Philosophical teachings of China. Mencius, Chinese philosopher: biography, teachings, quotes

China is known for its picturesque nature, majestic architecture and unique culture. But besides all this, the Celestial Empire is a country with a rich historical past, which includes the birth of philosophy. According to research, this science began its development in China. The treasury of eastern wisdom has been replenished over the years, centuries, centuries. And now, using quotes from the great sages of China, we don’t even suspect it. Moreover, we know nothing about their authors, although this is not only useful, but also interesting information.

The main book of ancient Chinese philosophers is "Book of Changes" . Its key role lies in the fact that most famous philosophers turned to it, tried to interpret it in their own way and based their philosophical reflections on it.

The most famous philosopher of Ancient China - (604 BC - 5th century BC e.)

It is he who is the creator of the treatise Tao Te Tzu. He is considered the founder of Taoism - the doctrine according to which Tao is the highest matter, which gives rise to everything that exists. It is a universally accepted fact that “Lao Tzu” is not the real name of the philosopher. His birth name Li Er, but in ancient times the names Li and Lao were similar. The name "Lao Tzu" translates to "Old Sage". There is a legend that the sage was born an old man, and his mother was pregnant for more than 80 years. Of course, modern researchers critically question this information. Lao Tzu's life was unremarkable: work at the emperor's court and philosophical reflections. But it was these reflections and works that made him the most famous philosopher and sage of Ancient China.

2. Confucius

3.Mencius

The next philosopher, about whom many who were interested in the culture of China have also heard, is Mencius. Philosopher whose teachings became the basis for Neo-Confucianism. The sage argued that a person is born initially good, and under the influence of his environment becomes what he is in the end. I published my thoughts in the book Mengzi. The philosopher also believed that any type of activity should be distributed according to a person’s abilities. For example, high ranks should be held by those who are intellectually gifted, and people capable only of physical activities should be subordinate to them. From a logical point of view, the theory is quite reasonable.

4. Gongsun Long

Have you ever heard of the School of Names? An analogue of such a school in Greece was the School of Sophists. The representative of the School of Names of China was a philosopher Gongsun Long. It is he who owns the quote “a white horse is not a horse.” Sounds absurd, doesn't it? Thanks to such statements, Gongsun deservedly received the nickname “master of paradoxes.” His statements are not clear to everyone, even if there is an interpretation. Perhaps for this you need to retire somewhere in the valley, with a cup of Chinese tea, and think about why a white horse is not really white.

5. Zou Yan

But the philosopher who decided to discuss the horse - Zou Yan- argued that the white horse is, in fact, white. This sage was a representative of the Yin Yang school. However, he was not only engaged in philosophy. His works in the field of geography and history have been preserved, which are confirmed even now. In other words, the definitions and patterns of Zou Yan, which were created thousands of years ago, are confirmed by modern scientists. Just imagine how intellectually developed this person was to describe the world around him so accurately!

6. Xunzi

An atheist sage can be considered Xunzi. The philosopher held high ranks more than once, but, unfortunately, did not last long in any of them. I had to part with one position because of slander, and I had to resign from another. Deciding that he could not build a successful career, Xunzi plunged headlong into thought and the creation of the treatise “Xugenzi” - the first philosophical work in which the thoughts of the sage were not only presented, but also systematized. Thanks to this, his quotes have come to us in the exact wording of their creator. The Chinese philosopher believed that a person’s Spirit appears only when he has fulfilled his true destiny. And all processes in the world are subject to the laws of Nature.

7. Han Fei

Taking his place among philosophers with rather strange statements Han Fei. The sage was born in the royal house and studied under Xun Tzu. But from birth he had speech defects, which undoubtedly influenced the attitude of others towards him. Perhaps this is why his thoughts differ significantly from the thoughts of his predecessors. For example, according to his treatise, mental and moral data do not in any way affect the qualities of the ruler as such, and subjects are obliged to obey any of his orders. For him, the ideal form of government was despotism. Although given his noble origins, this is not surprising. It seems that Han Fei, in his thoughts, imagined himself in the place of a ruler and sovereign.

8. Dong Zhongshu

A significant figure in the history of the development of Confucianism was Dong Zhongshu. This man not only thought, but also acted. It was thanks to this philosopher that Confucianism was presented as the main teaching of the Han Dynasty. It was according to his dogmas that life in the state developed, rulers were elected and decisions were made. According to his worldview, the ruler was sent to people from Heaven and all his further actions should be for the benefit of the people and to maintain harmony. But Heaven in its own way controls this process and if something goes wrong, it sends various natural disasters (flood, drought, etc.) to the state. Dong Zhongshu outlined all his ideas in the work “The Abundant Dew of the Chronicle of Chunqiu.”

9. Wang Chong

Not only was Zou Yan a philosopher and scientist, but also Wang Chong, who worked both in the fields of philosophy and in the fields of medicine and astronomy. He wrote a detailed description of the natural water cycle. And in philosophical ideas, the sage adhered to Taoism and interpreted the “Book of Changes.” The philosopher was repeatedly offered the position of court scientist, but having a freedom-loving and fairly independent character, Wang Chong refused each time, explaining this by poor health.

