be found. It’s hard to even call it an influence: there was a process of transplantation of entire cultural institutions, a transplantation of independent spheres and systems of culture, as a result of which the culture of Ancient Rus' became a kind of subsidiary branch of the culture of Byzantium. So, the Russian church was integral part Byzantine (one of the 60 metropolises of the Patriarchate of Constantinople - although the largest), the Kyiv metropolitan was approved by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the metropolitan see was most often occupied by Greeks. There were many Greeks among the episcopate and the top clergy in general; Naturally, with each such clergy there was a corresponding staff - from scribes to icon painters, so the Byzantines were by no means rare guests in Rus'. On the other hand, Russian people often visited Byzantium: priests, monks, merchants, warriors - everyone had something to do in the cultural capital of the Eastern Christian world. The church court in Rus' judged according to Byzantine law, relations between secular and ecclesiastical authorities were built according to the Byzantine model, the very understanding of the state, its purpose and functions, was also Byzantine. Russian written literature began with the translation of Byzantine books; the entire system of genres passed into Russian literature from Byzantine literature; in fact, it makes sense to talk not so much about Russian literature as a special phenomenon and subject of consideration, but rather about the Russian version of a single Eastern Orthodox literature, i.e. Byzantine-South Slavic-Russian literature. The same can be said about cult stone architecture and painting: the first stone cathedrals, the first frescoes and icons were created in Rus' by the Byzantines, and even much later, artels of Byzantine masters continued to work in Rus'. The Byzantines were teachers of Russian architects, artists, jewelers and other masters of applied art: for example, Theophanes the Greek was the teacher of Andrei Rublev. Palladium of Rus', the icon of “Our Lady of Vladimir” was brought from Byzantium – etc.; One can talk for a very long time about the influence of Byzantine culture, about the significance of this influence for Rus', but the main thing is to understand that this in no way contradicts the originality and does not detract from the originality of Russian culture. Only forms of culture are borrowed - the content put into them is always our own; Byzantium gave our culture form, and the Russians created its content.

The relations of Byzantium with the world of Western European states were complex and contradictory: on the one hand, Byzantine culture at all stages of its development had a great influence on the culture of Catholic Europe, on the other hand, there was a constant mutual repulsion between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, which had both political and personal cultural forms of expression. In the first centuries of Byzantium, its emperors sought to restore a unified Roman Empire by annexing the Western European barbarian kingdoms, and these attempts were to some extent successful - for example, the Byzantines captured all of Italy. In the era early Middle Ages the entire West was under the strong influence of Byzantine culture: Rome itself in the 7th – 8th centuries. was a semi-Byzantine city - there was a special Greek quarter with churches and monasteries; Byzantine trends dominated in the architecture of the old and new Roman capitals - Rome and Ravenna. The western kingdoms themselves were nominally considered subordinate to the Byzantine emperor - Constantinople until the end of the 8th century. remained the center of the entire Christian world; ancient traditions lived here, including the tradition of considering Western Europeans, i.e. merged into single society descendants of the Germanic conquerors and the Latin population of the former Western Roman Empire, as barbarians. The national-confessional psychology of Western Europeans began to take shape precisely in these conditions, and it was based on an inferiority complex in relation to the Byzantine East, which was naturally compensated by a superiority complex in relation to it. The sphere in which the desire for mutual repulsion between the two parts of the former Roman Empire found its form was then religion and the church.

The differences between the East and West of the Christian world were expressed in the dogma of doctrine, rituals, church organization, and the type of relations between church and state. The most significant difference here was that in the West, the church, in the face of the collapse of Roman society and the state, took upon itself the execution of some political functions, as a result of which she became independent and very active socially and political position, and in the East, where the centralized monarchy was still strong, the church submitted to the state, or rather, was integrated into it, and never pursued its own policies. Until the 8th century. the Christian church remained united, although the popes sometimes conflicted with the patriarchs of Constantinople; but in the middle of this century a secular state of the popes (Papal State) arose in Italy, and relations between the two main ecclesiastical centers began to deteriorate rapidly.

