Brief information about Byzantine culture. Byzantine culture

Culture of Byzantium.

The Byzantine Empire made an invaluable contribution to the development of world culture. Religion occupied an important place in the culture of Byzantium. This state played a key role in the spread of Christianity in the West and East. After the split of the church into Orthodox and Catholic, Byzantium became a real symbol of the Orthodox faith. In Byzantine culture, a lot is connected with religion. Religion is wonderful spiritual food for people. However, in addition to religious teachings, statutes and canons, the art of magnificent beauty plays an important role in it. In Byzantium, many extraordinarily beautiful temples were built, many amazing icons were painted, and a large number of beautiful mosaics and frescoes were created.

Architecture. Among the attractions of Byzantine culture one can highlight the majestic Saint Sophia Cathedral (Temple of Divine Wisdom) in Constantinople. During the time of Constantine the Great, churches began to be built in the form of a basilica (a rectangular building divided into several longitudinal naves by rows of pillars or columns). The nave is the longitudinal part of a Christian church, usually divided by a colonnade or arch into a main, wider and higher nave and side naves. In the eastern part of the basilica, ending in a semicircular protrusion - an apse, there was the most revered part of the temple - the altar.

The temple was built in 532-537 by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Thrall. The interior of the Cathedral is a grandiose under-dome space with a dome ring raised to a height of 55 meters, and a ring diameter of 31.5 meters, the length of the temple is 77 meters. In 415 the temple burned down, but in the 6th century. under Emperor Justinian it was rebuilt. St. Sophia Cathedral was for a long time the most majestic and largest temple in the Christian world. However, in 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks. After which the St. Sophia Cathedral was converted into a mosque, which was named Hagia Sophia. Since 1935 it has had the status of a Museum. In the 9th – 10th centuries. another type of temple triumphed - cross-domed.

The Athos Monastery occupies an important place in Byzantine culture. It is located on the territory of the Orthodox state of Greece and attracts a large number of pilgrims.
The Byzantine Empire made a great contribution to the development of Russian and world culture. Even during the times of Ancient Rus', St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in its cities, following the example of Constantinople - in Kyiv, Novgorod and Polotsk (later in Vologda).

Painting. The walls of temples and palaces were decorated mosaics(images made of multi-colored pebbles or pieces of opaque glass - smalt). Frescoes- painting with water paints on wet plaster. In temples and dwellings they placed icons ( an object of veneration, a canonical and symbolic image of God, the Virgin Mary, saints, made on a smooth wooden board).

In the VIII-XII centuries. a special musical and poetic church art . Thanks to his high artistic merits, the influence of folk music on church music, whose melodies had previously penetrated even into the liturgy, has weakened. In order to further isolate the musical foundations of worship from external influences, the canonization of the mode-tonal system, the “octoecho” (eight-voice), was carried out. Ikos represented certain melodic formulas. However, musical theoretical monuments allow us to conclude that the ikos system did not exclude scale understanding. The most popular genres of church music were the canon (musical and poetic composition during a church service) and the troparion (almost the main unit of Byzantine hymnography). Troparions were composed for all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates.

The progress of musical art led to the creation of musical notation, as well as liturgical handwritten collections in which chants were recorded (either just the text or text with notation).

Fashion: Straightforward and opaque. After the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great converted to Christianity in 313 and moved his residence to Byzantium in 330, a new center of the Eastern Roman state arose here. But in the vast history of Byzantium there are several periods: early Byzantine, middle Byzantine and late Byzantine, at the end of which, in 1453, Constantinople was finally captured by the Turks.

In all periods, the cultural life of the Byzantine state was influenced by a huge staff of courtiers and remained within the narrow framework of a forever defined ceremonial. Traditions associated it with clothing from the era of the Roman Empire, but to all this was added the diverse influence of the East.

Both men and women remained faithful to ancient Roman clothing. The main components of the Byzantine costume were a long shirt-skirt with sleeves, called a tunic or chiton, and a cloak, which was thrown over the top and fastened with an agraph on the right shoulder. This cloak was similar to the Roman sagum or, as it was also called, lancerna (an outer, mainly travel, dress with a hood), but was somewhat longer. For noble people, such a cloak was made of expensive materials with rich decoration and a quadrangular insert on the chest, which was a sign of high status. The courtiers wore a narrow cape fastened to the chest, which covered even their hands and was without a single fold.

The motif of envelopment in clothing becomes more and more evident over time. Gradually, even the tunic down to the toes and with sleeves becomes completely smooth, without folds, and resembles a bag. In addition to the tunic, they also wore another cloak, which, according to legend, was worn only by Jesus Christ and the apostles. It had that ideal form that is preserved in Christian images of modern art.

Such antique forms of clothing were complemented by oriental motifs, which included rich decoration, a variety of colors and shiny materials. Eastern silk fabrics were embroidered in Byzantium with patterns and ornaments, mostly with Christian symbols. The entire surface of the clothing was covered with rich trimmings of gold stripes, decorated with precious stones and pearls, which enhanced the impression of straightforwardness and rigidity.

This is what the outfit of a noble Byzantine woman looked like. Her underwear was a tunic (or stola), which reached to the feet, fit tightly to the neck, with long sleeves tapering towards the wrist. A second one was worn over the tunic, but with short open sleeves. Both of these tunics were richly decorated with embroidery and trim along the edges, so they almost completely lost their antique character. However, what brought the cloak closer to antiquity was that it was placed at the back on both shoulders, and the ends were thrown back crosswise at the front. Among the outerwear one could also find a penula with a cutout for the head (these were worn by women from Theodora’s retinue).

Depending on the class, fashion provided for different options for outerwear. However, the general mood of Byzantine fashion is the complete impermeability of clothing. Arms, shoulders, neck - everything is tightly closed. The clothes tried to hide everything and completely neglected the body. Before Byzantium, the legislators and creators of fashion history were the Germans of the Roman Empire.

The connection between the culture of Byzantium and the culture of Ancient Rus'.

Acceptance of Christianity.

The culture of Kievan Rus inherited the culture of the East Slavic tribes that formed the core of the state. She was undoubtedly influenced by the nomadic peoples of the Steppe and especially Byzantium, from which Christianity came to Rus'.

In 988, under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity, as the chronicler says, has been widespread in Rus' since ancient times. At the beginning of our era, the Apostle Andrew the First-Called - the elder brother of the Apostle Peter - went to Scythia. As the Tale of Bygone Years testifies, the Apostle Andrew rose to the middle reaches of the Dnieper, erected a cross on the Kyiv hills and predicted that Kyiv would be “the mother of Russian cities.” The chronicler's further route lay through Novgorod, where, according to the chronicler, he was amazed by the Russian bathhouse, to the Baltic and further around Europe to Rome. Stories about subsequent baptisms of certain groups of the population of Rus' show that Christianity gradually entered the life of the ancient Russian people.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Rus'. Christianity, with its idea of ​​the eternity of human life, affirmed the idea of ​​equality of people before God. According to the new religion, the path to heaven is open to both rich nobles and commoners, depending on their honest performance of their duties on earth.

“God's servant” - the sovereign was, according to Byzantine traditions, both a fair judge in domestic affairs and a valiant defender of the borders of the state. The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had great international significance, in that Rus', having rejected “primitive” paganism, was now becoming equal to other Christian countries, ties with which had expanded significantly. Finally, the adoption of Christianity played a big role in the development of Russian culture, which was influenced by Byzantine, and through it, ancient culture.

The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development. Vladimir was canonized by the church as a saint and for his services in the baptism of Rus' is called equal to the apostles.

Culture.

The Middle Ages period has special meaning in the history of Russian culture. The era of the Middle Ages in Russia lasted longer than in others European countries oh, and our culture experienced its “echoes” right up to the beginning of the 19th century, when the “indigenous” archaism of the province “meets” the imaginary Middle Ages of romanticism.

The beginning of a new era was laid with the adoption of Christianity at the end of the 10th century (989), when the Russian principalities entered the Byzantine area and adopted one of the most developed types of culture in the world at that time. The choice made by Prince Vladimir had serious reasons; It would not be an exaggeration to say that he predetermined the entire subsequent history of Russian culture. Byzantine craftsmen built the first stone churches in Rus', the interiors of which were decorated with mosaics and fresco paintings; The first samples were brought from Constantinople to Kyiv and other cities pictorial art- icons and miniatures of manuscripts.

Christianity in Rus' is just over a thousand years old, and the art of icon painting has equally ancient roots. The icon (from the Greek word meaning “image”, “image”) arose before the birth of ancient Russian culture, and became widespread in all Orthodox countries. Icons in Rus' appeared as a result of the missionary activity of the Byzantine Church at a time when the importance of church art was experienced with particular force. What is especially important and what was a strong internal motivation for Russian church art is that Rus' adopted Christianity precisely in the era of the revival of spiritual life in Byzantium itself, the era of its heyday. During this period, nowhere in Europe was church art as developed as in Byzantium. And at this time, the newly converted Rus' received, among other icons, as an example of Orthodox art, an unsurpassed masterpiece - the icon of the Mother of God, which later received the name of Vladimir.

Through fine art, ancient harmony and a sense of proportion become the property of Russian church art and become part of its living fabric. It should also be noted that for the rapid development of the Byzantine heritage in Rus' there were favorable preconditions and, one might say, already prepared soil. Recent research suggests that pagan Rus' had a highly developed artistic culture. All this contributed to the fact that the cooperation of Russian masters with Byzantine ones was extremely fruitful.

The newly converted people turned out to be able to accept the Byzantine heritage, which nowhere found such favorable soil and nowhere gave such results as in Rus'.

Since ancient times, the word “icon” has been used for individual images, usually written on a board. The reason for this phenomenon is obvious. Wood served as our main building material. The overwhelming majority of Russian churches were wooden, so not only mosaics, but also frescoes (painting on fresh wet plaster) were not destined to become a common decoration of church interiors in Ancient Rus'.

With their decorativeness, ease of placement in the church, the brightness and durability of their colors, icons painted on boards (pine and linden, covered with alabaster primer - gesso) were the best suited for decorating Russian wooden churches.

It was not without reason that it was noted that in Ancient Rus' the icon was the same classical form visual arts, as in Egypt - relief, in Hellas - sculpture, and in Byzantium - mosaic. Old Russian painting - the painting of Christian Rus' - played a very important and completely different role in the life of society than modern painting, and its character was determined by this role. Rus' received baptism from Byzantium and with it inherited the idea that the task of painting is to “embody the word”, to embody the Christian doctrine in images. Therefore, the basis of ancient Russian painting is the great Christian “word”. First of all, this is the Holy Scripture, the Bible (“Bible” in Greek - books) - books created, according to Christian doctrine, by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

It was necessary to embody the word, this grandiose literature, as clearly as possible - after all, this incarnation was supposed to bring a person closer to the truth of this word, to the depth of the creed that he professed. The art of the Byzantine, Orthodox world - all countries included in the sphere of cultural and religious influence of Byzantium - resolved this problem, developing a deeply unique set of techniques, creating an unprecedented and never repeated artistic system, which made it possible to embody the Christian word in an unusually complete and clear way. picturesque image.