10. Wang Yangming

In historical and philosophical science today there is no generally accepted point of view on the periodization of the development of Chinese philosophy. We will consider its content in accordance mainly with chronological periods, distinguished on the basis of ruling dynasties, as many authors do.

The Origin of Chinese Philosophy. Chinese philosophy originates and develops during the period of dynasties Shan(XVIII - XII centuries BC) and Zhou(XI - III centuries BC). Its philosophy is rooted in mythological thinking. Already within the framework of mythology, the highest principle governing the world order stands out. During the Shang Dynasty, such a higher principle, the deity who created everything that exists, was considered shandy(Supreme Emperor), and during the Zhou Dynasty the idea of “ by the will of Heaven"as about the omnipotent first principle and first cause of all things.

Simultaneously with the spread of the religious worldview, philosophical thinking began to emerge and develop. Already during the Shang Dynasty, ideas about dark and light beginnings. Dark and light began to be viewed as properties inherent in objects, the opposition of which causes development and changes in things and processes. These views were first recorded in inscriptions on fortune-telling books and bones, in which a sunny day was called bright, and a cloudy day - not bright.

These and similar ideas, as they develop, begin to be filled with deeper meaning and broader content. The light principle began to express not only the “bright day”, but also the properties of the sky, sun, hardness, strength, man, etc., and the dark beginning - the properties of the earth, moon, night, cold, softness, weakness, woman, etc. .d. Gradually, ideas about dark and light acquire abstract meaning.

"Book of Changes". The origins of the philosophy of Ancient China should be sought in the first, and still semi-mythical monuments of Chinese writing, especially the famous “Book of Changes” (“I Ching”), comments on which laid the foundation for the philosophy of China.

“The Book of Changes” is one of the main sources that contains the basic principles for the development of philosophical thinking in China. Its texts were created at different times (XII-VI centuries BC). In the “Book of Changes” one can trace the transition from a mythological reflection of the world to its philosophical understanding. The text of this book reflects the ancient myths of China about two principles (spirits) - Yin and Yang, which here acquire a conceptual form.

Ian- this is a masculine, bright and active principle (spirit). It rules the sky. Yin is the feminine, dark and passive principle. It rules the earth. In this case, we are not talking about a dualistic, but rather a dialectical connection between them, because Yang and Yin can not act in isolation from each other, but only in interaction, in combining their forces. The alternation of Yang and Yin is called way (tao) which all things pass through. "Book of Changes" and traces Tao- the way of things and the way of the world in motion. One of the main tasks of a person is to understand his place in the world, “to unite his strength with heaven and earth.”

Thus, already in the “Book of Changes” the naive dialectic of Chinese philosophical thought is set out, which is associated with the affirmation of the contradictory nature of the world, mutual attraction and mutual alienation of light and dark, development and change of the world.

Philosophy in the Chunqiu – Zhanguo period. Period Chunqiu(VIII-V centuries BC) - Zhanguo(V – III centuries BC) is a time of major changes in China. During this period, a transition to a feudal society took place, which could not help but have an impact on all aspects of life, including the worldview of people. In China, a situation arose called " rivalry between all schools" and gave a powerful impetus to the development of philosophical thought. Among these schools, the main six are:

school of service people (Confucians);

school of Mohists (followers of Mo Tzu);

school of lawyers (legists); school of nominalists (school of names);

school of supporters of yin and yang (natural philosophers).

Particularly notable among these schools are Confucianism And Taoism Let us dwell on the main provisions of the main schools.

Confucianism. This is one of the most important areas of development of Chinese philosophy, covering the periods of ancient and medieval Chinese society. The founder of this direction was Confucius(551 - 479 BC). In literature he is often called Kunzi, which means teacher Kun. And this is no coincidence; already at the age of just over 20 he became famous as the most famous teacher in China. The main source of his teachings is the book “ Lun Yu» (« Conversations and judgments") - statements and conversations with students recorded by his followers.

At the center of his teaching is Human, his mental and moral development and behavior. Concerned about the decomposition of his contemporary society and the decline of morals, Confucius paid main attention to issues of education ideal, noble person(jun-tzu), which should be carried out in a spirit of respect for surrounding people and society. It should include the development of appropriate rules of behavior and the obligation for each person to fulfill his functions, and the person himself is considered by Confucius as a functional element of society, as a human function subordinate to society.

The noble husband has his antipode - the so-called “low man” (xiao ren). Such is the one who in his actions is guided only by considerations of personal gain, who looks for accomplices everywhere, but does not respect either them or himself, who seeks favors, and having received what he wants, forgets about gratitude. When Teacher Kun contrasts a noble man with a low man, his words speak for themselves:

A noble husband lives in harmony with everyone. A low person seeks his own kind.

A noble husband is impartial and does not tolerate groupism. The low man loves to push people together and form cliques.

A noble husband endures adversity with fortitude. A lowly man in trouble blossoms.

A noble man awaits the commands of Heaven with dignity. The low man hopes for good luck.