The political situation also changed at this time: in 800, the Pope crowned the king of the Franks with the imperial crown, i.e. a new empire arose; this caused a great conflict with Byzantium, since the Byzantines considered only themselves the heirs of the old Roman Empire - and now the Western barbarians were on the same level as them. However, by this time only Southern Italy and Sicily were in the hands of the Byzantines, so the new empire had to be recognized. Now that christian world divided into two empires, it would be difficult for the church to maintain its unity, especially since the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople could not divide the Slavic flock among themselves - both sought to have the Bulgarians, Moravians, Serbs, and Russians accept the faith precisely from him (this promised various, including political and financial dividends). In the middle of the 9th century. it came to mutual anathematization - the pope and the patriarch repeatedly cursed each other. For some time the nominal unity of the church was still preserved; however, in the middle of the 11th century, when the Normans captured Sicily, and soon southern Italy (Byzantine possessions), the papacy subordinated these territories to its ecclesiastical influence and laid claim to other lands, after which maintaining unity became impossible. In 1054, the pope and the patriarch again anathematized each other, an official break in the churches occurred - schism; Catholics and Orthodox now viewed each other as schismatics, i.e. Raskolnikov.

However, the influence of Byzantine culture on Western Europe throughout this time and even later, until the end of the 12th century, remained very strong. Byzantine art served as a role model not only in Sicily and Southern Italy, but also in Venice, whose cathedrals were built and decorated by Greek architects and mosaicists. Moreover: Byzantine influence is reflected in the art of France, Germany, England, Byzantine court ritual is adopted by the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, even the Norman kings who captured Sicily, which belonged to the Byzantines, proudly wear the vestments of the Byzantine emperors; Constantinople continues to remain for Western Europeans a fairy-tale city, a golden miracle that attracts them like a magnet, because there is nothing like it in Europe.

True, this idea of ​​​​Constantinople as a city of fabulous wealth (which was largely true) played a role fatal role for the Byzantines: in 1204, the knights participating in the Fourth Crusade took the Byzantine capital by storm. The Eastern Roman Empire collapsed, and several Latin (founded by the conquerors) and Greek states were formed on its territory. Only half a century later the Byzantine struggle for independence began to bear fruit, and in 1261 Byzantium was restored; however, it was only a pitiful imitation of the former huge and powerful empire. The emperors from the last Byzantine dynasty of the Palaiologans had to fear the Venetians, the Mongols, the Bulgarians and Serbs who had left their subordination, and especially the Turks, who were successively capturing one country after another. In an attempt to obtain help from the West, the Palaiologans seek to establish an alliance with the papal throne; Attempts are being made repeatedly to unite (union) the Orthodox and Catholic churches - naturally, on the terms of recognition of the supremacy of the pope. However, the Latinophile party, even when it was led by emperors and some patriarchs, encountered strong opposition from the Orthodox party, which advocated the preservation of the purity of the faith; at the same time, the crusades against the Turks, undertaken by European kings on the initiative of the Pope, most often ended in the defeat of the crusaders. In 1439, the union of the Orthodox and Catholic churches was finally established (the Orthodox Church recognized the primacy of the pope and accepted Catholic dogma), but in 1444 the army of the crusaders was destroyed by the Ottomans in the battle of Varna, Constantinople was left without protection, and in 1453 it was taken by storm by the Turks. Two decades later it was all over - the Turks conquered the last fragments of the once great empire; The Eastern Roman Empire, which had existed for ten and a half centuries, disappeared from the face of the earth.