For many centuries, ancient Russian painting brought to people, embodying them unusually brightly and fully in images, the spiritual truths of Christianity. It was in the deep revelation of these truths that the painting of the Byzantine world, including the painting of Ancient Rus', the frescoes, mosaics, miniatures, icons created by it, acquired extraordinary, unprecedented, unique beauty.

Soon after the completion of the main temple of Rus' - Sophia of Kiev (whose dedication repeated the name of the main church of the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople), Metropolitan Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” was written, which had the goal of establishing the foundations of a new Christian worldview. Thus, at the end of the 10th century, the lands of Kievan Rus entered the area of ​​the Christian world, falling under the influence of Byzantium. The metropolitanate, founded in Kyiv, was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Russian principalities were introduced to Byzantine culture at a time when the peak point of the eastern empire had already been overcome, but its decline was still very far away. Byzantium remained the only direct heir of the Hellenistic world to apply the artistic achievements of antiquity to the spiritual experience of Christianity; its culture was distinguished by its refinement and sophistication, its art by the depth of its religious content and virtuosity of formal techniques; The main achievement of Byzantine theology was the writings of the holy fathers of the church. Such a high level of Greek teachers posed difficult tasks for Kievan Rus. However, the art of the Russian principalities of the 10th century differed from the Byzantine prototypes of the same time. The features of the first works created by the Greeks - scale and representativeness - demonstrate the ambitions of the young state and princely power. In addition, Byzantine influence could not quickly spread over such a vast territory; The Christianization of Russian lands dragged on for several centuries. In the Suzdal and Rostov lands, uprisings took place until the 12th century, led by “magi” - pagan priests.

There are different ideas about the relationship between Christianity and pagan beliefs in Ancient Rus': among them is the concept of “dual faith” - the coexistence and interpenetration of two religions - “folk” and “official”. Folk culture, especially in lands distant from Kyiv, was undoubtedly determined for a long time by pagan beliefs, and subsequently (as in the culture of Western Europe) by a simplified interpretation of Christianity and superstitions. However, our ideas about folk culture after Christianization are largely based on indirect data and assumptions. At the same time, the culture of the spiritual and secular elite is known from monuments that do not provide grounds for confident conclusions about the penetration of paganism into the religious ideas of Ancient Rus'. It would be more accurate to talk about the parallel development of folk and “elite” culture, not forgetting the role of the ancient traditions of the East Slavic (and Finno-Ugric) tribes, but also without exaggerating their importance in shaping the specifics of the culture of Ancient Rus'.

With the adoption of Christianity, the Russian principalities were introduced to book culture. We must not forget that the development of Russian writing, which became the basis for the emergence of literature, was also associated with Christianity - although writing was known in the Russian lands earlier, only after the baptism of Rus' did it become widespread and, more importantly, based on a developed cultural tradition Eastern Christianity. Extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of its own tradition. The early period is characterized by the development of such genres as sermons, lives of saints (among them the lives of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb), descriptions of military campaigns ( famous Word about Igor's regiment); At the same time, Russian chronicle writing began (The Tale of Bygone Years).

Having become part of the Christian world, the Russian principalities acquired ample opportunities for the development of political and cultural ties not only with Byzantium, but also with European countries. Already at the end of the 11th century, the influence of Romanesque architecture became noticeable. The white-stone churches of the Vladimir Principality, decorated with sculpture, appeared thanks to Andrei Bogolyubsky’s invitation to masters “from all lands.” According to the Russian historian Tatishchev (who lived in the 18th century), the architects were sent to Vladimir by the German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. However, these churches are not identical to the Romanesque buildings of Catholic Europe - they represent a unique synthesis of the Byzantine typology of the cross-domed church and the Romanesque technique of white stone construction and decoration. Such a mixture of Greek and Western European traditions became possible only on Russian soil, and one of its results was the famous masterpiece of Vladimir architecture - the church.

The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is now known to everyone as a symbol of the cultural identity of Ancient Rus'. At the stage of the early Middle Ages, the Russian principalities were close to other European states in terms of the type of culture and direction of historical development. IN further path Russia and Europe are at odds. One of the first reasons for this is the schism, or division of the churches into Western and Eastern, which occurred in 1054. Almost imperceptible in the 11th century, this gap made itself felt two centuries later in the opposition of the Novgorodians to the Teutonic Order. The middle of the 12th century marks the beginning of the disintegration of Kievan Rus (not all historians consider it possible to call it a state in the full sense of the word) into separate principalities. In the middle of the 12th century, Andrei Bogolyubsky actually transferred the grand-ducal throne from Kyiv to Vladimir (carrying with him the icon of the Mother of God, which later received the name of Vladimir). Almost every principality began to form its own architectural and painting schools. A turning point in the history of Russian statehood and culture was the ruin of Batu and the subsequent subordination to the Horde. The actual entry into the Mongolian state imposed on Russian history other, different from Western European, principles of government - in particular, it instilled the principle of universal subordination and unity of command (fundamentally different from the vassalage system that developed in Western Europe). The devastation of the Russian lands at the beginning of the 13th century, a monument to which was the “Crying and the Captivity and Final Devastation of the Russian Land,” became the reason for the weakening of Byzantine influences on art, which resulted in the development of features of originality in Russian art of this century (one example is the icon called “ Yaroslavl Oranta"). From this time we can begin counting down the “own path” of Russian culture. Only by the end of the 13th century were the Russian lands able to recover from devastation. The first were Novgorod and Pskov, which the Horde troops did not reach. These trading cities-“republics” with veche administration created a unique version of culture, which was formed not without some participation of their western neighbors - the Baltic countries. In the northeastern lands, at the beginning of the next 14th century, the dominant role began to shift from the Vladimir to the Moscow principality, which, however, had to defend its primacy at Tver for another century. Moscow was part of the Vladimir lands, being one of the border fortresses of northeastern Rus'. In 1324, Metropolitan Peter left Vladimir and settled in Moscow, thus moving here the residence of the head of the church authorities of the Russian lands (it is interesting that Metropolitan Maxim’s move from Kyiv to Vladimir took place quite shortly before this - in 1299). At the end of the 14th century, the main shrine of the “old” capital, the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, was transported to Moscow. Vladimir became a model for the Moscow principality.

The painting of the late XIV - early XV centuries is illuminated by two major phenomena of Russian (and world) culture - the work of the Byzantine master Theophanes the Greek and the Russian icon painter Andrei Rublev. Feofan’s style (with which we are familiar from the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod) is distinguished by a monochromatic palette, the use of sharp spaces, rare expressiveness of laconic spots and lines, under which one can discern a complex symbolic subtext, close to the teaching of hesychasm, widespread at that time in Byzantium. Rublev’s icons, in their softness of color and interpretation of form, creating a mood of soft lyricism and tranquility, are closer to the late Byzantine painting of the Balkan countries of the 15th century. The end of the 14th century marks the most important event in Russian history - in 1380, in the Battle of Kulikovo Field, the army united by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich under the “hand of Moscow” won the first serious victory over the Horde. The activities of the abbot of the Trinity Monastery Sergius of Radonezh played an exceptional role in this. Name St. Sergius, who then became in the minds of the Russian people the defender and patron of the Moscow state, is of great importance for the culture of Russia. The monk himself and his followers founded more than 200 monasteries of the new cenobitic charter for Rus' at that time, which became the basis for the so-called. “monastic colonization” of underdeveloped northern lands. The Life of Sergius of Radonezh was written by one of the outstanding writers of that time - Epiphanius the Wise; For the cathedral of the Sergius Monastery, Andrei Rublev painted the famous icon of the Trinity - the greatest masterpiece of the Russian Middle Ages. The middle of the 15th century was marked by a difficult internecine war for the Moscow grand-ducal throne. Only by the end of this century did Ivan III manage to unite the Russian lands around Moscow (which cost the ruin of Novgorod and Pskov) and finally put an end to subordination to the Horde - the bloodless stand of troops on the Ugra River (1480), which later received the poetic name of the “belt of the Virgin Mary,” marked the emergence of an independent states led by the Moscow prince.

Culture Byzantium (2)Abstract >> Culture and art

Introduction 3 Development of artistic culture V Byzantium 4 Features of Byzantine aesthetics 7 Art Byzantium 9 List of used... unique, much instructive. Development of artistic culture V Byzantium Byzantine art genetically went back to...

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ABSTRACT

BYZANTINE CULTURE

Byzantine culture

Byzantium existed from 395 to 1453. The history of its origin is as follows. In 330, on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium, the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople, was founded, named after Emperor Constantine. In 395, the empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern, and the latter - the Eastern Roman Empire - subsequently became known as Byzantium. moreover, after the empire itself ceased to exist. This name was given to it by European thinkers of the New Age with the intention of excommunicating Byzantium from ties with Greco-Roman culture and including it entirely in the “Dark Middle Ages” of the Eastern type.

However, the Byzantines themselves would not agree with such a point of view. They called themselves “Romans”, i.e. the Romans, and its capital Constantinople as the “second Rome”, with good reason.

The culture of Byzantium is separated from today by centuries, and yet attracts and fascinates us with its architecture, art, religion and philosophy. Byzantium became a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued the further development of the best achievements of Roman civilization. The new capital - Constantinople - jealously and not without success competed with Rome, quickly becoming one of the most beautiful cities of that time. It had large squares decorated with triumphal columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grandiose aqueducts, magnificent baths, and impressive defensive structures. Along with the capital, many other cultural centers developed in Byzantium - Alexandria. Antioch, Nicaea. Ravenna, Thessaloniki.

Periods of development of Byzantine culture

V-VI1 centuries - the first flowering of culture. The transition from a slave system to a feudal system. "The Golden Age of Byzantium"

X-XII - the second rise of Byzantine culture. Macedonian (X-XI) and Komninian (late XI-late XII) renaissances.

XIII - temporary cessation of the existence of Byzantium as an independent state.

XIV-XV centuries - the last rise and flowering of the Byzantine Empire. "Palaeologian Renaissance".

Features of Byzantine culture

If we try to separate the Byzantine civilization from the civilization of Europe, the Near and Middle East, then the most important factors will be the following:

1. In Byzantium there was a linguistic community (the main language was Greek);

2. In Byzantium there was a religious community (the main religion was

Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

3. In Byzantium, despite all its multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks.

4. The Byzantine Empire was always distinguished by stable statehood and centralized control.

Stages of development and their features

The evolution of Byzantine culture knew several stages of development. Byzantium reached its greatest territorial size and became a powerful Mediterranean power.