A noble husband helps people see the good in themselves and does not teach people to see the bad in themselves. But a short person does the opposite.

A noble husband is serene in his soul. A low person is always preoccupied.

What a noble man seeks is found within himself. What the low person seeks is found in others.

The main quality of a noble husband, brought up by ritual and music, Confucius called “humanity” (zhen). Hieroglyph zhen consists of the signs “man” and “two”, that is, it denoted relationships between people, something interhuman, which in the Chinese tradition was considered the true existence of a person. In Conversations and Judgments, humanity is discussed quite often, although the Teacher himself, according to the testimony of his students, spoke about it reluctantly. And when he spoke, he defined it differently each time. After all, each case requires its own word and deed. To be humane for Confucius just means to be different with different people. Once, to the question: “What is humanity,” the Teacher answered: “to love people.” This answer concerns the essence of the moral ideal. And if we want to know what a person with humanity should be like, then we will have to turn to another explanation: “A person endowed with humanity has five qualities: he is courteous, generous, honest, diligent and kind. He who is courteous in his manners will avoid insults. He who is generous will attract people to him. One who is honest will enjoy the trust of others. He who is diligent will achieve success. He who is good will be able to use people in his service.” Some of Confucius’s judgments emphasize the inextricable connection of “humanity” with ritual, and once the Teacher explained the meaning of “humanity” in the words of his famous maxim, which resembles the Gospel commandment: “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.”

The basis of all social and moral norms of behavior and education for Confucius is religious ritual. Essentially, the entire text of Lun Yu is his description. It can be said that in ritual Confucius discovered a new type of wisdom and philosophy. The core of wisdom is the observance of ritual, and the essence of philosophy is its correct explanation and understanding. And here, as in ancient Indian philosophy, the difference between the understanding of philosophy itself and the Western European tradition is very clearly revealed.

In accordance with the importance of religious ritual for a person, Confucius considered the impoverishment of religious feelings and non-observance of ritual to be the cause of unrest in society. He considered the unifying universal principle of all people and their unity with the cosmos to be a respectful attitude towards Heaven, a feeling of divine unity. And God was for him Heaven, as a sacred moral element that governs the whole world. The king himself had the title “Son of Heaven” and was seen as a mediator between Heaven and people. According to Confucius, the manifestation of this divine moral power on earth is a ritual, which initially had a sacred character.

The manifestation of ren are all the moral qualities of a person, but the basis of ren is xiao, which occupies a special place among other categories. Xiao means filial piety, respect for parents and elders. Xiao- and the most effective method of governing the country, which was considered by Confucius as a big family. Therefore, the relationship between the ruler and the subject should, Confucius believes, be built similar to the relationship between father and son, older brother and younger.

The concept of “Junzi” is also of great importance in educating zheng ming" - "name corrections" Its essence is that all things must be brought into accordance with their names.

Therefore, government activity, for example, should begin with the “correction of names,” and the noble man “first sees the deed in the word, and acts after what is said.”

If “the names are wrong, the speech is inconsistent; when speech is contradictory, things do not succeed.” It is important to note that Confucius did not separate word and deed, but considered them in unity. It is enough to quote his famous aphorism: “I listen to people’s words and look at their actions.”

You should also pay attention to the concept “ golden mean» Confucius. “The path of the golden mean” is one of the main elements of his ideology and the most important principle of virtue, for “the golden mean, as a virtuous principle, is the highest principle.” And it must be used in governing the people to mitigate contradictions, without allowing either “excess” or “lag.” Here the thinker is actually talking about affirming the need for compromise in social management.

The ideas of Confucius played a major role in the development of all aspects of the life of Chinese society, including in the formation of its philosophical worldview. He himself became an object of worship, and in 1503 he was canonized. Philosophers who support and develop the teachings of Confucius are called Confucians, and the general direction is Confucianism. After the death of Confucius, Confucianism split into a number of schools. The most significant of which were: the idealistic school Mencius(about 372 - 289 BC) and the materialist school Xunzi(about 313 -238 BC). However, Confucianism remained the dominant ideology in China until the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Taoism(from Chinese Tao Jia - school of Tao). Along with Confucianism, Taoism is the most important philosophical school in China, which arose in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Its founder is considered to be Lao Tzu (VI – V centuries BC)

At the center of Taoist teaching is the category Tao(literally - path, road). Tao is the invisible universal natural law of nature, human society, behavior and thinking of an individual. Tao is inseparable from the material world and governs it. It is no coincidence that Tao is sometimes compared to logos. ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

The doctrine of Tao reveals elements of the original dialectic: Tao is empty and at the same time inexhaustible; it is inactive, but thereby does everything; rests and moves at the same time; it is a beginning for itself, but it has neither beginning nor end, etc. Knowledge of Tao is identical to knowledge of the universal, internal law of self-development of nature and its self-organization. In addition, knowledge of Tao presupposes the ability to comply with this law.