But even during this difficult time for Byzantium, Byzantine culture continued to have a great influence on the culture of the West. In the XIV – XV centuries. In Byzantium, a whole galaxy of humanist scientists worked - Theodore Metochites, Nikephoros Grigora, Demetrius Kydonis, George Plithon, Vissarion of Nicaea, etc., whose ideas were adopted and developed in Europe. Byzantine scientists traveled to Europe, visited Italian, French, and English universities, while many Italians studied in Byzantium. The Byzantines, who spoke the ancient Greek language and had an excellent knowledge of ancient literature, stood at the origins of the Renaissance in Italy and Europe as a whole. They translated ancient authors into Latin, taught at Italian universities, and circles of Italian humanists formed around them, marking the beginning of the Renaissance. Thus, Byzantine culture, which carried the legacy of antiquity through the centuries, played a huge role for the culture of the West and the whole world; Thanks to Byzantium, the continuity between the culture of Greece and Rome and the culture of Modern Europe was preserved, and the historical unity of European civilization was ensured.

Byzantium existed from 395 to 1453. The history of its origin is as follows. In 330, on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium, the new capital of the Roman Empire was founded Constantinople, named after Emperor Constantine. In 395, the empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern, and the latter - the Eastern Roman Empire - subsequently became known as Byzantium. moreover, after the empire itself ceased to exist. This name was given to it by European thinkers of the New Age with the intention of excommunicating Byzantium from ties with Greco-Roman culture and including it entirely in the “Dark Middle Ages” of the Eastern type.

However, the Byzantines themselves would not agree with such a point of view. They called themselves “Romans”, i.e. the Romans, and its capital Constantinople - the “second Rome”, with good reason.

Byzantium became a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued the further development of the best achievements of Roman civilization. The new capital, Constantinople, jealously and not without success competed with Rome, quickly becoming one of the most beautiful cities of that time. It had large squares decorated with triumphal columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grandiose aqueducts, magnificent baths, and impressive defensive structures. Along with the capital, many other cultural centers developed in Byzantium - Alexandria. Antioch, Nicaea. Ravenna, Thessaloniki.

Became the first in in every senseChristian culture. It was in Byzantium that the formation of Christianity was completed, and it first acquired a complete, classical form in its orthodox, or Orthodox,versions. Played a huge role in this John of Damascus(c. 675 - until 753) - an outstanding theologian, philosopher and poet, author of the fundamental philosophical and theological work “The Source of Knowledge.” He completed and systematized Greek patristics, the so-called teaching of the “Church Fathers,” thanks to which Christianity rose to the level of a real theory. All subsequent theology is, to one degree or another, based on the ideas and concepts of John of Damascus. He is also the creator of church hymns.

He also made a huge contribution to the formation and establishment of Orthodox Christianity John Chrysostom(c. 350-407) - an outstanding representative of the art of church eloquence, bishop of Constantinople. His sermons, eulogies and psalms were a huge success. He became famous as a passionate denouncer of all injustice, a fighter for the implementation of the ascetic ideal. John Chrysostom placed active mercy above all miracles.

Continuing and developing the theory of Roman law, Byzantine scholars developed their own original concept, known as Byzantine law. Its basis was the famous Codification of Justinian (482-565), the Byzantine emperor who was the first to give a systematic presentation of the new law. Byzantine law found application in many European and Asian countries of that era.

At the same time, Byzantine culture was significantly influenced by neighboring eastern countries, especially Iran. This influence affected almost all areas of social and cultural life. In general, the culture of Byzantium was a real crossroads of Western and eastern cultures, a kind of bridge between East and West.

The evolution of Byzantine culture had several ups and downs. First bloom falls on the 5th-61st centuries, when the transition from slavery to the feudal system was completed in Byzantium. Emerging feudalism carried both Western and Eastern features. In particular, it was distinguished from Western Europe by the strict centralization of state power and tax system, the growth of cities with their vibrant trade and craft, the absence of a clear class and class division of society. In the 6th century, under Justinian. Byzantium reached its greatest territorial size and became a powerful Mediterranean power.

IN VI11-IX centuries Byzantium is experiencing troubled times, marked by a sharp aggravation of socio-political contradictions, the source of which was the struggle for power between the capital and provincial nobility. During this period, an iconoclasm movement arose, directed against the cult of icons, which were declared a relic of idolatry. By the end of the 9th century. icon veneration was again restored.

X-XII centuries became time another rise and prosperity Byzantium. She establishes close ties with Kievan Rus. The role of Christianity and the Church during this period increases significantly. In artistic culture, a mature medieval style is finally taking shape, the main feature of which is spiritualism.