Early Middle Ages

The time of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) - the “golden age of Byzantium” and the so-called Byzantine “renaissances”

(from 395 to 842)

The process of formation of Byzantine culture lasted several centuries. Byzantine art represented a single, complex system of cultural values

The role of religion in culture

The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogmatics developed under the strong influence of not only Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, Manichaeism, but also Neoplatonism. The dogma of the trinity of deity, one of the central tenets of Christian doctrine, is essentially a reinterpreted triad of Neoplatonists. However, Christianity, despite having common features with Manichaeism and Neoplatonism, is fundamentally different from Manichaean dualism and Neoplatonic monism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component which were the ancient philosophical teachings. This, perhaps, explains to some extent the fact that Christianity not only fought against ancient philosophy, but also used it for its own purposes.

The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism is being replaced by a compromise between the Christian and ancient worldviews. In Neoplatonism itself, two movements emerged: one was radical, opposed to Christianity, the other was more moderate. The supporters of a compromise with Christianity are gradually gaining the upper hand. There is a process of repulsion, isolation and at the same time rapprochement, merging of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christian theology, which ends with the absorption of Neoplatonism into Christianity.

The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, one can see a combination of the ideas of early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy, sometimes a paradoxical interweaving of rhetorical ideas with new ideological content. Thinkers such as Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus lay the actual foundation of Byzantine philosophy; their philosophical constructs are deeply rooted in the history of Hellenic thought. At the center of their philosophy is the understanding of being as perfection, which leads to a kind of justification of the cosmos, and, consequently, the world and man. In Gregory of Nyssa, this concept sometimes approaches pantheism.

During the transitional era of the death of the slave system and the formation of feudal society, fundamental changes occurred in all spheres of the spiritual life of Byzantium. A new aesthetic is born new system spiritual and moral values, more consistent with the mindset and emotional needs of a medieval person. Patristic literature, biblical cosmography, liturgical poetry, monastic tales, world chronicles, Christian hagiography, imbued with a religious worldview, little by little take possession of the minds of Byzantine society and replace ancient culture. The man himself of that era changes, his vision of the world, his attitude towards the universe, nature, and society. A new “image of the world” is being created, in comparison with antiquity, embodied in a special sign system of symbols. In place of the ancient idea of heroic personality, the ancient understanding of the world as a world of laughing gods and heroes fearlessly going to death, where the highest good is to fear nothing and hope for nothing (a very nice philosophy), comes the world of a suffering, torn by contradictions, small, sinful person. He is infinitely humiliated and weak, but he believes in his salvation in another life and tries to find consolation in this. Christianity reveals with unprecedented intensity the painful division within the human personality.

Man’s idea of ​​the cosmos, of time, of space, of the course of history is also changing: closed historical cycles ancient writers, conditioned by the will of God, the biblical vision of the progressive movement of history by early Byzantine historians and chroniclers. In early Byzantium, one of the fundamental ideas of the Middle Ages crystallized - the idea of ​​​​the union of the Christian church and the “Christian empire”. byzantine culture art architecture

The spiritual life of the society of that time was characterized by dramatic tension; In all spheres of knowledge, literature and art, there is an amazing mixture of pagan and Christian ideas, images, ideas, a colorful combination of pagan mythology with Christian mysticism. The era of the formation of a new, medieval culture gives birth to talented thinkers, writers, and poets, sometimes marked with the stamp of genius. The individuality of the artist has not yet dissolved in church-dogmatic thinking.

Education. In Byzantium at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more educated people than in Western Europe. The old centers of ancient science were Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, and new ones were created. In city schools they taught reading, writing, counting, and studied the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles. The children of the rich studied in schools. The best experts in Greek and Latin copied books for the imperial library. The first higher school in Europe was opened in Constantinople. A higher medical school was also established here. Medical care was thought out: each doctor was assigned a certain area of ​​the city in which he treated patients.

Scientific knowledge. Geographers skillfully drew maps of countries and seas, plans of city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. In the 4th century. Prominent mathematicians and researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology worked here. The compiled medical encyclopedia included 70 books.

After Christianity was established as the state religion, the best representatives of science were persecuted, scientific centers were destroyed, schools were closed, and fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Library of Alexandria. At the same time, church higher theological schools were created to spread Christianity.

Science becomes theological. In the VI century. the monk Cosmas Indicoplous wrote “Christian Topography”, in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as contradicting the Bible. Alchemy dominated, searching for the “divine elixir.” Doctors continued to defend the achievements of science and their practice. Alexander Trallsky studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. Pavel Eginsky compiled an encyclopedia on surgery and obstetrics. The Byzantines invented “Greek fire” - an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter. Lev the mathematician improved the light telegraph. There were a number of scientific works on history in which the social struggle of this period was reflected from the position of the ruling class. In the 9th century. the higher school in Constantinople was restored.

Philosophy. During the Early Middle Ages, Neoplatonism was widespread in Byzantium - a combination of Stoic, Epicurean and skeptical teachings with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Representatives: Proclus (410-485), John the Grammar. Maximus the Confessor played a major role in the development of mystical teachings. This era became a time of struggle between different philosophical views and their adaptation to the interests of feudal society. Neoplatonism is the doctrine of a hierarchically structured world arising from a source beyond it; the doctrine of the “ascent” of the soul to its source.

Literature. Ancient traditions were strong in all areas of ideology, especially in poetry. Poets of that time retell ancient myths. Folk art is judged by the church literature of that time. The lyricist of this period was Roman Sladkopevets. Epic songs appeared about the fight against enemies, about the heroism of the defenders. The people's struggle against feudal exploitation was reflected in oral folk art. Representatives of theological literature: Cosmas of Magom, John of Damascus, Theodore the Studite. Patriarch Photius (c.810-890) creates the collection “Miriobiblon”, consisting of annotations to 280 ancient and early Byzantine works with commentaries. Folk art was influenced by Slavic colonization.

Fine arts and architecture. The highest flowering of art occurred during the reign of Justinian (482-565) and reflected state and religious ideas in its images. Colorful mosaics are becoming a common technique for wall painting. An unsurpassed example of monumental art of Byzantium is the mosaic of Sophia of Constantinople (mid-9th century). Applied art is carving, ivory sculptures. Iconography moves from individual antique portraits to symbolic depictions of saints.

Music. Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization. The peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democracy could not but affect the nature of musical culture, which represented a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era.

The musical art of Byzantium dates back to Persian, Jewish, Armenian song, as well as to late Greek and Roman melodies. Christianity very early appreciated the special capabilities of music as a universal art and at the same time possessing the power of mass and individual psychological influence, and included it in its cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium. It was supposed to not only express the idea of ​​the universality of the world, but also direct human souls to a single highest goal.

Theologians considered music to be the most important element of the universe, a means of influencing the human soul. It is known that the main genres were: psalms, hymns, spiritual songs.

Theater. Mass spectacles still played a huge role in the life of the broad masses. True, the ancient theater is beginning to decline - ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly being replaced by performances of mimes, jugglers, dancers, gymnasts, and wild animal tamers. The place of the theater is now occupied by a circus (hippodrome) with its horse shows, which are extremely popular.

The reign of the Macedonian dynasty (mid-9th - end of the 11th century) - "Macedonian Renaissance".

The reign of the Komnenos dynasty (late 11th - late 12th centuries) - "Comnenos Renaissance".

Period of the Macedonian dynasty and the Komnenos dynasty

During the period of the Macedonian dynasty (842-1057) and the Komnenos dynasty (1057-1204), interest in literature and philosophy reawakened in the Byzantine capital. The formation of feudal relations determined the desire of the ruling class for the entire cultural heritage of the past and, above all, ancient traditions adapt to your interests.

Architecture. In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine cultural circle, the same cross-dome composition, which arose in the 6th century, dominated. and was characterized by a weakly expressed external decorative design. The decoration of the facade acquired great importance in the 9th-10th centuries, when a new architectural style arose and became widespread. The emergence of a new style was associated with the flourishing of cities, the strengthening of the social role of the church, and a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as an image of the world). Many new churches were erected, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were, as a rule, small in size. In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, architectural forms and the very composition of buildings also changed. The importance of vertical lines and divisions of the facade increased, which also changed the silhouette of the temple. Builders increasingly resorted to using patterned brickwork. Features of the new architectural style appeared in a number of local schools. For example, in Greece X-XII centuries. the preservation of some archaic architectural forms is typical (not the dismemberment of the façade plane, the traditional forms of small churches) - with the further development and growth of the influence of the new style - patterned brick decor and polychrome plastic were also increasingly used here.

Education and scientific knowledge. In the XI-XII centuries. Secular education based on ancient traditions is experiencing significant growth. The university, the center of education for the entire empire, is being revived in Constantinople. At the Faculty of Law we studied Roman law, Latin, trained judges, notaries, and officials of various ranks. All new ideas were severely suppressed by the state and church. X century associated with the creation of works of an encyclopedic nature. Under Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), historical, agricultural, medical and veterinary encyclopedias were published. A literary encyclopedia was compiled containing about 30 thousand articles, arranged in alphabetical order: explanations of ancient religions, biographical notes, quotes, etc. materials. Works of a scientist and writer of the 11th century. Michael Psellos, the author of “Chronography,” biographies of emperors, provide rich material for studying the history of Byzantine culture. The work of M. Psellus “quadrium” - an overview of the course of secular education, including four subjects: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music, translated into Latin; influenced the development of mathematics in Western Europe.

In the field of medicine, research on pharmacology, care of newborn children, and the properties of food developed during this period. Essays about animals and birds are presented. In the field of historical sciences, the works were in the nature of memoirs and chronicles. In the XI-XII centuries. accounts for the greatest intensity of philosophical discussions. Leading representatives M. Psell and John Stahl tried to separate philosophy from theology, although they remained in positions of idealism.

Literary life is experiencing revival this year. Its representatives are Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Simeon Metaphrastus, who adapt the cultural heritage to the interests of the ruling elite. a feature of social life was the development of cities, which predetermined their great role social life. The most prominent representative of court literature is Mikhail Psellus, who wrote works on history, theology, mathematics, and is the author of poems, odes, and epigrams. Theodore Prodormus (1100-1170) used in his works colloquial that time. He owns the novel in verse “Rodanthe and Dosicle”, the poem “The War of Mice and Frogs”. Poetic novels with an abundance of quotations and a pompous style became widespread in court circles.

During this period, works appeared that reflected the views and sentiments of the provincial feudal nobility and various groups of the urban population. The satire “Tilargon” about the morals and customs of Byzantium is recognized as a talented work.

Music. In connection with the general evolution of Byzantium, its political system and culture, from that time on, a gradual decline in the art of music is outlined: improvisation wanes, static and frozen images prevail in cult music.