In Taoism, everyone needs to abide by the principle of following the Tao as the universal law of the spontaneous arising and disappearing of the entire universe. One of the main categories of Taoism is connected with this - inaction, or inaction. While observing the law of Tao, a person can remain inactive. Lao Tzu therefore denies any effort by both the individual and society in relation to nature, for any tension leads to disharmony and increasing contradictions between man and the world. And those who seek to manipulate the world are doomed to failure and death. The main principle of personal behavior is maintaining the “measure of things.” Therefore, non-action ( wu wei) and is one of the main and central ideas of Taoism, it is this that leads to happiness, prosperity and complete freedom.

From here, a wise ruler follows the Tao, without doing anything to rule the country, and then the people prosper, and order and harmony naturally reign in society. In Tao, everyone is equal - noble and slave, ugly and handsome, rich and poor, etc. Therefore, the sage looks equally at both one and the other. He strives to unite with eternity and does not regret either life or death, for he understands their inevitability, that is, he looks at the world as if from the outside, detached and detached. As can be seen, this point of view is the opposite of the concept of "junzi" in Confucianism, in which a "noble man" should engage in self-improvement and take part in governing others.

Taoism, like Confucianism, had a significant influence on the further development of culture and philosophy in China.

Also in the history of philosophy of Ancient China played an important role Mohism And legalism.

Mohism(Mohist school) - got its name from its founder Mo Tzu(Mo Di) (about 475 - 395 BC). In his early years, Mo Tzu was a follower of Confucius, but then he broke with his school and founded a new, opposite direction - Mohism. At one time, Mo Tzu enjoyed the same fame as Confucius; they said about both: “famous scholars Kun and Mo.” Mohism spread to China in the 5th - 3rd centuries. BC e. This school was like a strictly structured paramilitary organization whose members strictly followed the orders of its head.

The titles of the chapters of the treatise “Mo Tzu” (“Treatise of Teacher Mo”) reflect the main provisions of the philosopher’s concept: “veneration of wisdom”, “honor of unity”, “universal love”, “on saving in expenses”, “denial of music and entertainment”, “denial of the will of Heaven”, etc. The main ideas of Mozi's philosophy are universal love, duty, prosperity and mutual benefit. According to his teachings, universality, love and humanity should be obligatory for all people in the state and everyone should be concerned about mutual benefits. He claims the unity of philanthropy and duty with the benefits they bring and thereby diverges from the Confucians. Considering benefit as the content and goal of philanthropy and duty, Mo Tzu develops the concept of utilitarianism, from which the teachings of Confucius were free. For the latter, it was duty and humanity that came first.

Mo-tzu paid the main attention to social ethics, which, through strict organization, is associated with the despotic power of the head of state. Speaking against Confucius, he argued that theorizing is a useless activity, the main thing is pragmatic expediency, labor activity.

Legalism. This school arose and took shape in the VI - II centuries. BC e. Legalism (from Lat. lex - gender from legis- law) is the teaching of the school of lawyers, which reveals ethical-political concept about the management of man, society and the state. Its most prominent representatives Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei. Its most prominent representative is Han Fei, who completed the construction of a theoretical system of legalism.

The formation of legalism took place in a sharp struggle with early Confucianism. Although both schools sought to create a powerful, well-governed state, they substantiated the principles and methods of its construction in different ways. Confucianism, as is known, proceeded from the moral qualities of people and emphasized the role and significance of ritual, moral norms in establishing order in the country and principles of governance. The legalists, on the contrary, proceeded from laws, arguing that politics is incompatible with morality. In their opinion, the ruler should exercise his main influence on the masses through rewards and punishments. In this case, punishment plays the main role. Management of the state and its development should be carried out not on the basis of good wishes, but by developing agriculture, strengthening the army and at the same time fooling the people.

The concept of the state created by the legalists was the theory of the despotic state. Everyone must be equal before the law, except the ruler himself, who is the only creator of laws. It was legalism that played a decisive role in the formation of the imperial-bureaucratic system of government in China, which lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. Instead of the traditional principle of inheritance of positions, they proposed a systematic renewal of the state apparatus by appointing officials to positions, equal opportunities for promotion to administrative posts, unification of the thinking of officials, and their personal responsibility.

The formation of ancient Chinese philosophy, like ancient Indian philosophy, is associated with the breakdown of traditional communal relations caused by economic progress, the emergence of money and private property, the growth of scientific knowledge, primarily in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine, which created fertile ground for spiritual

change. It is noteworthy that in China, the first “oppositionists” were the ascetic wandering sages, who prepared the onset of the “golden age” of Chinese philosophy in the era of “Zhang Guo” (“warring states”). Although individual philosophical ideas can be found in even more ancient cultural monuments, such as the Upanishads and partly the Rigveda in India, and in China the Shi Jing (Canon of Poems) and I Ching (Book of Changes), philosophical schools they were formed here at the same time - approximately in the 6th century. BC. Moreover, in both regions, philosophy, which developed anonymously for quite a long time, now becomes author's, associated with the names of Gautama-Buddha, the founder of Jainism, Mahavira, the first Chinese philosopher - Confucius, the Taoist sage - Lao Tzu, etc.