XIII century presented to Byzantium the most difficult trials conditioned primarily crusades. In 1204, the crusaders took Constantinople. The capital was plundered and destroyed, and Byzantium itself ceased to exist as an independent state. Only in 1261 did Emperor Michael VIII manage to restore and revive the Byzantine Empire.

In the XIV-XV centuries. She is worrying its last rise and flowering, which is especially evident in artistic culture. However, the capture of Constantinople by Turkish troops in 1453 meant the end of Byzantium.

Recognized with the highest achievements art culture Byzantium. Its originality lies in the fact that it combines seemingly incompatible principles. On the one hand, it is characterized by excessive luxury and splendor, bright entertainment. On the other hand, it is characterized by sublime solemnity, deep spirituality and refined spiritualism. These features were fully manifested in the architecture of Byzantine temples and churches.

Byzantine temple differs significantly from the ancient classical temple. The latter acted as the abode of God, while all rituals and celebrations took place outside, around the temple or in the adjacent square. Therefore, the main thing in the temple was not the interior. and the exterior, its appearance. On the contrary, the Christian church is built as a place where believers gather. Therefore, the organization of internal space comes to the fore, although the appearance does not lose its importance.

It is in this spirit that the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537), which became the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture. Its authors are the architects Anthymius and Isidore. Outwardly, it does not look too grandiose, although it is distinguished by severity, harmony and splendor of forms. However, inside it seems truly immense. The effect of boundless space is created primarily by the huge dome with a diameter of 31 m, located at a height of 55 m, as well as the adjacent sub-domes, expanding the already huge space.

The dome has 400 longitudinal windows, and when sunlight floods the space under the dome, it seems to float in the air. All this makes the design surprisingly light, elegant and free.

Inside the cathedral there are more than 100 columns decorated with malachite and porphyry. The vaults are decorated with mosaics with a symbolic image of the cross, and the walls are lined the most valuable breeds marble and decorated with mosaic paintings containing various religious subjects and portraits of emperors and members of their families.

The Temple of Sophia has become a rare creation of human genius, a true masterpiece of not only Byzantine, but also world art. The temple is notable for another reason. that it organically combines two main types of construction: basilica and cross-domed.

Basilica It is a rectangular building, divided inside by rows of columns, five or more longitudinal naves, the middle of which is usually wider and higher than the side ones. The eastern side of the basilica ends with a semicircular protrusion - an apse, where the altar will be placed, and on west side there is an entrance.

Cross-dome The building's plan is most often square. Inside, it has four massive pillars that divide the space into nine cells framed by arches and support the dome located in the center. The semi-cylindrical vaults adjacent to the dome form an equilateral cross. Until the 9th century. The predominant type of Byzantine church was the basilica, and then the increasingly complex cross-domed one.

In addition to Constantinople, a large number of architectural monuments are also concentrated in Ravenna, a city on the northern Italian coast of the Adriatic. Here is the impressive mausoleum of Galla Placidia, a Byzantine queen of the 5th century. In Ravenna there is the original octagonal church of San Vitale (VI century). Finally, here is also the tomb of the great Dante (XV century).

Byzantine architects successfully built outside the borders of their empire. One of the brightest successes in this regard was the Cathedral of San Marco (St. Mark) in Venice (11th century), which is a five-nave basilica in which an equal-pointed cross is inscribed. Each of the sections of the cross, covered with a separate dome, repeats in the overall design system the single theme of a cross in a square. In the center of the cathedral is the largest dome. The inside of the temple is lined with marble slabs and decorated with polychrome mosaics.

In the last period of the existence of Byzantium (X111-XV centuries), its architecture became more and more complex. Grandiose structures seem to break up into several small independent buildings. At the same time, the role of exterior decoration of buildings is increasing. A typical example of such a structure is the Chora Monastery in Constantinople, which was later rebuilt into the Kakhriz Jami Church.