The Age of PalaiologosLate Byzantium (from 1260) - “Palaeologian Renaissance”.

The Palaiologan dynasty is the last in the history of the Byzantine Empire. This period is conventionally called the Palaiologan Renaissance (1261-1453).

The beginning of the crisis of feudalism and culture. In the XIII century. Constantinople was captured by the crusaders and from 1204-1261. Byzantium ceased to exist. The former empire was a mosaic of small states. The period is characterized by a decline in the development of its culture.

The science. Cultural values ​​were barbarously destroyed, and there was an intense struggle between Byzantine scientists and the “Latins.” Therefore, in the XII-XIV centuries. Mainly theological and historical problems were developed. The most important historian of this period is Niketas Choniates, the author of an extensive work of 21 books, covering the period from 1180 to 1206. The work contains valuable information about the fourth crusade and the conquest of Byzantium by the crusaders and an assessment of the “Latin” conquest, which turned out to be disastrous for Byzantium. Nikifor Vlemmid is the author of works on geography “History of the Earth” and “General Geography”. The crisis of feudalism intensified the church's struggle with science and scientific knowledge. Mysticism fills all branches of science, dogmatic reasoning fills even mathematics. Due to opposition from the church it was not implemented. new calendar Nikephoros Grigora (1236-1360). At the same time, the emergence of capitalist relations in cities increases interest in the achievements of science. Mathematics was well developed in the country, as evidenced by works on geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, and geodesy. Elements of a humanistic worldview appear. George Plithon (1335-1452) sets the task for science to understand and explain the nature of both man and the system of the Universe.

Medical science includes anatomy, physiology, pharmacology. At the medical faculty of the University of Paris until the 17th century. the pharmacopoeia manual compiled in the 13th century was used. Byzantine physician Nicholas Myrepzos.

Historical works reflected the interests of various religious and political groups among the ruling class of Byzantium.

The development of science was slowed down by the Turkish conquest of 1453, which destroyed the sprouts of capitalism and reversed the social system of the state. Mystical currents are intensifying in philosophy. Representatives: Gregory of Sinai (the turn of the 13th-14th centuries), Nicholas Kavasila (14th century), Gregory Palamas (c.1297-1360). At the same time, a new philosophical direction, akin to Western European humanism, was emerging, in which George Pliphon played a prominent role.

Literature. Byzantine literature did not lose its originality under the Palaiologos. The established forms of Byzantine culture processed external influences more fully and deeply than the previous period.

The cultural life of Byzantine society takes on new shapes: the self-awareness of the Romans as a medieval people with a single Greek language and a rich cultural past is formed. The continuity of ancient and medieval culture was expressed in the philosophy of Michael Psellus, who defended the need to study the ancient heritage and select from it those provisions that are consistent with Christian dogmas, in fact defended the need for a synthesis of ancient and Christian views.

Impact on other states

In 1453, under the onslaught of the Turks, Byzantium became pope, but its culture continues to exist today. It occupies a worthy place in world culture. Byzantium made its main contribution to world spiritual culture primarily through the establishment and development of Orthodox Christianity. No less significant was her contribution to artistic culture, to the development of architecture, mosaics, icon painting, and literature. It should be especially noted its beneficial influence on the formation and development of Russian culture. Byzantium had a spiritual and cultural impact on Kievan Rus. Rus' adopted Orthodox Christianity and baptism in 988 under Prince Vladimir. Byzantine influence penetrates into Old Russian church singing. Slavic countries adopted the traditions of combining heavenly and earthly power, a combination of sublimity and solemnity in fine art.

In the history of Byzantium, it has a special, outstanding place. In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world lofty images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble elegance of forms, imaginative vision of thought, sophistication of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. In terms of its power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries.

The direct heir of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture.

The theater of the Hellenistic era did not suit the Christian Church, and it found new forms and uses for theatrical spectacle.

Elements of theatrical performances entered the service, making it more emotional and impressive.

Dialogues on gospel themes began to be introduced into the liturgy. Priests master a number of stage techniques (gestures, facial expressions, manner of speaking, moving, etc.).

A qualitatively new moment in the relationship of the Church with the theater comes with the advent of liturgical drama - mystery plays.

In the XI-XII centuries. in Byzantium, the mystery almost completely replaced the secular theater, although it continued to exist.

Conclusion

Byzantine culture as a whole had a significant influence on the formation Italian Renaissance. After IV crusade(1204), which led to the fall of Constantinople, Byzantium actually turned into an agricultural and raw materials appendage of Italian cities. The real legacy of the Byzantine era was the formation of the Greek people and the modern Greek language, the cultural and religious community of the Orthodox world.

Byzantium had a spiritual and cultural impact on Kievan Rus. Rus' adopted Orthodox Christianity and baptism in 988 under Prince Vladimir. Byzantine influence penetrates into Old Russian church singing. Slavic countries adopted the traditions of combining heavenly and earthly power, a combination of sublimity and solemnity in fine art.

List of sources used

1. Ehrengross B.A. Culturology. Textbook for universities / B.A. Ehrengross, R.G. Apresyan, E. Botvinnik - M.: Onyx, 2007.

2. Cultural studies. Tutorial Edited by A.A. Radugina - M., 2001.

3. Drach G.V., Matyash T.P. Culturology. Brief thematic dictionary - M.: “Phoenix”, 2001.

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Introduction to the history of the Byzantine Empire. Study of the main factors in the formation of the culture of a given empire; the influence of feudalism and religious schism (schism). Periods of the history of Byzantine art. Consideration of the features of the architectural type.

Byzantium occupies a special place in the history of European culture. Its culture arose in a state that existed from the end of the 4th to the middle of the 15th century. With the capital Constantinople (now Istanbul) after the division of the Roman Empire into two parts - eastern and western. The state received its name later; The Byzantines themselves proudly called themselves Romans. The uniqueness of the culture that formed in the east of the Roman Empire lies in the fact that it arose and existed in a kind of border situation. Byzantium was part of the ancient world, but it was there, in Byzantium, that the Orthodox branch of medieval culture arose and reached its greatest flowering. The culture of Byzantium is characterized by both solemn pomp and spirituality, grace of form and depth of thought. The features of Byzantine culture include:

1) Synthesis of Western and Eastern elements with the primacy of Greco-Roman traditions;

2) Preservation of the traditions of ancient civilization, which later served as the basis of European culture of the Renaissance;

3) Strong state foundations that contribute to the preservation of secular artistic creativity;

4) the formation of Orthodoxy, which influenced philosophical and theological views, the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values.

In the works of Byzantine thinkers of the early period - Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, one can see a combination of the ideas of early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy. Fierce theological debates unfolded among philosophers. The question was raised about the meaning of human existence, man’s place in the universe, and his capabilities.

Byzantine thinkers energetically advocated using the best that was given to humanity by ancient culture. Christian theologians, writers, preachers borrow from the treasury of Greco-Roman culture the simplicity and diversity of philosophical thought, Heraclitean dialectics, Aristotelian logic, skillfully using the practicality and eloquence of ancient rhetoric. In all spheres of knowledge, in literature and art, there is an amazing mixture of pagan mythology and Christian mysticism. In artistic creativity The combination of mysticism with the vitality of everyday color and piety is increasingly noticeable.

Based on the traditions of ancient aesthetics, the Byzantines saw art primarily as an instrument for a targeted positive impact on the spiritual world of man. In the understanding of Byzantine thinkers, music, painting, architecture, and verbal arts act as mediators of the comprehension of truth, are sources of moral improvement of a person, contribute to the removal of negative emotions and ultimately lead to spiritual transformation.

The architectural forms of medieval Christian churches have changed greatly compared to ancient ones. In ancient temples of the classical type, their external plastic design played a very large role and the internal space played a very small role. Inside, in the twilight, there was a statue of the deity, and all the rituals and celebrations took place outside, in the square. The purpose of the Christian church is different: it is conceived not as the abode of God, but as a place where a community of believers gathers. The organization of internal space becomes the main task of architects, and appearance The building is solved, rather, as a derivative, as a shell. Two architectural forms prevailed in church architecture: basilica and cross-domed.

An example of a rare and brilliantly resolved combination of both constructive principles is the Council of Constantinople Saint Sophia. This temple does not seem too big from the outside, but inside it amazes with the volume and weightlessness of the gigantic (30 meters in diameter), as if floating, dome. White marble lace capitals, inlaid colored marble of exquisite delicate shades, shimmering multi-colored mosaics, excellent acoustics - all this is evidence of the amazing skill of Byzantine architects and artists. Hagia Sophia remains highest achievement Byzantine architecture.

The main forms of Byzantine painting- monumental temple painting (mosaic and fresco), icons; book miniatures, which are also highly revered. Mosaic- a type of monumental painting, image or pattern made of multi-colored stones, smalt; received special significance in the artistic culture of Byzantium. Time has almost no power over the mosaics of ancient masters. The oldest Byzantine mosaics are found in the temples and tombs of Ravenna, a city on the Adriatic coast, once the capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom, then a major cultural center of Byzantium. Here, in a rough, thick-walled mausoleum, lie the ashes of Theodoric, the first Ostrogothic king. Dante is buried here. Ravenna preserves a unique complex of Byzantine monuments from the 5th to 7th centuries. That turning point when Rome and Byzantium, antiquity and the Middle Ages met at the crossroads of history. The mausoleum of Galla Placidia, a Byzantine queen of the 5th century, is decorated inside with amazing mosaics: figures of Christian martyrs draped in an antique style emerge from the thick shimmering blue, fabulous landscapes of paradise with golden deer and birds spread out. Here in Ravenna, in the church of San Vitali, there are majestic colorful mosaic images of the Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora with their retinues.

In Byzantium, icon painting, Christian easel religious painting, was formed, which gave the church the opportunity to exert a powerful ideological influence on large sections of the country's population and brought in considerable income. But it was here, in Byzantium, that the first clash between state and church took place, reflected in Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm- in a broad sense, a socio-political and cultural-religious movement directed against the cult of icons. In a narrower and more vital meaning - the struggle of the military landowning nobility and part of the trade and craft circles of Constantinople to limit the power of the church. Iconoclastic aesthetics was based on the idea of ​​​​the impossibility of reflecting a single supreme deity by realistic means, characteristic of Judaism and Islam. The struggle ended in victory for the icon-worshipers, but in fact a compromise was reached between the state and the church: the church hierarchs were subordinated to the imperial power. The Byzantine emperor became the recognized head of the Orthodox Church.

The iconoclasts caused significant harm to the cultural development of Byzantium in the 8th-9th centuries, destroying a number of works of art..