If in India numerous philosophical schools were in one way or another correlated with Vedism, then in China - with Confucian orthodoxy. True, in India, as noted above, the delimitation into separate schools did not lead to official recognition of the priority of any one of the philosophical directions, while in China Confucianism in the 2nd century. BC. achieved the state status of ideology, managing to maintain it until modern times. Along with Confucianism, the most influential in the rivalry of the “hundred schools” were Taoism, Mohism and Legalism.

Ancient Chinese philosophy also has other distinctive features:

A specific feature of Chinese philosophy was the principle of viewing the world (nature, man and his society) as a single universe, all elements of which are interconnected and are in dynamic balance.

Practicality, focus not on searching and developing an ideal in accordance with which reality should be changed, but on maintaining reality as it is. Hence the absence of any serious appeals (from the Latin appellation - appeal) to the supernatural, basing it on a completely achievable ideal of a social, ethical and political system. This ideal, of course, is illuminated by the blessing of Heaven, but nothing impossible was required to bring it into reality. All theories should simply focus the people on maintaining order. Therefore, Chinese written monuments discuss in great detail the methods of governing the state and the methods of human self-improvement.

The specificity of ancient Chinese philosophical thought is also due to the use of figurative and symbolic signs - hieroglyphs - in written speech. Pictographic (from Latin pictus - drawn and Greek grapho - writing; pictorial) writing developed an aesthetic and philological attitude to the text. This inevitably affected the substantive features of ideas about the world and man, and the culture of thinking of ancient Chinese philosophers in general.

Lack of conceptual apparatus, abstract speculation of a naturalistic and ideological order. Hence the weak connection with science, the underdevelopment of logic.

Internally, Chinese philosophy is unusually stable. The basis for such stability was the constant emphasis on the exclusiveness of the Chinese way of thinking. Its consequence was the gradual emergence and consolidation of a sense of the superiority of Chinese national speculation, its intolerance towards all other philosophical views.

An excellent illustration of what has been said can be the philosophical views of the above-mentioned ancient Chinese schools.

CONFUCIANITY. The founder of the scale is Confucius (Chinese - Kun Qiu, the Latinized version of the name Kun Fu-tzu - teacher Kun; 551-479 BC). He is considered the first Chinese philosopher, and his biography over the centuries-old history has naturally been enriched by later legends. It is known that at first he was a low official in the state of Lu, then for a number of years. wandered around Eastern China, and devoted the end of his life exclusively to his students. The main reliable source for the study of his views is the surviving records of the sayings of Confucius and his students in the book “Conversations and Judgments” (Lun Yu).

The concept of “heaven” and “heavenly decree” (order, i.e. fate) can be considered the starting point for Confucius. “Heaven” is both a part of nature and the highest spiritual force that determines nature and man (“Life and death are determined by fate, wealth and nobility depend on heaven”). A person endowed by heaven with certain ethical qualities must act in accordance with them, with the moral law (Tao) and improve them through training. The goal of improvement is to achieve the level of a “noble husband” (jun-tzu), observing li etiquette, kind and fair towards the people, respectful to elders and superiors.

The central place in the teachings of Confucius is occupied by the concept of ren (humanity) - the law of ideal relations between people in the family, society and state. It includes two basic principles that govern human existence: a) help others achieve what you yourself would like to achieve; b) what you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others.

To maintain subordination and order, Confucius developed the principle of justice and correctness (i). A person must act as his position and order dictate. Correct behavior is behavior in compliance with order and humanity, for “a noble man understands what is correct, just as small people understand what is profitable.” This is the way (tao) of all educated people who have moral strength (de) and who should be entrusted with the management of society.

These ethical principles underlie Confucius's political views. He advocated a strict, clear, hierarchical division of responsibilities between members of society, for which the family should serve as a model (“A ruler should be a ruler, and a subject should be a subject, a father should be a father, and a son should be a son”).

The main method of governing the people is the power of example and persuasion. A "noble husband", a member of the ruling elite, should not be angry, greedy, proud and cruel. Confucius condemned the persecution and murder of dissidents and rebellious people. If the leaders follow the right path" (tao), he taught, then "people with children behind their backs will come towards them from all sides."

After the death of Confucius, his teaching split into eight schools, only two of which are important: the idealistic school of Mencius (372-289 BC) and the materialistic school of Xunzi 298-238. BC.). According to the teachings of Mencius, people's lives are subject to the law of heaven, which is carried out by a wise ruler - the son of heaven. He must love the people like children, and the people honor him like a father. Man is naturally good; he has four qualities: compassion, shame, modesty, and the ability to distinguish truth from lies. Human unkindness is unnatural; it is a consequence of need and underdevelopment.

Humanity (ren), justice (yi), good morals (li) and knowledge (zhi), according to Mencius, are also innate to man. Ren and yi are the basis of the concept of “humane management” (ren zheng) of the state developed by Mencius, in which the main role was assigned to the people (“The people are the main thing in the state, followed by the spirits of the earth and grain, and the sovereign takes the last place”). If the sovereign ignores the principle of humanity, and replaces personal power emanating from knowledge with tyranny (ba), the people have the right to overthrow him.