The culture of Byzantium was famous not only for its architectural masterpieces. Other types and genres of art developed no less successfully: mosaic, fresco, icon painting, book miniatures, literature. First of all, it deserves special mention mosaic. It should be emphasized that in this genre of art Byzantium has no equal. Byzantine craftsmen knew all the secrets of making smalt with wonderful properties, and also knew how, with the help of skillful techniques, to transform the original variety of colors into an amazingly picturesque whole. Thanks to this, they created unsurpassed mosaic masterpieces.

Beautiful mosaics adorn the Temple of Sophia and the others mentioned above architectural monuments, of which the tombs of Ravenna deserve special mention, where the main subject of the mosaic is Christ the Good Shepherd. There were magnificent mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, destroyed by war in 1922. Rarely beautiful mosaics adorn the Church of Demetrius in Thessalonica.

By the 11th century. completed classic style Byzantine mosaic. It is distinguished by a strict system of arrangement of plots that illustrate and reveal the main themes and dogmas of Christianity. According to this system, a half-length image of Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator) is placed in the dome of the temple, and in the apse altar there is a figure of Our Lady Oranta praying with raised hands. On the sides of the fire there are figures of archangels, and in the bottom row - the apostles. It is in this style that many mosaic cycles of the 11th-11th centuries were executed. both in Byzantium itself and beyond its borders.

Reaches a high level in Byzantium iconography. which is a type of easel cult painting. The period of the first heyday of Byzantine icon painting occurred in the 10th-19th centuries, when the image of a human figure occupied a dominant position in the icon, and other elements - the landscape and architectural background - were conveyed very conditionally. Among the outstanding examples of icon painting of this period is the icon of Gregory the Wonderworker (12th century), which is distinguished by deep spirituality, delicate design and rich color. It is especially important to note icon of the Vladimir Mother of God(XII century), which became the main icon of the Russian Orthodox Church in Rus' and remains so to this day. The Mother of God and Child depicted on it is endowed with a soulful expression and, for all its holiness and spirituality, is filled with deep humanity and emotionality.

The next and last period of flowering of icon painting occurred in the 14th-15th centuries, from which a large number of beautiful icons have been preserved. Like all painting, iconography of this period undergoes noticeable changes. The color scheme becomes more complex, which is facilitated by the use of halftones. The naturalness and humanity of the depicted figures increases, they become lighter and more mobile, and are often depicted in motion.

An outstanding example of such painting is the icon of the Twelve Apostles (XIV century). The apostles depicted on it appear in different poses and clothes, they behave freely and relaxed, as if talking to each other. The front figures are larger than the back ones, their faces are voluminous due to the use of subtle highlights. In the 15th century In icon painting, the graphic element is enhanced; icons are executed with shading with thin parallel lines. A striking example of this style is the icon “The Descent of Christ into Hell” (15th century).

Like architecture and mosaics, icon painting became widespread outside Byzantium. Many Byzantine masters worked successfully in Slavic countries - Serbia, Bulgaria, Rus'. One of them, the great Theophanes the Greek, created his works in the 14th century. in Rus'. From him, the paintings in the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, as well as the icons in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, have come down to us.

In 1453, under the onslaught of the Turks, Byzantium became pope, but its culture continues to exist today. It occupies a worthy place in world culture. Byzantium made its main contribution to world spiritual culture primarily through establishment and development of Orthodox Christianity. No less significant was her contribution to artistic culture, to the development of architecture, mosaics, icon painting, and literature. It should be especially noted its beneficial effect on the formation and development.

The crisis and decline of Roman society simultaneously began the process of formation new culture. The starting point of this process was the transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to an ancient Greek settlement in 330 Byzantium, which was later renamed to Constantinople. In 395, the Roman Empire collapsed into Western and Eastern, which became known as Byzantium. This name was given to it by European thinkers of the New Age in order to separate Byzantium from Greco-Roman culture and attribute it to oriental type crops However, the Byzantines themselves would not agree with such an assessment. After all, they called themselves “Romans,” that is, Romans, and their capital, Constantinople, “the second Rome,” having more than sufficient grounds for this.