Unprecedented sophistication was achieved in Byzantium and art crafts. The art of enamels, inlays with precious stones, and bone carving flourished. Byzantine culture is characterized by an interest in generalizing accumulated knowledge. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, and medicine were created, and important reforms were carried out in the field of law, public relations and church politics. The treatises of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-959) “on government”, “on the ceremonies of the Byzantine court” are an extensive encyclopedia of valuable information about the political and administrative structure of the Byzantine state. At the same time, it contains colorful material of an ethnographic and historical-geographical nature about the countries and peoples adjacent to the empire, including the Slavs.

Byzantine culture was of great importance in the formation of European civilization. Her role went far beyond the millennium chronological framework existence of the empire itself. In spiritual terms, almost half of the Christians around the world are still direct heirs of the Eastern Christian, Byzantine culture.

General features of Byzantine culture. Byzantine culture as a whole has a number of distinct features compared to the culture of other European countries in the Middle Ages. 1) In the IV-XII centuries. it was distinguished by a significantly higher level. 2) The ancient heritage in Byzantine culture, although in an adapted and processed form, was manifested in all areas, from philosophy to applied art and everyday life. 3) In the organic fusion of the Greek-Latin culture proper with the traditions of local cultures (Egyptian, Syrian, Armenian, Georgian, etc.), the creative genius of the Greek people prevailed, especially in its language - from the 7th century. she finally became Greek-speaking. 4) Its specificity lay in its openness to the influence of the cultures of peoples who lived not only within the empire, but also outside them - hence its distinct oriental flavor. 5) A striking feature of Byzantine culture is its traditionalism, adherence to the canon, which hides the struggle of ideas, criteria, and styles under anciently accepted forms. 6) Finally, Byzantine culture was distinguished by greater typological homogeneity compared to Western European culture.

In the culture of Byzantium, like no other in medieval Europe, the developed cultural traditions of very different ancient peoples merged. This was explained by the centuries-old influence of such factors as: strong centralized power, unity of the management system, principles of taxation and recruitment of the army, law and legal proceedings, religion and church organization, state (Greek) language; continuity of urban life with direct cultural continuity between generations; the comparative intensity of communication and exchange of information between the center and the provinces, thanks to the state post office and an extensive network of maritime communications; finally, the extraordinary role of the gigantic center of culture - Constantinople, the main source of new ideas, criteria and principles for the entire empire, the trendsetter and tastemaker.

Early Byzantine culture. From the 4th to the middle of the 7th century. (i.e. in the early Byzantine period) the formation of the foundations of Byzantine culture took place as an integral system of manifestations of the spiritual life of society. Born on principle new culture, permeated with the Christian worldview. In an intense ideological struggle, Christian monotheism replaced pagan polytheism. Commitment to Christianity became an ideological imperative - a necessary condition for the very existence of the individual as a full member of society and a subject of the empire.

Until the end of the empire, Byzantine society preserved the ancient traditions of respect for knowledge. Eastern Christian theologian of the 8th century. John of Damascus owns a saying that is still widespread today: “Learning is light, but ignorance is darkness.” In the cities of the empire, knowledge of literacy (reading and arithmetic) was common not only in the upper, but also in the middle and lower income strata of the population. A sharp drop in the level of education and a reduction in the number of literate people took place only in the “dark ages”, i.e. in the 7th-8th centuries, in conditions of general crisis and invasion of barbarians. The desire to study was stimulated by the state’s persistent demand for educated people needed to replenish the staff of numerous officials. Already in the 9th century, under conditions of consolidation of the apparatus of power, a new rise in education began.

Like other countries of the Middle Ages, Byzantium did not know a single universal education system, although the network of school institutions was much wider here. The organization of the school, the composition of disciplines and the order of instruction were inherited from antiquity. Schools were divided into two levels: primary and secondary. In primary, children from 6-9 years old studied the cycle of sciences, traditionally designated as the “trivium” (it once included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics). In fact, the range of disciplines in different schools was different and only the beginnings of knowledge were studied in them. The common thing was to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, the basics of Christian doctrine and elements of secular and biblical history for two to three years. Instead of Homer, they now read the Psalter, the main textbook for schoolchildren. Schools were both paid - private, and free - monastic, church, city, accessible even to the poor. The range of disciplines of the secondary school - "quadrivium" - included arithmetic, geometry, music (harmony) and astronomy. But even here there was diversity in the choice of sciences. At a higher level they studied grammar, rhetoric and logic (dialectics). The entire set of sciences was defined as philosophy - purely theoretical knowledge. Practical ones included ethics, politics, and jurisprudence. Knowledge of the physical or chemical properties of substances, acquired experimentally, was considered not a science, but a craft. With the victory of Christianity, science was also divided into sacred and secular (“external”), with the first being declared its mistress, and the second its servant. No matter how selective the approach to the heritage of ancient literature was, a lot of effort was devoted to its study. According to the old tradition, only the Attic dialect, already little understood by the majority of the population, was considered a perfect literary (written) language. It was it, however, that was studied; educated people spoke to each other and created their works on it. The gap between the language of culture and the living speech of the people widened. Attempts to overcome it began at the end of the 12th century, but it was completely eliminated only in modern times.

A secondary, fee-paying school, usually created privately by the teachers themselves (grammarians), was a rarity even in major cities. They continued their education mainly in the capital. The concept itself higher education“The Byzantines did not know, although there were many highly educated people among them. They sometimes reached the highest levels of knowledge on their own, but more often through training by private agreement with famous scholars (rhetoricians, philosophers, jurists). In the IV-VI centuries. Athens, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza, Alexandria were famous for their scientists - the largest centers of higher education, centers of ancient knowledge. However, in the second half of the VI-VII centuries. they fell into decay. In the 5th century The richest library in Alexandria burned to the ground and the famous scientist and mathematician Hypatia was killed by fanatical monks. With a special edict, Justinian I closed the famous school of Neoplatonist philosophers in Athens in the empire, drawing a line under the late antique era with another act of his. Constantinople became the only major hotbed of learning for a long time, and from the 12th century. also Thessalonica and Trebizond, and only in the XIII-XV centuries. many other cities.

Philosophy in that era was inseparable from theology: both concepts were almost synonymous. Developing a Christian theological doctrine capable of withstanding the ideological struggle against paganism, other cults and heresies, Byzantine theologians were forced to rely on the logic and idealistic teachings of antiquity. Like the Western scholastics, Byzantine thinkers paid special attention to Aristotle's logic, but they studied and commented on the works not only of Aristotle, but of a wide range of ancient philosophers. The fundamental contribution to the creation of Christian dogma as a system was made in the 4th century. “three great Cappadocians”, canonists-erudites Basil the Great (Caesarean), Gregory the Theologian (Nazianzen) and Gregory of Nyssa, as well as the Patriarch of Constantinople in 398-404. John Chrysostom. In addition to purely theological concepts, they examined many problems of Christian anthropology, psychology, and ethics that are still important today, placing the main responsibility for the social world on state power and wealthy circles of society.

The development of theological subtleties was combined with the primitivization of positive ancient knowledge about the universe and the surrounding material world: nothing should have contradicted the Holy Scriptures. The gigantic cultural revolution that accompanied the triumph of Christianity captured almost all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the basis of which was now the religious idea. An example of the replacement of the ancient cosmogony with the biblical myth about the creation and structure of the universe is the “Christian Topography” by Cosmas Indicopleus (Greek: “who sailed to India”). Reporting true information about the routes of communication, about the peoples they connected (and diplomats and merchants of the empire always needed this data), about the flora and fauna of East Africa, Arabia and India, Kosma writes about the Earth as a flat quadrangle surrounded by water and covered with a solid vault of heaven.

Despite the fundamental distrust of the knowledge of the ancients about matter, the needs of agriculture, crafts, irrigation, shipbuilding, architecture, fortification, medicine, etc. dictated the need to store and develop knowledge acquired through experience. The Byzantines not only studied the works of Galen and Hippocrates, they improved diagnostics, surgery, antiseptics, and expanded the range of herbal medicines. The situation was similar in the production of glass, mosaic smalt, paints, ceramics, enamels, metallurgy, jewelry - in all this the Byzantine skill found international recognition. But such knowledge was not considered scientific, because it belonged to the sphere of man’s mundane concerns, not about the spiritual, but about the material.

Theological works were the predominant genre of literature in all centuries of the empire's history. Comparable to it, however, in public importance was historiography, which continued like no other genre of Byzantine literary creativity rich traditions of ancient history writing. Historians of the empire, almost until its end, consciously imitated their great predecessors (especially Herodotus, Plutarch, Xenophon and Thucydides). The pinnacle of historiography of the early Byzantine era were the works of Procopius of Caesarea, Menander the Protector, and Agathius of Myrinea. All of them spoke Attic speech and all wrote their works in the 6th century, on the eve of the collapse high culture empire. In fact, their work does not so much “open” medieval Byzantine historiography as “close” late antique. The most prominent among them was Procopius of Caesarea, a holder of high positions and titles close to the court, an eyewitness major events. He created a broad historical panorama - “The History of Justinian’s Wars with the Persians, Van Dals and Goths.” The position of the author, who stood on the verge of two eras, was reflected in his work: glorifying the acts of Justinian I in his “History” and in the treatise “On Buildings” as the most Christian and wise ruler, Procopius in his “Secret History” (for loved ones and friends from the senatorial opposition) created the image of a cruel and immoral tyrant, responsible for all the troubles of the empire.

The medieval genre of historical narration itself - chronography - arose at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century. and gradually began to come to the fore. The founder of the genre was the church writer Eusebius of Caesarea. The characteristic features of the chronicle he created, like most of the later ones, were: the beginning of the narrative “from the creation of the world” (from Adam) with a brief overview of the history of the ancient (mentioned in the Bible) peoples, starting with the Chaldeans and ending with the Romans, and only then - a relatively detailed, weather-related story about events chronologically close to the author, from which the most important ones were purely subjectively selected and recorded. The “World Chronicle” did not have a logical ending: it ended with the year to which the given author or his successor brought it up. It was assumed that each such chronicle may subsequently have a successor. The author's individuality and analyticity were alien to the chronicler: without any criticism, a variety of sources, including legends and historical anecdotes, were used with an equal degree of confidence. All kinds of miracles, natural phenomena, incidents privacy heroes and major battles, coups d'etat and national disasters were presented as facts of equal importance. The authors of chronographs were usually representatives of the clergy, in particular monks. By their origin, worldview and social circle, they were close to the lower and middle social strata, their language and style were understandable to the people, and the chronicles became popular over time. They were translated into their own language by near and distant neighbors, such as the chronicle of John Malala (VI century).

The Christian worldview gradually took over other genres of Byzantine culture, which can be defined as strictly artistic, but until the end of the 6th century. and in this area ancient traditions prevailed. They penetrated and love lyrics, and epigrams, and speeches about certain events in public and private life, and erotic narratives, and epistolography, always widespread in the empire, as a special type of literary creativity that went far beyond the exchange of written information. A new, religious genre that emerged at the same time was church poetry, or hymnography. He played a huge role in the development of the high art of Eastern Christian church sweetness (choral chant) in the first half of the 6th century. Roman Sladkopevets - poet, singer, musician. His hymns (he created about 1000 of them) were distinguished by their perfect form, high intensity of feelings, captivating melody, close in rhythm to a folk song.

The bright color of late antiquity is characteristic of the 4th-6th centuries. and for the most important areas of Byzantine art (painting, architecture, small plastic arts). New, Christian ideological content At first it was clothed in old forms. This was most clearly manifested in mosaic, usually large-scale, images. The mosaics of the Great Imperial Palace represent with great skill and realism scenes from rural life, executed in a multi-colored palette, the mosaics of the rotunda temple in Thessalonica - a gallery of the faces of saints with clearly expressed individual characteristics, as well as the mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna with the famous images of Justinian and Theodora. However, in other mosaics of the same temple and the same time, Christian aesthetics is already clearly reflected: the image reproduced not the appearance of a specific person, but the religious idea contained in him. The same evolution is characteristic of other genres of Byzantine painting: wall painting (fresco) and book miniatures. However, spiritual symbolism is embodied especially fully and expressively in the genre of painting specially created in early Byzantium for this purpose - the icon. It has become the most characteristic and original type of Eastern Christian fine art. The icon painters mastered both the refined technique of the ancient masters and the art of conveying the deep psychologism inherent in the late antique portrait, but they rethought it from the standpoint of the new functional role of the image and new aesthetic principles, who affirmed the primacy of spirit over matter: the icon captured not so much the appearance of this or that saint, but rather the virtues inherent in him.

Byzantine architects also perfectly mastered the experience of their ancient predecessors. In large cities, water pipelines, baths, and stadiums have been preserved from antiquity, although the medieval principle gradually triumphed in the layout: the main temple and administration buildings were located in the central square, and residential areas scattered from the center to the periphery, usually built without any plan, using the features of the landscape. Masterpieces of construction technology that have survived to this day, created in early Byzantium, testify to the deep knowledge of architects in mathematics and geometry, in the physical and chemical properties of materials, in the laws of harmony and acoustics. The most outstanding architectural monument of the early era is the Temple of Divine Wisdom (St. Sophia) in Constantinople. It was built in 532-537. Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Thrall. The grandiose dimensions of the temple, flooded with light from forty windows at the base of the gigantic dome that crowned the building like a firmament, the marble of numerous columns, the gold of the mosaics, the colors of the frescoes - everything was intended to symbolize the power and unity of God's chosen Christian empire.

The culture of early Byzantium was at a crossroads: it was outliving its old, late antique appearance, losing many of its former high values. She was imbued with new spiritual ideals, using old ones and taking on new forms. But the process was far from complete - the synthesis of local multi-ethnic and diverse traditions had not yet led to the birth of a single, homogeneous system.

Culture of the central period of the history of the empire. In the “dark” centuries, a deep crisis reflected with particular force precisely on the cultural life of society. It is from the 7th-8th centuries. Incomparably fewer sources have been preserved than the previous ones. The circle of even elementary literate people narrowed sharply, and the general level of culture fell among the highest nobility. However, education was highly valued in Byzantine society in all eras. Already in the middle of the 8th century. Literacy was again the property of wide sections of the townspeople, including women.

A real hymn to science, including ancient science, was the work “The Source of Knowledge”, created at that time by the Christian theologian who lived in Baghdad, John of Damascus, the first grandiose attempt at its systematization. Iconoclastic disputes and the fight against heresies stimulated a thirst for education and encouraged the imperial authorities to promote the development of the school. A higher school at the court already existed in the first half of the 9th century, and in the middle of this century the Magnavra School, named after one of the largest halls of the imperial palace, was famous for its high level of education. The educator of the Slavs, Kirill-Konstantin, nicknamed the Philosopher, also taught there. Patriarch Photius, one of the most enlightened people of that time, played a special role in organizing education, raising its level and reviving interest in ancient knowledge. He affirmed the idea of ​​the value of positive (secular) knowledge, regardless of its source, including the knowledge of the ancients about nature and matter, and considered even the superstitions previously accepted by the church (including the cosmogony of Cosmas Indicopleus) harmful. The patriarchate of Photius (858-867, 877-886), which coincided with the reign of Basil I of Macedonia, the founder of the new dynasty, dates back to the beginning of the “Macedonian Renaissance” of sciences and arts in the empire.

In the second half of the 9th century. the preconditions were laid for a new flourishing of Byzantine culture, which lasted until the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. The control of the church over the spiritual life of society was maintained during this period, at times it even became stricter (for example, under Alexios I and Manuel I Komnenos), but in as a whole was no longer so comprehensive and tough. Almost undivided devotion to the Eastern Christian confession remained, but it was now combined, even among the hierarchs, with respect for the ancient heritage and with its deep study. Under the influence of the ideals of antiquity and the cult of the power of the basileus, which needed to be glorified not only by church, but also by secular means, secular trends in literature and art acquired relative independence. Among Byzantine intellectuals there were already supporters of the idea of ​​the sphericity of the earth and theories of the geocentric or heliocentric structure of the universe. In 1045, a new higher school, conventionally called a university, was opened in Constantinople, with two faculties (philosophical and legal), where the most authoritative scholars of the time taught, and at the end of the 11th century. — and the “Patriarchal Academy” for training the highest hierarchs of the church. In the X-XII centuries. Almost all emperors, regardless of their level of education, considered it their duty to promote the expansion of the network of schools and help them financially. The culture of the empire reached a higher level - in terms of the breadth of distribution of its highest forms, in terms of subject, genre and stylistic diversity - in the 12th century, during the era of the so-called “Comnenian Renaissance”. The intensity of the spiritual life of Byzantium determined the transformation of its culture during the X-XII centuries. into a single, typologically homogeneous system.

In the first century of the central period, the main attention of society was again focused on problems of theology. The need arose for a comprehensive systematization of Christian doctrine. This task was accomplished by John of Damascus in his work “An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith,” which has always enjoyed authority among theologians. Following the principle “I don’t love anything of my own,” the author brought the teachings of the church into a coherent system, eliminating the contradictions that existed there and decisively taking the side of the icon-worshipers.

In the philosophical quests of the X-XI centuries. two trends were in conflict. The first was associated with the fascination of some Byzantine scholars with the ideas of Plato, which made it possible to doubt the advantages of blind faith over the capabilities of enlightened reason. The poet John Mavropod, teacher of Michael Psellus, a scientist, writer, historian of the second half of the 11th century, prayed in verse to God to allow the pagan Plato into heaven, who simply could not know the faith of Christ. Psellus was condemned by his theologian contemporaries for the elements of rationalism in his “Logic,” which, in their opinion, were unacceptable for the “ipate (i.e., head) of philosophers,” as he was appointed by the emperor at the capital’s university. The disciple of Psellus, John Italus, the teacher’s successor as ipata, was deprived of his post and condemned by the church for his persistence in “Platonism.” The second - dominant - tendency among thinkers and theologians was expressed in the affirmation of the idea of ​​improvement in virtues in the spirit of Christian ethics. The most original among the mystics was Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022), according to whose teachings a person is able, through prayer and spiritual purification, to achieve real unity with God during his lifetime. For the spiritual life of the XI-XII centuries. Characterized by the periodic appearance of theological polemical treatises directed against “errors” and unbelief, as a rule, “Latins”, Armenian Monophysites and Jews. A custom developed that prompted each of the prominent church figures to create at least one treatise on this topic.

The culture of Byzantium in the central period was also marked by major successes in the field of natural sciences (mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, biology, etc.). By the middle of the 7th century. refers to the invention of “Greek fire”. A contemporary of Photius, one of the founders of algebra, Leo the Mathematician invented a light telegraph, which made it possible to learn in the capital about the Arab invasion on the eastern borders in just a few hours, as well as automatic mechanisms that made the emperor’s throne suddenly rise up during receptions, statues lions - beat their tails and roar, metal birds - flutter and chirp. Such genres of “art” for purely practical purposes as cartography and the compilation of “guidebooks” for overland travelers also flourished at this time. Under Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), a tremendous effort was undertaken to systematize the knowledge accumulated since ancient times. More than 50 sorts of “encyclopedias” and treatises on agronomy, medicine, military art, diplomacy, etc. were compiled. The emperor himself is credited with (partial or complete) authorship of such works as “On Themes”, “On the Administration of the Empire”, “On the Ceremonies of the Royal Court”.

For three and a half centuries (the second half of the 7th-10th centuries), Byzantine historiography was in the stage of gradual revival. A prominent place at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. belongs to the historical writings of Patriarch Nicephorus and Theophan the Confessor, and in the 10th century. — Leo the Deacon, who covered in detail the wars of Prince Svyatoslav in the Balkans. The true heyday of Byzantine historiography occurred in the 11th-12th centuries, when more than a dozen outstanding historical works. One of the most striking among them, a talented narrative written at the end of the 11th century, is the “Chronography” of Michael Psellus, representing the genre of historical biography. With brilliant skill and merciless cynicism, Psellus reveals all the ins and outs of the personal lives and state activities of the 12 crowned crowned princes, giving each their due for worthy deeds and more than enough for all the unworthy ones (he knew eight of them personally, being their favorite). “Alexiad” by Anna Komnena, daughter of Alexei I, is also a historical biography, but only of one person - her father, whose activities she posthumously glorifies, demonstrating high education, loyalty to Atticism and literary excellence(Anna imitates Thucydides). At the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. As a direct continuation of the “Alexiad,” the prominent dignitary Nikita Choniates created his work. His “History” is an extensive narrative about the fate of the empire from 1118 to 1206 (especially detailed about the fall of the capital in 1204). The work is imbued with humanistic motives, the author has a clear civic position, he deeply experiences the events that he himself witnessed. Reflecting on the past and personal experiences, Nikita honestly searches for the reasons for the collapse of the great empire.

Byzantine literature of the central period also experienced a slow revival at the end of the 7th-8th centuries. and the subsequent flourishing under the emperors of the Macedonian and Komninov dynasties. For the end of the 7th-8th centuries. Characteristic is the undivided dominance in literature of the genre of lives of saints (hagiography). Along with stories about miracles and martyrdoms of saints, the lives reflected vivid pictures of everyday life, working and living conditions of the people, and sometimes historical events. The situation in literature began to change from the beginning of the 9th century. The first third of it includes the work of the poetess Kasia, who castigated the ignorant and tyrants among those in power. From the middle of the 9th century. In the circles of the nobility, novels in prose and verse on themes of ancient mythology and history began to spread. Responding to the widespread interest in the works of the ancients, Patriarch Photius compiled a collection of reviews of 280 works by Christian and ancient authors with detailed extracts from them. The collection was called “Miriovivlion” (“Description of many books”). Many works that were later lost are known only from Photius’s extracts. Created in the 9th-10th centuries, it was very popular among the Byzantines and their neighbors. based on folk songs about the fight against the Arabs, the epic about Digenis Akrit, glorifying the exploits of the young warrior and his love for a beautiful girl. The “poem” is imbued with the idea of ​​patriotism, the consciousness of human dignity, independence, and the value of the simple joys of life. The “poem” was translated into Old Russian. Blossoms in the 12th century. and the fable genre with a sharply expressed and socially oriented criticism of the authorities and existing orders. An important feature of the literature created on the basis of the epic was the accessibility of its language to wide circles of the population of the empire.

The ascent to a high degree of perfection was also noted in the fine arts of the 9th-12th centuries. Samples of icons from the 7th - first half of the 9th century. Few survived: they were destroyed by iconoclasts. The skill of icon painters of the X-XII centuries. continued to be subject to the requirements of religious aesthetics: it was in this area of ​​art that church control was especially strict. Canon, stenciling, pattern, deep spiritualism and stylization became the norm, including a set of subjects, galleries of images, arrangement of figures, combination of colors and light and shade. All this was combined, however, with the utmost expressiveness of the religious idea embodied in the icon. Book miniatures and fresco painting, widely represented in churches that at that time acquired new uniform: the basilica was replaced by a cross-domed church with rich external and internal decoration. The pictorial canon also dominated in the Comnenian era, but the number of subjects increased significantly, the technique improved, and attention to the individuality of characteristics increased. One of the features of the creativity of Byzantine painters was increased emotionality when they perceived the image and when implementing the plan: the icon painter acted as a kind of intercessor for weak person before God, begging him to mitigate the punishment for human sins.

At the end of the 11th-12th centuries, despite the deepening differences between the Constantinople and Roman churches and increasingly frequent clashes with the military forces of the West, its cultural exchange with the empire became more intense. The borrowing of non-ideologized forms of Western culture and art, sanctioned and unauthorized by the authorities and the church, has become more active, especially in the field of applied art, in music, clothing, and everyday life. These influences did not change at all, however, the essence of the empire’s culture. Along with its characteristic high values ​​of universal human significance, it still had such features as non-acceptance of the new, traditionalism, external pomp, adherence to strict ritual, arrogance and didactics, born of the consciousness of its superiority over the culture of peoples of all the rest of the world.

Late Byzantine culture. After the collapse of the empire in 1204, the development of culture in each of its “fragments” took place, at least until 1261, in isolation, without living permanent connections. Despite this important circumstance, it remained, as it was before, Byzantine in its core, centuries-old values ​​and traditions remained unshaken in all important respects. Direct continuity with the culture of Constantinople was especially characteristic of the cultural development of the Nicaean Empire. During the Nicene period, the “Palaeologian revival” was mainly prepared, which began 20 years after the recapture of the capital (1261). It was during the Nicene period that a new feature appeared in the spiritual appearance of the Byzantine - the awareness of belonging to the Greek ethnos, which, in addition to the “common Sheromey”, had its own special properties and its own special place among other peoples.

In the territories captured by the crusaders, the pace of development of local culture slowed down (its elite emigrated, and those who remained did not have enough funds to maintain the previous level of education and art). Nevertheless, even under foreign rule, the general cultural appearance and inner world of the population also remained Byzantine, Eastern Christian. Manifestations of the synthesis of local and Western cultures here were more distinct, but even here it took place on the basis of predominantly Byzantine culture, even in the circles of the highest nobility of the conquerors: “Latins” were Greekized. Latin Romagna played the role of an intermediary in the transfer to the West of the works of ancient and Byzantine authors. In turn, under the influence of the Latin West, a chivalric romance arose in Byzantium, and motifs of courtly lyricism penetrated into poetry.

Cultural rise of the XIV-XV centuries. occurred against the backdrop of the rapid decline of the empire as a powerful state, exhausted from internal troubles and attacks from external enemies. In the 7th century a similar situation led to a temporary cultural decline, but now, on the contrary, to the activation cultural life. The reason for this difference was primarily in the higher level, in the greater resistance of the Byzantine culture to beginning of XIII V. This time the drama of the general situation caused a wider resonance in society. Contrary to the ineradicable ideas of the Byzantines about the “chosenness” of the empire, which claimed primacy in the civilized world, it was recently, in recent memory, defeated and humiliated by the crusaders and now again, after a short strengthening, it was losing strength, and in the last century it has declined altogether to the position of a vassal of the infidel Turks. All this heated up the emotional sphere, prompted cultural circles to feverishly look for a way out, to live in constant intellectual tension. Active connections with representatives of Western culture, especially with Italian humanists, provided new food for thought. In the 7th century the empire was alone before the hordes of barbarians; now it was part of the Christian world. Despite unfounded fears of the West, hope glimmered in the minds of many prominent Byzantines; a real alternative seemed to exist: either to buy the help of the Western powers at the cost of confessional concessions to the papacy, or to find a compromise with the Ottomans without sacrificing faith.

The culture of the Palaiologan era testifies to the development of qualitatively new processes within it and the acceleration of the pace of progress in various spheres of the spiritual life of society. New condition: in more freedom judgments on matters of faith and in criticism of orthodox Christianity, in greater tolerance towards people of other faiths, in a more rationalistic understanding of natural phenomena, in increasing attention to inner world a person, in respect for his personality, in recognizing as a virtue not only piety and humility, but also decency - as a standard of behavior and service to the fatherland, as a moral duty. This was generally the position of that part of the Byzantine intellectuals who were bearers of humanistic tendencies. Among them were the outstanding scientists Theodore Metochites, Manuel Chrysolor, George Gemistus Plithon, and Vissarion of Nicaea. Closely associated with the figures of the Italian Renaissance, they did not, however, become ideologists of humanism in the true sense. The ground for this socio-cultural trend was not yet prepared by the processes of the historical development of the empire. The most radical ideas were expressed by Plitho, namely: the renunciation of private ownership of land, state management of production activities, a return to reformed ancient paganism as the religion of the authentic Greeks, and the liquidation of monasteries. The position of the “humanists,” especially their thesis that church concessions to the papacy are a completely acceptable price for saving the empire, caused sharp criticism, which acquired socio-political significance. Their irreconcilable opponents turned out to be much more numerous circles among the educated secular nobility and especially among the clergy.

These were hesychasts - followers of a mystical teaching that was popular in the empire during the last century of its existence. The foundations of this teaching were laid many centuries ago in the monastic environment, especially by Simeon the New Theologian. For a long time it remained the theoretical basis of devout asceticism for a few circles of ascetic monasticism. In the middle of the 14th century, in conditions of instability and acute anxiety for the fate of the empire and the faith, it was thoroughly developed by Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessalonica (c. 1297-1359). Palamas taught that salvation is possible through lifetime merging with God through individual religious asceticism and ecstasy, through deep mental prayer in a state of absolute physical peace (“hesychia”) and complete detachment from material thoughts. The monk Varlaam, who came from Calabria and defended the primacy of reason over faith, as well as the writers and theologians Nicephorus Gregoras and Gregory Akindinus, opposed Palamas’ theory. The disputes surrounding hesychasm involved court circles and the emperor himself. In 1351, a church council in the capital, with the active intervention of the usurper emperor John VI Cantacuzenus (1347-1354), not only condemned Palamas’ opponents, but also recognized his teaching as canonically impeccable. Hesychasm quickly became the dominant ideological doctrine in the empire and soon spread widely in other Orthodox countries, outliving its theoretician for several centuries.

The social role of hesychasm cannot be assessed unambiguously. It is unlikely that hesychasm in the political situation of the last century of the empire turned out to be a timely, life-inspired doctrine capable of giving an ideological impetus to mobilize the forces of society in a period of mortal danger. The hesychasts, strengthening believers in selfless devotion to Orthodoxy, preached as a path to salvation conscious withdrawal from the pressing problems of life, at a time when energetic and decisive actions and a sober assessment of the real state of affairs were necessary. (It is known that many Byzantines placed all their hopes in God, expecting a supernatural miracle until the last hour of the struggle). The cultural and ideological role of hesychasm is assessed differently. He approved a highly humane moral code, developed a system of spiritual self-improvement for believers, and created a harmonious aesthetic concept, concentrated on reflecting the spiritual world of man, influenced the development of the fine arts, strengthening their traditional loyalty to “classicism”. Hesychasm did not gain undivided dominance in painting: it was opposed by a new movement that gravitated towards realism. This movement is characterized by dynamism, expression, emotionality of drawing, as well as new writing techniques - a fresh play of chiaroscuro, a colorful palette, multidimensionality of space and composition. A striking example of Byzantine fine art rising to new heights are the mosaics of the Chora monastery near Constantinople (now the Kahrie-Jami Mosque), which also gives an idea of ​​the skill of the architects of late Byzantium.

Interpreting the ideas of the “humanists” as heresy, and the tendency towards union as a betrayal of Orthodoxy, the hesychasts, with the support of the highest authorities, won, depriving the “humanists” of any influence on public life and pushing many of them to emigrate to the West (mainly to Italy), for which, however, some of them were already ready.

Rich historiography of the 13th-15th centuries. developed the traditions of the genre of historical writing of the Komninian time. Among the historians of the later era, John Cantacuzene stands out, who wrote his work after abdicating the throne as a resourceful, intelligent apology for the actions of his person, guilty of civil war(he was a usurper) and in the appearance of the first Ottoman hordes on the land of the empire (they were his allies in the fight against the legitimate emperors). 15th century historian Dukas described the tragic days of the siege, assault and fall of Constantinople in May 1453. The historical and ethnographic work of Laonicus Chalkokondylos is unique. His writing is a series of short stories; In the author’s field of vision, not only the Turks, but almost all countries and peoples of Europe. In terms of the nature of the presentation of the material, Chalkokondylus’s work, although distinguished by an archaic style, sometimes approaches artistic prose, which in this era was distinguished by a wide variety of genres.

The Ottoman conquest sent Byzantine culture to an unprecedented height. But the decline of the empire did not mean the disappearance of its culture. Firstly, it remained the foundation for the further development of Greek culture, nourishing the consciousness of their own identity and ethnocultural uniqueness. Secondly, its traditions were preserved in all Orthodox countries (Rus, Bulgaria, Serbia, Georgia), despite all the vicissitudes of their destinies. Thirdly, the legacy of this culture continued to develop in the only Orthodox country that remained outside the rule of Muslims - Muscovite Rus'. Fourthly, and finally, the spiritual values ​​of Byzantine culture formed an integral part of world culture, enriching both the culture of the Renaissance and the culture of Europe as a whole in subsequent periods of its history.

Byzantium existed from 395 to 1453. The history of its origin is as follows. In 330, on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium, the new capital of the Roman Empire was founded Constantinople, named after Emperor Constantine. In 395, the empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern, and the latter - the Eastern Roman Empire - subsequently became known as Byzantium. moreover, after the empire itself ceased to exist. This name was given to it by European thinkers of the New Age with the intention of excommunicating Byzantium from ties with Greco-Roman culture and including it entirely in the “Dark Middle Ages” of the Eastern type.

However, the Byzantines themselves would not agree with such a point of view. They called themselves “Romans”, i.e. the Romans, and its capital Constantinople - the “second Rome”, with good reason.

Byzantium became a worthy heir to ancient culture. She successfully continued the further development of the best achievements of Roman civilization. The new capital, Constantinople, jealously and not without success competed with Rome, quickly becoming one of the most beautiful cities of that time. It had large squares decorated with triumphal columns with statues of emperors, beautiful temples and churches, grandiose aqueducts, magnificent baths, and impressive defensive structures. Along with the capital, many other cultural centers developed in Byzantium - Alexandria. Antioch, Nicaea. Ravenna, Thessaloniki.

Became the first in the full sense Christian culture. It was in Byzantium that the formation of Christianity was completed, and it first acquired a complete, classical form in its orthodox, or Orthodox,versions. Played a huge role in this John of Damascus(c. 675 - until 753) - an outstanding theologian, philosopher and poet, author of the fundamental philosophical and theological work “The Source of Knowledge.” He completed and systematized Greek patristics, the so-called teaching of the “Church Fathers,” thanks to which Christianity rose to the level of a real theory. All subsequent theology is, to one degree or another, based on the ideas and concepts of John of Damascus. He is also the creator of church hymns.

He also made a huge contribution to the formation and establishment of Orthodox Christianity John Chrysostom(c. 350-407) - an outstanding representative of the art of church eloquence, bishop of Constantinople. His sermons, eulogies and psalms were a huge success. He became famous as a passionate denouncer of all injustice, a fighter for the implementation of the ascetic ideal. John Chrysostom placed active mercy above all miracles.

Continuing and developing the theory of Roman law, Byzantine scholars developed their own original concept, known as Byzantine law. Its basis was the famous Codification of Justinian (482-565), the Byzantine emperor who was the first to give a systematic presentation of the new law. Byzantine law found application in many European and Asian countries of that era.

At the same time, Byzantine culture was significantly influenced by neighboring eastern countries, especially Iran. This influence affected almost all areas of social and cultural life. In general, the culture of Byzantium was a real crossroads of Western and Eastern cultures, a kind of bridge between East and West.

The evolution of Byzantine culture had several ups and downs. First bloom falls on the 5th-61st centuries, when the transition from slavery to the feudal system was completed in Byzantium. Emerging feudalism carried both Western and Eastern features. In particular, it was distinguished from Western Europe by the strict centralization of state power and the tax system, the growth of cities with their lively trade and crafts, and the absence of a clear estate-class division of society. In the 6th century, under Justinian. Byzantium reached its greatest territorial size and became a powerful Mediterranean power.

IN VI11-IX centuries Byzantium is experiencing troubled times, marked by a sharp aggravation of socio-political contradictions, the source of which was the struggle for power between the capital and provincial nobility. During this period, an iconoclasm movement arose, directed against the cult of icons, which were declared a relic of idolatry. By the end of the 9th century. icon veneration was again restored.

X-XII centuries became time another rise and prosperity Byzantium. It establishes close ties with Kievan Rus. The role of Christianity and the Church during this period increases significantly. In artistic culture, a mature medieval style is finally emerging, main feature which spiritualism stands for.

XIII century presented to Byzantium the most difficult trials conditioned primarily crusades. In 1204, the crusaders took Constantinople. The capital was plundered and destroyed, and Byzantium itself ceased to exist as an independent state. Only in 1261 did Emperor Michael VIII manage to restore and revive the Byzantine Empire.

In the XIV-XV centuries. She is worrying its last rise and flowering, which is especially evident in artistic culture. However, the capture of Constantinople by Turkish troops in 1453 meant the end of Byzantium.

Recognized with the highest achievements art culture Byzantium. Its originality lies in the fact that it combines seemingly incompatible principles. On the one hand, it is characterized by excessive luxury and splendor, bright entertainment. On the other hand, it is characterized by sublime solemnity, deep spirituality and refined spiritualism. These features were fully manifested in the architecture of Byzantine temples and churches.

Byzantine temple differs significantly from the ancient classical temple. The latter acted as the abode of God, while all rituals and celebrations took place outside, around the temple or in the adjacent square. Therefore, the main thing in the temple was not the interior. and the exterior, its appearance. On the contrary, the Christian church is built as a place where believers gather. Therefore, the organization of internal space comes to the fore, although the appearance does not lose its importance.

It is in this spirit that the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537), which became the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture. Its authors are the architects Anthymius and Isidore. Outwardly, it does not look too grandiose, although it is distinguished by severity, harmony and splendor of forms. However, inside it seems truly immense. The effect of boundless space is created primarily by the huge dome with a diameter of 31 m, located at a height of 55 m, as well as the adjacent sub-domes, expanding the already huge space.

The dome has 400 longitudinal windows, and when sunlight floods the space under the dome, it seems to float in the air. All this makes the design surprisingly light, elegant and free.

Inside the cathedral there are more than 100 columns decorated with malachite and porphyry. The vaults are decorated with mosaics with a symbolic image of a cross, and the walls are lined with the most valuable types of marble and decorated with mosaic paintings containing various religious subjects and portraits of emperors and members of their families.

The Temple of Sophia has become a rare creation of human genius, a true masterpiece of not only Byzantine, but also world art. The temple is notable for another reason. that it organically combines two main types of construction: basilica and cross-domed.

Basilica It is a rectangular building, divided inside by rows of columns, five or more longitudinal naves, the middle of which is usually wider and higher than the side ones. The eastern side of the basilica ends with a semicircular projection - an apse, where the altar is located, and on the western side there is an entrance.

Cross-dome The building's plan is most often square. Inside, it has four massive pillars that divide the space into nine cells framed by arches and support the dome located in the center. The semi-cylindrical vaults adjacent to the dome form an equilateral cross. Until the 9th century. The predominant type of Byzantine church was the basilica, and then the increasingly complex cross-domed one.

In addition to Constantinople, a large number of architectural monuments are also concentrated in Ravenna, a city on the northern Italian coast of the Adriatic. Here is the impressive mausoleum of Galla Placidia, a Byzantine queen of the 5th century. In Ravenna there is the original octagonal church of San Vitale (VI century). Finally, here is also the tomb of the great Dante (XV century).

Byzantine architects successfully built outside the borders of their empire. One of the brightest successes in this regard was the Cathedral of San Marco (St. Mark) in Venice (11th century), which is a five-nave basilica in which an equal-pointed cross is inscribed. Each of the sections of the cross, covered with a separate dome, repeats in the overall design system the single theme of a cross in a square. In the center of the cathedral is the largest dome. The inside of the temple is lined with marble slabs and decorated with polychrome mosaics.

In the last period of the existence of Byzantium (X111-XV centuries), its architecture became more and more complex. Grandiose structures seem to break up into several small independent buildings. At the same time, the role of exterior decoration of buildings is increasing. A typical example of such a structure is the Chora Monastery in Constantinople, which was later rebuilt into the Kakhriz Jami Church.

The culture of Byzantium was famous not only for its architectural masterpieces. Other types and genres of art developed no less successfully: mosaic, fresco, icon painting, book miniatures, literature. First of all, it deserves special mention mosaic. It should be emphasized that in this genre of art Byzantium has no equal. Byzantine craftsmen knew all the secrets of making smalt with wonderful properties, and also knew how, with the help of skillful techniques, to transform the original variety of colors into an amazingly picturesque whole. Thanks to this, they created unsurpassed mosaic masterpieces.

Beautiful mosaics adorn the Temple of Sophia and other architectural monuments mentioned above, of which the tombs of Ravenna deserve special mention, where the main subject of the mosaic is Christ the Good Shepherd. There were magnificent mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, destroyed by war in 1922. Rarely beautiful mosaics adorn the Church of Demetrius in Thessalonica.

By the 11th century. A complete, classical style of Byzantine mosaic emerged. It is distinguished by a strict system of arrangement of plots that illustrate and reveal the main themes and dogmas of Christianity. According to this system, a half-length image of Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator) is placed in the dome of the temple, and in the apse altar there is a figure of Our Lady Oranta praying with raised hands. On the sides of the fire there are figures of archangels, and in the bottom row - the apostles. It is in this style that many mosaic cycles of the 11th-11th centuries were executed. both in Byzantium itself and beyond its borders.

Reaches a high level in Byzantium iconography. which is a type of easel cult painting. The period of the first heyday of Byzantine icon painting occurred in the 10th-19th centuries... when the image occupied a dominant position in the icon human figure, and other elements - the landscape and architectural background - are conveyed very conditionally. Among the outstanding examples of icon painting of this period is the icon of Gregory the Wonderworker (12th century), which is distinguished by deep spirituality, delicate design and rich color. It is especially important to note icon of the Vladimir Mother of God(XII century), which became the main icon of the Russian Orthodox Church in Rus' and remains so to this day. The Mother of God and Child depicted on it is endowed with a soulful expression and, for all its holiness and spirituality, is filled with deep humanity and emotionality.

The next and last period of icon painting’s heyday occurred in the 14th-15th centuries, from which only a large number of beautiful icons. Like all painting, iconography of this period undergoes noticeable changes. The color scheme becomes more complex, which is facilitated by the use of halftones. The naturalness and humanity of the depicted figures increases, they become lighter and more mobile, and are often depicted in motion.

An outstanding example of such painting is the icon of the Twelve Apostles (XIV century). The apostles depicted on it appear in different poses and clothes, they behave freely and relaxed, as if talking to each other. The front figures are larger than the back ones, their faces are voluminous due to the use of subtle highlights. In the 15th century In icon painting, the graphic element is enhanced; icons are executed with shading with thin parallel lines. A striking example of this style is the icon “The Descent of Christ into Hell” (15th century).

Like architecture and mosaics, icon painting became widespread outside Byzantium. Many Byzantine masters worked successfully in Slavic countries - Serbia, Bulgaria, Rus'. One of them, the great Theophanes the Greek, created his works in the 14th century. in Rus'. From him, the paintings in the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, as well as the icons in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, have come down to us.

In 1453, under the onslaught of the Turks, Byzantium became pope, but its culture continues to exist today. It occupies a worthy place in world culture. Byzantium made its main contribution to world spiritual culture primarily through establishment and development of Orthodox Christianity. No less significant was her contribution to artistic culture, to the development of architecture, mosaics, icon painting, and literature. It should be especially noted its beneficial effect on the formation and development.