In the teachings of Mencius, for the first time, the question of the relationship between the ideal (xin - heart, soul, mind or zhi - will) and the material (qi) principles in human nature was outlined, and he assigned the primary role to the will (zhi).

Xunzi proceeded from the concept of qi - primordial matter, or material force, which has two forms: yin and yang. The world exists and develops in accordance with natural, knowable patterns. The sky is an active natural element of the world; it does not control people, but, on the contrary, can be subordinated to them and used in the interests of people. Happiness and unhappiness, wealth and poverty, health and illness, order and disorder depend on man as a part of nature. Man is evil by nature (criticism of Mencius). He is born envious and malicious, with an instinctive sense of profit. It is necessary to influence him with the help of education (li-etiquette) and the law (Confucius rejected the law), force him to observe ritual, perform duty, and then he will have virtue and culture. Perfection is achieved through lifelong learning.

Xun Tzu considered the main links in governing the country to be fair orders and love for the people, reverence for ritual 1 and respect for scientists, reverence for the wise and the involvement of capable people in public affairs, and the measure of government was justice and peace.

TAOISM. Along with Confucianism, one of the two main movements of Chinese philosophy. The legendary founder is Lao Tzu (bit., lit. - old teacher; proper name - Li Er; 6th century BC). He is credited with compiling the book "Tao Te Jing" ("Book of Tao and Te"). In Taoism, unlike other schools, ontological problems are in the foreground. Tao is the natural path of origin, development and disappearance of all things and at the same time their material beginning. Tao is infinite, it cannot be grasped either by the mind or by feeling. Tao precedes God and dictates laws to heaven, heaven to earth, earth to man. Te is an indefinite, secondary principle, thanks to which Tao manifests itself in the world of things and fills them with energy.

The ethical ideal of Taoism is expressed in the concept of wu-wei (lit. - inaction, inaction) and is directed against legalists and Confucians. Wu-wei meant submission to the natural process, harmony with Tao, the absence of any action that goes against it and leads to freedom and happiness. The goal of behavior is to become like the Tao, which does not fight, but knows how to win; victorious inaction, the rest is vanity.

The Universe cannot be brought into order artificially; for it to reign, its innate qualities must be given freedom. Therefore, the best ruler is the one who does not interfere in anything and follows the Tao, ruling the country, and then it prospers, being in peace and harmony; the people know only the fact of its existence. The social ideal of the Taoists is a patriarchal, unenlightened life, since it is difficult to control a knowledgeable people; lack of external contacts, peace with neighbors.

MOISM. The school was named after the founder Mo Di (Mo Tzu; 5th century BC) and was a clearly structured paramilitary organization that strictly followed the orders of its head. The main idea of the philosophy of Mohism is “universal love”, i.e. abstract love of all for all, in contrast to Confucian reciprocity, interpreted as love for relatives. The absence of universal love is the cause of unrest, and “separate” love is the cause of “mutual hatred.” The Mohists also rejected the Confucian doctrine of fate. A person’s life, they argued, is determined by his free actions, and not by the orders of heaven, which only wants people to help each other, so that the strong do not oppress the weak, and the noble do not boast before the ignorant. Mo Tzu strongly condemned “wars of aggression,” declaring them the greatest and cruelest crime. The highest value, according to the teachings of Mohism, is the people, which rulers must love. By recognizing the existence of “spirits and ghosts” (they punish evil and reward good), “the will of heaven” (the guideline of human behavior), Mo Tzu introduced a religious stream into his teaching.

LEGISM (from Latin legis - law). THE SCHOOL OF LEGALISTS (2nd name of legalism) arose and took shape in the VI-III centuries. BC. Guan Zhong, Shang Yang, Han Fei and other philosophers actively participated in the development of the doctrine.

Legalism developed in an intense struggle with early Confucianism, together with which it sought to create a powerful, well-governed state, diverging, however, in the philosophical justification and methods of its construction. If Confucianism brought to the fore the moral qualities of people, then Legalism proceeded from the laws and proved that politics is incompatible with morality. The ruler needs to have a good understanding of the psychology of people in order to successfully manage them. The main method of influence is rewards and punishments, and the latter should prevail over the former. The state should be strengthened through the development of agriculture, the creation of a strong army capable of expanding the borders of the country, and the stupidity of the people.

The legalists created the concept of a despotic state in which everyone is equal before the law, with the exception of the ruler himself - the only creator of these laws. This doctrine played a decisive role in the formation of the imperial-bureaucratic system of government. His main ideas: state regulation of economic processes in the country; systematic renewal of the state apparatus through the appointment of officials (instead of the traditional principle of inheritance of positions); the introduction of a unified principle for assigning ranks of nobility, positions, privileges and salaries for service in the army and military merits; equal opportunities for promotion to administrative positions; clear gradation within the ruling class; unification (from Latin unus - one and fazio - I do; bringing to uniformity) of the thinking of bureaucrats; personal responsibility of an official; censorial supervision over the activities of government employees.

In the Han era (206 BC - 220 AD), Confucianism assimilated (from the Latin assimilation - assimilation, fusion, assimilation) the ideas of legalism, became the official ideology, and legalism ceased to exist as an independent teaching .

The philosophy of Ancient China dates back to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The formation of philosophical ideas in China took place in difficult social conditions. Already in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the state of Shang-Yin (XVII-XII centuries BC), a slave-owning economic system emerged, and the emergence of the economy of Ancient China began.

The labor of slaves, into whom captured prisoners were converted, was used in cattle breeding and agriculture. In the 12th century BC. e. As a result of the war, the state of Shan-Yin was defeated by the Zhou tribe, which founded its own dynasty that lasted until the 3rd century. BC e.

In the era of Shang-Yin and in the initial period of the existence of the Jou dynasty, the dominant religious-mythological worldview was dominant. One of the distinctive features of Chinese myths is the zoomorphic nature of the gods and spirits acting in them.

The supreme deity was Shang Di - the first ancestor and patron of the Chinese state. Both gods and spirits obeyed him. Often the personified power of Heaven appeared in the image of Shan-di. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, the impersonal but all-seeing Heaven controlled the entire course of events in the Universe, and its high priest and only representative on earth was the emperor, who bore the title of Son of Heaven.

The “first” feature of Chinese philosophy (or rather mythology) was the cult of ancestors, which was built on the recognition of the influence of the spirits of the dead on the life and fate of descendants. The responsibility of the ancestors who became spirits was to constantly care for their descendants living on earth.

The “second” feature of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of the world as an interaction of opposite principles: female yin and male yang. In ancient times, when there was neither heaven nor earth, the Universe was a dark, formless chaos. Two spirits were born in him - yin and yang, who began to organize the world. The yang spirit began to rule the sky, and the yin spirit began to rule the earth. In the myths about the origin of the Universe there are very vague, timid beginnings of natural philosophy.

To understand Chinese philosophy, it is necessary to take into account that China is a world of right-hemisphere culture, which is expressed in. The right hemisphere contains the world of visual images, musical melodies, and the centers of hypnosis and religious experiences are localized. In left-hemisphere cultures, the speech center and the center of logical thinking are powerfully developed. In right-hemisphere cultures, they hear and perceive sounds differently; it is very difficult for representatives of these cultures to express sounds literally; they perceive the world in specific, individual images.

Chinese philosophical thinking

Holism – The world and each individual are viewed as a “single whole”, more important than its constituent parts. Chinese holistic thinking emphasizes such characteristics of a phenomenon as “structure - function” rather than “substance - element”. The idea of the harmonious unity of man and the world is central to this thinking. Man and nature are considered not as subject and object opposing each other, but as a “holistic structure” in which body and spirit, somatic and mental are in harmonious unity.

Intuitiveness – in Chinese traditional philosophical thinking, methods of cognition similar to intuition are of great importance. The basis of this is holism. The “One” cannot be analyzed through concepts and reflected through language. To understand the “single integrity” one must rely only on intuitive insight.

Symbolism– traditional Chinese philosophical thinking used images (xingxiang) as a tool of thinking.

Tiyan - knowledge of the principles of the macrocosm was carried out through a complex cognitive act , including cognition, emotional experience and volitional impulses. Cognition was combined with aesthetic sensation and the will to implement moral norms in practice. The leading role in this complex was played by moral consciousness.

Philosophy – schools of ancient China

The beginning of a violent ideological struggle between various philosophical and ethical schools of ancient China caused deep political upheavals in the 7th-3rd centuries. BC e. -
the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, intense struggle between large kingdoms.

The Zhanguo period in the history of Ancient China is often called the “golden age of Chinese philosophy.” It was during this period that concepts and categories emerged, which would then become traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

At that time there was 6 (six) main philosophical schools:

: The Universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from plants to humans, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves people alone. Thinkers: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wen Tzu, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism : Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan
: The ruler and his officials must govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the governance of an oppressive centralized state were studied. Thinkers:, Tseng Tzu, Tzu Si, Yu Ruo, Tzu Gao, Mencius, Xun Tzu.
Mohism: the meaning of the teaching was the ideas of universal love and prosperity, everyone should care about mutual benefit. Representatives of Mohism : Mo Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang Tzu, Fu Dun.
law school : worked on problems of social theory and public administration. Representatives of the philosophical school: Ren Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, Han Feizi; They also include Shen Dao.
school of names : the discrepancy between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives of Shola names: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-kung.
“Yin-Yang” school (natural philosophers). Representatives of this school: Tzu-wei, Zou Yan, Zhang Tsang.

Practical philosophy prevailed in most schools, associated with problems of worldly wisdom, morality, management. The theory was most developed in Taoism.

The main problems posed by ancient Chinese philosophers

Society and man
Social and ethical problems were dominant in philosophical reflections.
In Ancient China, cosmogonic theories were put forward not so much to explain the origin of the infinite variety of natural phenomena, earth, sky, but to explain the fundamental basis of the state and the power of the ruler.

One of the main places in the socio-political and ethical views of ancient Chinese thinkers was occupied by the problem of pacifying society and effective government.

Human nature
In ancient Chinese society, due to the stability of the blood-related community (patronymy) a person was considered as a part of a community, clan, clan. Therefore, when considering the nature of man, ancient Chinese thinkers took as their object not the individual, but a certain abstraction, “man in general.”

In China, as the class struggle developed and property differentiation grew within the community, the process of distinguishing man as an individual took place; it gradually became the subject of reflection by philosophers.

The first question about human nature was raised by Confucius in his concept of education and training. .

The nature of knowledge and logical ideas
Human consciousness and thinking in Chinese philosophy became the subject of special research only at the end of the 4th century. before. n. e. Until this time, there were only isolated statements on the question of the nature of thinking.

The question of knowledge and its sources came down mainly to the study of ancient books and borrowing the experience of ancestors. Ancient Chinese thinkers were not interested in the conceptual and logical basis of knowledge.

Confucius considered the main method of obtaining knowledge to be learning, and the source of knowledge was ancient tradition and chronicles. He preached a way of perceiving knowledge through the prism of traditional institutions and adjusting new knowledge and new experience to the authorities of antiquity. Having turned into a tradition and habit consecrated by the authority of centuries, the Confucian way of thinking has become a serious obstacle to the development of science and thought in China .

China is a very ancient country that not only has a rich culture, but is also distinguished by its philosophy. It should be noted that Kipling also noted that the West and the East will never come together, they are so different. It is ancient Chinese philosophy that makes it possible to clearly demonstrate the difference in the culture and traditions of the two sides of the world.

Briefly about the philosophy of Ancient China

For the countries of the East, Chinese philosophy turned out to be the same catalyst for the development of thought and culture as the philosophy of Ancient Greece was for the rest of the civilized world.

The basis of the philosophy of Ancient China was the principle of the trinity of the Universe, which, according to Chinese philosophers, included heaven, earth and man. Moreover, the entire universe consists of a special energy called “Tsi”, which in turn is divided into the feminine and masculine principles - yin and yang.

Specifics of the philosophy of Ancient China is that at the dawn of its appearance, the idea of reality and the construction of the world had a religious and mythological structure, and all the main characters were spirits and gods of a zoomorphic nature.

If we talk about the features of the development of a philosophical school, then the most significant feature in comparison with other philosophical movements was the cult of ancestors, which implies acceptance of the fact of the influence of those who have passed on to another world on the fate of the living generation. At the same time, the duties of the spirits were to take care of the living.

The second difference is the understanding of the world as a constant interaction of two principles - feminine and masculine. According to beliefs and thinking, at the moment of creation of existence, the Universe was represented by chaos, and there was no division into heaven and earth. The birth of two spirits - yin and yang, which began to bring order to chaos, led to the division of the Universe into two unities, heaven and earth. Accordingly, yang became the patron of heaven, and yin became the patron of earth. Such a worldview demonstrates the rudimentary nature of existing natural philosophy.

Also, for a more complete understanding of Chinese philosophy, it should be borne in mind that China is a world of right-brain culture, which implies a completely different perception of reality. Cultures that are more right-brained focus on visual imagery, religious experiences, music, and hypnosis. People of such cultures even hear and perceive sounds differently, since their understanding of the world occurs through specific and individual images.

Chinese philosophical thinking includes four concepts:

Holism, which is expressed in the harmonious unity of man and the world. Man and nature are not opposing subjects, but represent an integral structure striving for harmony;
Intuitiveness. According to ancient Chinese philosophers, earthly essence cannot be understood through a series of specific concepts or reflected in the semantics of language. It can only be known through intuitive insight;
Symbolism. Ancient Chinese philosophy used xingxiang, which means images, as tools for thinking;
Tiyan. The entirety of the principles of the macrocosm could be comprehended only with the help of a serious cognitive act, which included cognition, emotional experiences and volitional impulses. Also, the dominant role in this scheme was given to moral consciousness.

Philosophical schools of Ancient China

The philosophy of Ancient China was built on two main teachings that had common features, but differed in the details of ideological judgments.

Philosophy of Ancient China: Confucianism. The first of the schools, which is the most famous today and has a large number of followers. Its founder is considered to be Confucius or Kung Fu-Tzu in Chinese transcription. This great thinker identified nobility, humanism and strict adherence to the rules of behavior and rituals as the main tenets of his teaching. At the same time, his philosophy affected government. Confucius had a sharply negative attitude towards the imposition of strict laws, believing that people would break them a priori. Government should be governed by example, which will make people understand and feel ashamed of their own misdeeds.

Philosophy of Ancient China: Taoism. Another trend that also has multiple followers. Its founder is also a real person named . The very concept of Tao means versatility, which includes general unity, infinity of movement and universal Law. Tao is the universal beginning and the universal end. And the main thing in this teaching is that a person should strive throughout his life to merge with Tao, since only this will lead to harmony, and otherwise there will be misfortunes and death.