First Christian culture

Byzantium became a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued further development scientific achievements Roman civilization. The new capital of the empire - Constantinople - successfully competed with Rome, quickly becoming the most beautiful city of that time: large squares decorated with triumphal columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grandiose aqueducts, magnificent baths, reliable defense structures.

However, Byzantine culture did not become a simple copy of Roman culture. The geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions on two continents, made this empire a connecting link between East and West. The territory of Byzantium in the period of its greatest prosperity (VI century) included the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, Cyprus, Crete, certain regions of Arabia, possessions in the Crimea and the Caucasus. The constant bifurcation between the Eastern and Western worlds, the crossing of Asian and European influences (with the predominance of one or the other) became the historical destiny of Byzantium. Mixture of Greco-Roman and eastern traditions left its mark on public life, statehood, the religious and philosophical atmosphere, culture and art of Byzantine society. Byzantium followed its own historical path, in many ways different from the destinies of the countries of both the East and the West, which predetermined the characteristics of its culture.

The ethnic composition of the Byzantine Empire was very diverse. Syrians, Copts, Thracians, Illyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, and Romans lived here. New barbarian peoples constantly joined the empire and assimilated with the old ones. It made a difference physical type people living here led to the birth of new peoples, retaining only a name from the past. All these peoples contributed to Byzantine culture, but it was still mainly Greek-speaking culture. Already in the VI-VII centuries. Greek language in Byzantium becomes the official language, displacing Latin, just like Greek ancient culture becomes the foundation on which Byzantium’s own medieval culture is formed.

In the history of both European and entire world culture, Byzantine civilization has a special place. She became the first in the full sense Christian culture. It was in Byzantium that the formation of Christianity was completed, and for the first time it acquired a complete classical form in its orthodox Orthodox version. It was Christianity that turned out to be the decisive factor that determined everything character traits and features of Byzantine culture. If Catholicism, which became widespread in the West, was more inclined towards rationalism (it is no coincidence that the pinnacle of Catholic theology was the rational proof of the existence of God of Thomas Aquinas), then Orthodoxy is born as a religion of revelation; it has always had a very strong mystical current. Christianity was understood as a revelation from God, as a path to the salvation of the individual and his spiritual perfection in Christ. This was combined with a tendency toward disappointment in everything earthly. From the very beginning, this caused serious disagreements between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which in 1054 led to a split in the church.

Contradictions between Orthodoxy and Catholicism existed both in the sphere of dogma (the famous dispute about filioque - from whom the Holy Spirit comes, only from God the Father, as the Orthodox believed, or from the Son too), and in the area of ​​liturgical practice (cult) - communion with bread and wine, as Orthodoxy required, or only with bread, as in Catholicism (only priests partook of wine), the requirement of celibacy only for monasticism and the highest clergy, as in Orthodoxy, or for all clergy, as in Catholicism. But all these differences (as well as others) were a consequence of the difference in the position of the Eastern and Western churches and its role in society. It so happened that in the West, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many barbarian kingdoms were formed, rapidly appearing and disappearing, replacing each other. The only force that prevented the Western world from falling apart into many unconnected little worlds was church, which in the West took on functions that were not typical for it, replacing the weak state power at that time. Gradually, the desire to subjugate secular power and create a world state headed by the Pope became one of the most important priorities of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. In Byzantium, state power during this period remained strong, and the church organically complemented secular power, spiritually nourishing it, which created a kind of symphony of priesthood and kingdom, spiritual and secular power with the superiority of the church canon over civil law. For the Christian consciousness, Byzantium is a world under the rule of secular princes, but it must be saved and sanctified.

The Christian worldview shaped the solemn pomp, inner nobility, grace of form and depth of thought in Byzantine culture. During the eleven centuries of its existence, the Byzantine Empire, which absorbed the heritage of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was the center of a unique and brilliant artistic culture. Until the 13th century. Byzantium, in terms of its level of education, intensity of spiritual life and artistic diversity of art forms, was undoubtedly ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe.