Social culture of ancient Rome. Cultural life of Rome.doc - Cultural life of Rome

INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. ancient eastern civilizations lost priority in social development and gave way to a new cultural center that arose in the Mediterranean and was called “ancient civilization.” It is customary to include the history and culture of Ancient Greece, as well as Ancient Rome.

In my work, I would like to follow the main directions of development of Roman culture and highlight a number of features in it. Also, during the analysis, try to determine how great the influence of the cultures of the conquered countries was. Can the culture of Ancient Rome even be considered an independent phenomenon, or did it develop through endless borrowing? Moreover, could the cultural factor somehow contribute to the collapse of the empire? These are the questions that I will try to answer in my work.

The center of the future great power - the city of Rome - arose in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. An ancient parable, transmitted by Roman historians - Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Titus Livy and the poet Virgil, attributes the founding of the city to the legendary Romulus and dates this event to 754 - 753. BC. on the day of celebration of the shepherd goddess Paleia (April 21).

For more than twelve centuries (8th century BC - 5th century AD), Roman culture existed, which was a more complex phenomenon than Greek. Rome, later than Greece, appeared on the stage of world history and was the capital of an immense empire that captured all the territories around the Mediterranean. The very word “Rome” was synonymous with greatness, glory and military valor, wealth and high culture.

The Roman mentality was sharply different from the Greek. If the Greeks were an amazingly gifted people in the field of artistic creativity, then the Romans had the greatest ability for practical activities. This main feature of the Roman character left its mark on Roman culture.

The Romans were good, disciplined soldiers, excellent organizers and administrators, legislators and lawyers. They achieved great success in the field of town planning and urban improvement; they were excellent rural owners. The Romans created outstanding architectural monuments that amaze with the perfection of engineering technology.

The history of ancient Roman civilization is a complex phenomenon. The population of ancient Italy consisted of multilingual peoples who gradually submitted to the authority of Rome. By Ancient Rome as a whole we mean not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman power - from the British Isles to Egypt. The Roman Empire was the largest state, covering all territories adjacent to the Mediterranean. Over a long period (IV century BC - III century), the Roman Republic from a small city-state turned into a world slave-holding power, which was based on imperial power.

“All roads lead to Rome,” says the proverb, as travelers and traders flocked here from all over the world.

The entire cultural system of Ancient Rome was devoted to justifying the superiority of the Roman political system, educating the Romans into good citizens, proud of their belonging to the “master people.” The main value for the Romans was Rome itself, the Roman people, destined to conquer other peoples and rule them for their own happiness. The Roman Empire developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and agriculture, the conquest of vast territories, the conquest of many peoples and cultures, which necessitated the creation of a huge bureaucratic apparatus and the development of sophisticated political methods of management.

The history of ancient Roman culture is divided into three main stages:

.Early or royal period (VIII - VI centuries BC)

.Roman Republic (v - 1st centuries BC)

.Roman Empire (1st - 5th centuries AD)

The basis of Roman art was the ancient Italian culture, in which the art of the Etruscans was of leading importance. The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skilled metallurgists, shipbuilders, traders, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples inhabiting its coast, creating a high and unique culture. They began to create something new that the ancient Romans later developed: engineering structures, monumental wall painting, realistic sculptural portraits. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans subsequently borrowed the experience of urban planning, craft techniques, technology for making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of the priests and some customs, for example, celebrating a victory with a triumph.

However, a powerful cultural movement began in Rome only at the end of the 3rd century. BC. its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, Greek language and education. Numerous figures of Roman culture of that time - prose writers, philosophers, doctors, architects, artists - were overwhelmingly not Romans.

Rome exerted its influence on the Hellenistic territories it conquered. Thus, a synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed, the result of which was the late antique Greco-Roman culture (I-V centuries AD), which formed the basis of the civilization of Byzantium, Western Europe and many Slavic states.

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY

The most ancient period of Roman history was especially characterized by the cult of family-tribal patron spirits. First of all, these included manna - the souls of deceased ancestors; The ancient Romans believed in the existence of the afterlife, where the souls of the dead go - this is Orcus and Elysium. Penates were also revered - the patron spirits of the house and laras, who were patron spirits with broader functions; there are known references to laras of crossroads, roads, navigation, etc. The cult of the hearth fire, personified in the goddess Vesta, also occupied an important place. Traces of totelism can also be traced in the most ancient beliefs, for example, the legend of the she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus. There were also agrarian cults.

Later, some tribal gods turned into objects of state cult, becoming patron gods of the city-state. The most ancient gods include Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus (Romulus), who were the most important for the Romans. If the first two have correspondences among the Greeks, then the god Quirinus has no analogues in the Greek pantheon.

One of the revered purely Italian deities was Janus, depicted with two faces, as the deity of entry and exit, of all beginnings. The Olympian gods were considered the patrons of the Roman community and were revered by the entire civil community. Among the plebeians, the divine trinity was especially popular: Ceres, Libera-Proserpina - the goddess of vegetation and the underworld, and Liber - the god of wine and fun.

One of the most popular goddesses of Rome is Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and the fire that burns in it. Vestal priestesses served in the temple of Vesta, taking a vow of virginity and chastity. Girls aged 6-10 years old were selected very carefully, without the slightest defect. For ten years they underwent training, then took initiation, received the name Amata in addition to their own, and served in the temple for ten years. For violating the vow of chastity, the punishment was cruel: the sinner was buried in the ground alive. For minor offenses they could be flogged. The Vestals enjoyed great honor and respect. Insulting them was punishable by death. After serving for ten years, they spent another ten training the younger generation of priestesses. After all this, the vestal virgin could return to the family and even get married.

The Romans had many gods of fertility: Flora - the goddess of blooming flowers, Pomona - the goddess of apple trees, Faun and Faun - deities of forests, groves and fields, and others.

Mythology was practically absent, there were also no images of gods - their symbols were worshiped, so the symbol of Vesta was fire, Mars was a spear. All the deities were completely faceless. The Roman did not dare to assert with complete certainty that he knew the real name of the god or that he could distinguish whether it was a god or a goddess. In his prayers, he also maintained the same caution and said: “Jupiter, Most Good, Greatest, or if you wish to be called by some other name.” And when making a sacrifice, he said: “Are you a god or a goddess, are you a man or a woman?” On the Palatine (one of the seven hills on which Ancient Rome was located) there is still an altar on which there is no name, but only an evasive formula: “To God or goddess, husband or woman,” and the gods themselves had to decide who owns the sacrifices made on this altar.

Roman mythology is characterized by the animation and deification of abstract concepts and values, such as Freedom, Valor, Harmony. Slava especially stood out. In honor of outstanding commanders, emperors and their victories, Arches of Triumph were erected, which depicted the exploits of the triumphant.

After the conquest of Greece, there is some transformation of the image of the Roman gods and their rapprochement with the Greek: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, Mars - Ares, Neptune - Poseidon, Mercury - Hermes, Bacchus - Dionysus, Diana - Artemis , Vulcan - Hephaestus, Saturn - Uranus, Ceres - Demeter. Among the Roman gods, under the influence of Greek religious ideas, the main Olympic gods stood out: Jupiter - the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, Mars - the god of war, Minerva - the goddess of wisdom, the patroness of crafts, Venus - the goddess of love and fertility, Vulcan - the god of fire and blacksmithing, Ceres is the goddess of vegetation, Apollo is the god of the sun and light, Juno is the patroness of women and marriage, Mercury is the messenger of the Olympic gods, the patron of travelers, trade, Neptune is the god of the sea, Diana is the goddess of the moon.

Before starting a war with any people, the Romans tried to lure the gods of this people to their side, promising these gods all the necessary sacrifices.

The Roman pantheon never remained closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. The inclusion of new gods was believed to strengthen the power of the Romans. Thus, the Romans borrowed almost the entire Greek pantheon, and at the end of the 3rd century. BC. veneration of the Great Mother of the Gods from Phrygia was introduced.

Slaves who arrived in Rome and Italy professed their own cults, thereby spreading other religious views.

The priests of the gods were considered officials, and in the late Republican period they were elected. The priests observed the cult of individual gods, the order in the temples, prepared sacrificial animals, monitored the accuracy of prayers and ritual actions, and could give advice on which deity to turn to with the necessary request. Also, in each temple there were priests who specialized in fortune telling: augurs - predictors of the future by the flight of birds or in relation to their food; Haruspices - who predicted the future from the entrails of sacrificial animals and from lightning strikes.

The Romans expected help from the gods in specific matters and therefore scrupulously performed established rituals and made the necessary sacrifices. In relation to the gods, the principle “I give so that you give” operated.

During the imperial period, the cult of the geniuses of emperors gradually established itself - first posthumously, and then during their lifetime. The first to be deified (posthumously) was Julius Caesar. During his lifetime, Caligula declared himself a god.

In the 1st century AD Christianity was born in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, which played a vital role in the history of world culture.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE

In the 1st century BC. in Palestine - on the outskirts of the Roman Empire - Christianity arises, and already in the time of Nero (second half of the 1st century AD) there was a Christian community in Rome.

During the 1st - 3rd centuries. Christianity spreads throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The imperial authorities were suspicious of Christians, attributing to them misanthropy, because Christians of that time not only expected, but also called for the End of the World and the Last Judgment, Christians refused to make official sacrifices in front of statues of state gods (including emperors). This led to numerous persecutions of Christians, which were started by Nero. They took place with particular force under the emperors - Dominician, Trojan, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Diocletian.

But, despite all the persecution, Christianity continued to live and spread, and by the 4th century it became a force that the emperors themselves were forced to reckon with. In 313, Emperors Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed the equality of all religions, including Christianity, and in 325, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion. By decree of Theodosius the Great in 395, all pagan temples were closed, from that moment Christianity became the only official religion of the Roman Empire.

Already at the end of I - beginning. II century The Gospels (“Good News”) were written down in Greek, the Epistles and Acts of the Apostles were written, as well as the Apocalypse, i.e. books that made up the New Testament. To discuss and resolve complex theological issues, and first of all, to combat the Arian heresy, which were then hotly debated by Christians, by decree of Emperor Constantine, a cathedral was created in the city of Nicaea in 325, which became the first of seven Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church.

ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTAL WALL PAINTING

ancient roman civilization culture painting

To understand the overall character of Roman architecture, the reasons for the appearance of giant parade squares, large spectacular buildings and memorial ensembles, it is necessary to understand the socio-economic life of Ancient Rome. The development of trade, successful wars and the influx of slaves favor the rise of the economy, the further enrichment of the clan nobility (patricians), the advancement of the rich from among the common people (plebeians) and the formation of a new Roman nobility - the nobiles. Wealth inequality is increasing; free community members are forced out of the lands and flock to the city, where they engage in crafts, petty trade, and become professional military men. Wars turned into one of the main means of profit for the Roman nobility. The victorious commanders were the idols of the Romans and were given high honors. To commemorate victories, multi-day celebrations were organized with solemn parades of troops, distributions of bread and money, grandiose performances, and gladiator fights. In accordance with the way of life, the architecture of Rome took shape - a complex system of public buildings, temples, squares that could accommodate tens of thousands of people.

The Etruscans were the teachers of the Romans. It was they who taught how to build buildings, but very soon the Romans surpassed them in this art. They began to make better use of materials that had already been used before, adapted new ones, and improved construction methods.

The early city was built without a plan, in a haphazard manner, with narrow and crooked streets, and primitive dwellings made of wood and mud brick. The only large public buildings were temples, for example the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built in the 6th century BC, and the small temple of Vesta in the forum. There were vacant lots and undeveloped areas inside the city, and the houses of the nobility were surrounded by gardens. The drainage ditches were at first open, but then they were covered with wooden flooring and later with a stone vault.

Roman roads were of great strategic importance; they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome (VI-III centuries BC) for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of a network of roads that later covered the whole of Italy. Near the Aricchi valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, crushed stone, lava and tuff slabs, ran along a massive wall (197 m long, 11 m high) due to the terrain, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.

At the beginning of the 4th century BC. The fire of Rome after its capture by the Gauls destroyed most of the city's buildings. After the fire, the city was surrounded by new, so-called Servian walls. They consisted of the main outer walls and a powerful earthen rampart resting on it, which was supported by another, less high wall from the city side.

In the 1st century BC. Multi-storey buildings and villas of the nobility appeared, built from baked brick and concrete, and even marble. The city was divided into blocks, the blocks were grouped into districts.

The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of ​​strength, power and greatness that overwhelm man. This is where the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their buildings, which amaze with their size, was born.

Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lavish decoration of buildings, rich decorative furnishings, a lot of decorations, and the creation primarily not of temple complexes, but of buildings and structures for practical needs (bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths). Roman architects developed new design principles, in particular they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns they used pillars and pilasters. Arches and vaults were borrowed from the Etruscans.

The arched structure is based on two elements: pillars and the arch resting on them. So, the horizontal ceiling is replaced by a curved arch. The rectangular massive shape of the pillars is less individualized compared to the column.

A striking example of the use of an arched structure - triumphal arches. These typically Roman memorial structures were already erected during the Republican period. Most often they were installed in honor of victories.

Triumphal Arch of Titus was erected in honor of the capture of Jerusalem by the troops of Emperor Titus (180s BC). its architectural appearance consists of a powerful monolith, cut through in the center by an arched span. Here we are faced with the typical Roman use of the order system in decorative terms: creating a purely visual impression of the constructiveness of the order system by “overlaying” it on the wall mass. The “facade” of the arch is clearly divided into a base, a middle part consisting of Corinthian semi-columns and an entablature, and an upper part in the form of a massive attic, where the urn with the ashes of the emperor was placed.

Unlike the Greek architects, who drew up a building plan without following the dry geometry of its different parts, the Romans proceeded from strict symmetry. They widely used the Greek orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (the most favorite, magnificent order). The Romans used orders only as a decorative, decorative element.

The Romans developed the order system and created their own orders, different from the Greek ones.

Spectacles occupied a large place in the social life of the Romans. Theaters and amphitheaters are characteristic of ancient cities. Even during the period of the late Republic, a unique type of amphitheater developed in Rome. The latter was entirely a Roman invention. If Greek theaters were set up in the open air, with seats for spectators located in a hollow of a hill, then Roman theaters were independent closed multi-tiered buildings in the city center with seats on concentrically erected walls. Amphitheaters were intended for the crowd of the lower classes of the capital's population, hungry for spectacles, in front of which gladiator battles and naval battles were played out on the days of the festivities.

After the civil war of 68 - 69 AD, Vespasian, who came to power, began the construction of an amphitheater, known throughout the world as Coliseum. The completion of its construction occurred during the reign of Vespasian's son Titus (80 AD), and in honor of the opening of the Colosseum, hundred-day gladiatorial games were held.

In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 meters in circumference), dissected by transverse and circular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance, monumental and majestic, is determined by a ring wall designed in the form of a multi-tiered arcade: Tuscan below, Ionic above, Corinthian in the third tier, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.

One of the most perfect examples of a temple with a dome was Pantheon in Rome (c.120), created by Apollodorus of Damascus. The constructive and artistic problems of creating a large-span domed space were brilliantly resolved here. Rounded in plan (rotondo type), the temple had an 8-column portico of the Corinthian order. The building had a powerful domed volume on the outside, a single and intact space inside. The interior is dominated by a dome, at the top of which a light opening is left (a spherical vault, which is a monolithic mass without a frame, rests on a wall 6 m thick). the wall is divided into two tiers: the lower one, where deep niches alternate with massive columns of the Corinthian order, and the upper one - like an intermediate one between the support and the dome.

For the first time in architecture, the main emphasis shifted to the internal space, which, with its solemn and festive design, contrasts with the external appearance, where space of monumental volume dominates.

Grandiose domed coverings were used in thermae, which were a complex of rooms and courtyards where the Romans rested and had fun. The basis of the composition was the halls for ablution (baths). Most famous Baths of Caracalla (206 - 216).

The Romans created a type of public square called the forum. Having appeared during the Republican period, the forums of the empire acquired a ceremonial appearance, becoming also a grandiose architectural ensemble, including many buildings of various functionalities, glorifying one or another emperor.

Famous Trajan's forum (first half of the 2nd century AD) was created by Apollodorus of Damascus. It included:

.The main rectangular square with a triumphal arch at the entrance and a colonnade, behind which there were semicircles of trading shops;

.The five-nave basilica of Ultia, turned perpendicular to the central axis;

.A small perimeter courtyard with Trajan's Column, covered with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the military exploits of the emperor. It was located on the central axis between two symmetrical library buildings;

.The last perimeter courtyard, rounded on the side where the Temple of Trajan stood.

The entire ensemble was united by the motif of colonnades and porticoes of various sizes, sometimes reaching huge ones.

All these grandiose constructions were required by Rome as the center of a huge empire. And indeed, built up with all these buildings, rich in monuments, the city was also in the 3rd - 4th centuries. looked impressive. In the 3rd century. A lot of construction was still going on - arches, magnificent baths, and palaces were being erected. “But, as A. Blok put it, “there was no longer a single sore spot on the body of the Roman Empire,” creative potential gradually faded away.” Thus, architecture begins to become obsolete and become more and more primitive. Perhaps this is due to the fact that, in pursuit of innovation and luxury, the Roman nobility too quickly exhausted the possibilities of borrowed construction techniques.

Developing in Rome monumental wall painting. The so-called “Pompeian” frescoes are usually divided into four groups:

.“Inlay style” - II century BC. Imitation of wall cladding with squares of multi-colored marble - “House of the Faun”.

.“Architecturally perspective” style. Between the picturesque columns, pilasters, and cornices there were large multi-figure compositions based on subjects borrowed from Greek painting. A realistic interpretation of images dominates - the painting of the “Villa of Mysteries”.

.“Candelabra” style - from the end of the 1st century BC. The most austere and elegant, with a variety of decorative motifs (garlands, candelabra, ornaments) that framed small plot images - “The House of Punished Cupid”.

.“Lush” style - from the middle of the 1st century AD. It combines the characteristic features of the second style (perspective architectural structures) and the third (wealth of ornamental decorations) - paintings in Nero's palace - the Golden House, the house of the Vettii.

SCULPTURE

According to legend, the first sculptures in Rome appeared under Tarquinius Proud, who decorated the roof of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, which he built according to Etruscan custom, with clay statues. The first bronze sculpture was a statue of the fertility goddess Ceres, cast at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. From the 4th century BC. they begin to erect statues of Roman magistrates and even private individuals. Bronze statues were cast in the early era by Etruscan craftsmen, and starting from the 2nd century. BC. - Greek sculptors. The mass production of statues did not contribute to the creation of truly artistic works, and the Romans did not strive for this. For them, what was important in the statue was its portrait resemblance to the original. The statue was supposed to glorify a given person and therefore it was important that the image not be confused with someone else.

On the development of Roman individual portrait influenced by the custom of removing wax masks from the deceased, which were kept in the main room of a Roman house. The masters apparently used them during sculptural work. The emergence of the Roman realistic portrait was influenced by the Etruscan tradition, which was guided by Etruscan masters working for Roman clients. In this art Rome reached the greatest heights.

Despite the complexity of the development of a sculptural portrait, the main milestones of this process can be identified:

.The period of hard realism - 1st century. BC. - “Portrait of an Old Patrician”, portraits of Caesar (the origin of a psychological tendency)

.Classical period (idealization of the image) - late. 1st century BC - beginning I century - portrait statues of Augustus.

.The period of complicated realism (psychologization and pomposity) - the second half. Iv. - portraits of Vitelius, Nero, Flavians.

.Reminiscence of the periods of realism and classics - II century. - portrait of Plotina, wife of Emperor Trajan, portraits of private individuals, portrait of Antinous

.The period of acute psychologism - III century. - portraits of Caracalla, Philip the Arabian.

.Late period - IV century.

In this area of ​​art, the Romans, using Etruscan traditions, introduced new artistic ideas and created excellent masterpieces, such as the “Capitolian She-Wolf”, “Brutus”, “Orator”, busts of Cicero, Caesar and others.

From the end of the 3rd century BC. Greek sculpture begins to influence Roman sculpture. When robbing Greek cities, the Romans captured a large number of sculptures. Despite the abundance of originals exported from Greece, there is a great demand for copies of the most famous statues. Greek sculptors copy the originals of famous masters. The abundant influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying slowed down the flourishing of Roman sculpture.

LITERATURE

Roman literature emerges as imitative literature. The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical examples of Greek literature, although they used Roman plots and some Roman forms.

During the development of civil society, literature became one of the leading means of dialogue with the authorities.

At the end of the 3rd century. BC. In Rome, the Latin literary language was formed and, on its basis, epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appeared, who usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. One of the first Roman tragedians was a freedman Livy Andronicus , Greek by origin, translated Homer’s “Odyssey” into Latin (3rd century BC). His works played an important role in the development of Roman literature. They introduced the Romans to the wonderful Greek literature, mythology, epic and theater. Livy Andronicus laid the foundation for Roman fiction.

Younger contemporaries of Livy Andronicus were Roman poets Gnaeus Naevius (c. 274 - 204 BC) and Ennius (239 -169 BC). Naevius wrote tragedies and comedies, borrowing plots from Greek authors, but the influence of Roman life in his works is felt much stronger than in Andronicus. Naevius composed poems about the first Punic War (264 - 241 BC) with a brief summary of the previous history of Rome. Ennius was the first to describe the entire history of Rome in verse, arranging events by year. Ennius's main work was the Chronicle (Annales), but in addition, like his predecessors, he wrote tragedies and comedies. Ennius was the first to introduce the hexameter into Latin literature - a more euphonious poetic meter among the Greeks. Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius wrote their works in archaic Saturnian verse.

The largest Roman writer of the late 3rd - early 2nd centuries. BC. was Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC), actor by profession. He composed 130 comedies, of which only 20 have reached us. He worked only in the comedy genre. The plots of the comedies were very diverse - scenes from family life, from the life of mercenary warriors, urban bohemia. One of the indispensable heroes of Plautus's comedies were slaves - cunning, resourceful, dexterous and greedy. In terms of plot and character, Plautus's comedies are imitative. His characters have Greek names, and his comedies take place in Greek cities. Plautus' comedies are usually published alphabetically. The first is called "Amphitryon". The comedy “The Boastful Warrior” was more popular. The comedy was probably directed against the mercenary troops and reminded the audience of the victory over Hannibal. Despite the fact that the action of Plautus's comedies takes place in Greek cities, and their heroes bear Greek names, they contain many lively responses to Roman reality. His comedies reflect to a certain extent the interests and views of the broad masses of the urban plebs.

Roman comedy and tragedy developed largely under the influence of Greek models and were considered non-primordially Roman genres. Originally a Roman literary genre, the ball genre is the so-called saturation. This is a mixture of different poems - long and short, written in Saturn and other meters. How the literary genre satura received deep development in creativity Gaia Lucilius (180 - 102 BC). He wrote 30 books of saturs, where he exposed the vices of his contemporary society: greed, bribery, moral corruption, perjury, greed. The subjects for Lucilius’ saturs were given by real life. These stories marked the beginning of the realistic trend in Roman literature.

Roman poetry of the 1st century. BC. rose to a new, higher level. Many poets lived at this time, but among them the most outstanding were Titus Lucretius Carus (95 - 51 BC) and Guy Valery Catullus (87 - 54 BC). Lucretius owns a wonderful poem “On the Nature of Things” in six books. This philosophical poem expounds the teachings of the Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus about the nature of the gods, the origin of the earth, sky, sea, and the development of humanity and human culture from the primitive state to the time of Lucretius. In the poem, the Latin language reached a new peak; The language of farmers and warriors, short, abrupt and poor, thanks to the art of Lucretius turned out to be capacious, rich, full of shades, suitable for conveying the subtlest human feelings and deep philosophical categories.

Catullus is the greatest poet of the end of the Republic, a master of lyric poetry. He wrote short poems where he described human feelings: love and jealousy, friendship, love of nature, etc. A number of poems are directed against the dictatorial intentions of Caesar and his greedy minions. Catullus's poetic work was influenced by Alexandrian poetry with its special attention to mythology, sophistication of language, and the personal experiences of the author. The poems of Catullus occupy a prominent place in world lyric poetry. His poetry was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.

Drama and poetry were the main, but not the only types of Latin literature. Prose developed in parallel. Until the 2nd century BC works in prose were a rare occurrence and were brief records of historical events and legal norms. Early Roman prose, like poetry, was imitative.

The first prose work in Latin was the work Mark Portia Cato the Elder (II century BC) “On agriculture.” Cato published about 150 of his speeches, wrote Roman history, an essay on medicine, and oratory.

The most outstanding Roman writers, masters of the prosaic word, lived and worked in the 1st century. BC. Marcus Terence Varro (116 - 27 BC) - a unique writer, wrote about 74 works in 620 books. Varro's main work is “Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs” in 41 books. Essays - “On the Latin language”, “On Latin speech”, “On grammar”, “On the comedies of Plautus”. He also wrote a treatise “On Agriculture,” where agricultural issues are presented in an elegant literary form. "The Menippean Saturas" in 150 books is a cheerful and witty poetic work. Varro's merits in the development of Roman literature were so great that he, the only Roman writer, had a monument erected to him during his lifetime.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - wrote in various prose genres: philosophical works (“On the limits of good and evil”, “Tusculan conversations”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc.), legal works (“On State”, “On Duties”), speeches (“against Verres”, “against Catiline”, “Philippica against Antony”), on the theory of oratory (“On the Orator”, “Brutus”), numerous letters.

A major Roman writer was Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), author of “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War.” Acting as a writer, Caesar pursued political goals: to justify his aggressive and often treacherous actions in Gaul, to place responsibility for the outbreak of the civil war on his opponents.

In the "Golden Age of Augustus" (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman literature reached its highest flowering: masterpieces of world literature were created, enriching its treasury. This flourishing is associated with the work of such poets as Virgil, Horace and Ovid.

Publius Virgil Maro (70-19 BC), he owns three main works that glorified his name - “Bucolics” (42 - 39 BC), a poem about agriculture “Georgics” (37 -30 BC) . BC) and the historical and mythological poem “Aeneid” (29 - 19 BC).

Quintus Horace Flaccus (65-8 BC), contributed to the formation of imperial ethics, the morality of the loyal subjects of the new regime, more than any other poet. He was one of Augustus' favorite poets. He wrote several well-known works: a small collection of satirical poems, epics and satires, four books of “Odes”, or “Songs”, of a lyrical nature, two books of “Epistle”, or “Letters”. Commissioned by Augustus, Horace wrote a majestic hymn to the Roman state, “Song of the Century.” Horace owns a poetic manifesto of the poet's prophetic mission - the famous “Monument”. Subsequently, based on Horace’s “Monument,” similar “monuments” were created in Russian poetry by the great Russian poets Derzhavin and Pushkin.

Publius Ovid Naso (43 BC - 18 AD), the main theme of creativity was love, as one of the most important manifestations of human relationships. Two collections of poetry were written - “Elegies”, or “Songs of Love”, and “Heroids” (letters from heroines known from mythology to their lovers). The infamous treatise, “The Art of Love,” was the main reason for the poet’s exile. In the second period of his work, Ovid wrote two large historical and mythological poems, “Metamorphoses” and “Fasti”. The works “Letters from Pontus” and “Tristia”, “Mournful Elegies” date back to the time of exile.

Among the works of prose literature, a grandiose historical work occupies a worthy place Tita Livia (59 BC - 17 AD) "From the Founding of Rome" in 142 books.

It is impossible to imagine Roman literature without Plutarch (c. 46 - c. 126) he owned 227 works, of which over 150 have survived. Plutarch's literary heritage can be divided into two categories: a series of treatises on moral topics, including religion, philosophy, politics, literature and music, and biography.

CONCLUSION

Shocked by the powerful blows of the barbarians, the Roman Empire was heading towards its destruction. Ancient art was completing its journey. After the death of Constantine (337), the crisis of the ancient order sharply worsened in Rome. Barbarian attacks on the borders of the empire intensified, and the Romans lost almost all of their provinces. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. The capital of the western half remained the city of Rome, and the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (the future Byzantium) became the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium.

In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the Vandals. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, deposed the young emperor Romulus Augustulus. This event is considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Eastern Roman Empire did not perish under the attacks of the barbarians and existed for almost a thousand more years.

With the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient culture, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of European peoples, perished and became their common property, the basis of the entire culture of the new Europe. The earliest images of the originality of this culture appeared at the level of the most ancient forms of folk art, in particular mythology, the plots of which have served as rich material for painters, sculptors, composers, and poets for many centuries.

Ancient Rome gave Europe a developed jurisprudence, from which the modern legal system grew, and also left a rich cultural heritage that has become part of the life and culture of modern humanity. The majestic remains of Roman cities, buildings, theaters, amphitheatres, circuses, roads, aqueducts and bridges, baths and basilicas, triumphal arches and columns, temples and porticos, port facilities and military camps, multi-storey buildings and luxurious villas amaze modern people not only with their splendor , good technology, quality construction, rational architecture, but also aesthetic value. In all this there is a real connection between Roman antiquity and modern reality, visible proof that Roman civilization formed the basis of European culture, and through it the entire modern civilization as a whole.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Grinenko G.V. Reader on the history of world culture. Textbook - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher Education, 2005. - 940 p.

2.History of Ancient Rome: Textbook. for universities for special purposes “History” / V.I. Kuzishchin, I.L. Mayak, I.A. Gvozdeva and others; Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 383 p.

.Pivoev V.M. Culturology. Introduction to the history and philosophy of culture: Textbook / V.M. Pivoev. - Ed. 2nd, revised and additional - M.: Gaudeamus; Academic Prospect, 2008. - 564 p.

.Sadokhin A.P. World artistic culture: a textbook for university students / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2008. - 495 p.

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Art

The Romans, who were distinguished by great practical sense in solving the problems of material life, who knew how to create a harmonious culture of citizenship, establish their military strength and widely spread their political power, were only to a weak extent gifted with the ability for artistic creativity, as well as for creativity in general in the field of spiritual interests. Never feeling a real, inner need for art, they initially looked at it as a relaxing luxury, and if they turned to it, it was only in the form of real benefits, and they were content with borrowings from the Etruscans.

Then, when victories over other nations brought wealth to the Romans and developed national pride in them, especially after the conquest of Greece, which brought them closer to the high civilization of this country and flooded the city of the Quirites with works of art taken from it, art began to be held in high esteem in Rome, but still not as something essentially necessary, but as a means to add external shine to public and private life, to exalt the creators of national glory, and to flatter people’s pride. Government officials and the rich began to patronize art and attract artists from the impoverished and deserted cities of Hellas to Rome; these visiting artists worked, trying to satisfy the taste of their customers, and under their leadership, native craftsmen were formed.

Thus, by the end of the republican regime, a special R. art had developed, representing a mixture of Etruscan elements with Greek ones, but despite this, having a unique character. The main distinguishing feature of this art is the desire for luxury, colossality and spectacular decorativeness.

Architecture

The architecture of the Romans achieved the greatest originality; sculpture and painting were for them only a continuation of what was done in these artistic branches by the Greeks. Despite all the limited novelty that the Romans generally introduced into art, they owe the great merit that they carried the classical art of Hellas they inherited to all corners of the then known world and served as transmitters of its elements to new times and new peoples who began their political existence on the ruins of Rome. empires.

Painting

This branch of art, like sculpture, moved to Italy from Greece. But while Rome had almost no sculptor of its own who was so famous that his name would be preserved for posterity, there was no shortage of native artists who successfully worked in the field of painting. This proves that the Romans were endowed with a capacity for it, having received their first acquaintance with it from the Etruscans, who, as has been proven, made extensive use of it for the decoration of their funerary crypts and, probably, also of temples and dwellings. Even during the times of the republic, Fabius Pictor, who painted in 300 BC, was famous. e. Temple of Security. A hundred years later, the poet Pacuvius, who took up his brushes in moments of leisure, was respected for his paintings. Under Augustus, Rome already had several more or less skilled painters, headed by the famous Ludius. But all of these were mainly decorators; painting in the strict sense of the word, which does not play the role of an accomplice in architecture, always remained in the hands of the Greeks. Perhaps her most important task was portraits, for which at the end of the republic Lala or Laya, originally from Cyzicus, was especially famous.

see also

Literature

Initially, literary works were written on stone or on tree bark, so the word “liber” meant both book and bast, as well as on wax and lead tablets. The best variety of Egyptian papyrus was called Augustan papyrus, in honor of Octavian Augustus, but it was later replaced by Claudian papyrus.

The first monuments of Roman prose were laws, treaties and liturgical books, but already in the fire of 387 BC. e. Many important documents were burned. In 240 BC e. The Romans became acquainted with the tragedy and comedy of Livy Andronicus, who translated the Odyssey into Latin and, on behalf of the priests, wrote the first Latin choral song. Elogies appeared in honor of representatives of noble families. The earliest elogy is preserved on the monument of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus and dates from 298 BC. e. The beginnings of Roman folk drama appeared during various rural festivals. Atellans became the main type of dramatic works. Under Andronicus, the poetic activity of Gnaeus Naevius began with his epic work on the First Punic War. After the Second Punic War, the works of the poet Quintus Ennius appeared, who first introduced the hexameter into Latin literature. At the same time, during this period the comedians Titus Maccius Plautus and Publius Terence Africanus, as well as the satirist Lucilius, became famous, from whose time satire became a purely Roman genre. The prose works of the older annalists date back to this time, the first of whom was Quintus Fabius Pictor. The first history of Rome in Latin was written by Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, famous for his treatise On Agriculture.

The last century of the Republic was marked by the flowering of prose and poetry. The ability to write poetry was a sign of good taste. At the same time, poetry of that time was divided into two schools. One defended the traditional form of versification, which came from Ennius. Its most famous adherents were Cicero and Titus Lucretius Carus. Another school cultivated the traditions of Hellenistic, especially Alexandrian, poets and was distinguished by the emphatic erudition of the author in his works, elegance of form and craving for sentimentalism. Supporters of this trend were especially among aristocratic youth. Later, Gaius Valery Catullus joined this trend. Caesar occupied a prominent place in the prose literature of the end of the Republic with his memoirs “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War”. Some works were close to memoir literature, for example those by Gaius Sallust Crispus.

The era of Augustus, called the “golden age of Roman literature,” was a further development of poetry. The Maecenas and Messala Corvinus circles appeared. The first poets of this period - Publius Virgil Maron and Quintus Horace Flaccus - began their work during the civil wars and were members of the Maecenas circle. Virgil, being familiar with the Alexandrian school, created purely Roman poetic works, the pinnacle of which is the Aeneid. Horace's best works were his odes and the great poetic work "Ars poetica" ("Poetic Art"). At the same time as Virgil and Horace, the elegistic poets Albius Tibullus and Sextus Propertius wrote works. The youngest, but the last major poet of the Augustan era was Publius Ovid Naso, the author of the virtually fundamental works “Metamorphoses”, “Fastas” and “The Art of Love”. The custom of recitation - the public reading of one's works - was introduced by Asinius Pollio under Augustus.

In the 3rd century. Early Christian literature appeared (Quintus Septimius Florence Tertullian, Cyprian, Minucius Felix), which strengthened its position in the next century (Aurelius Augustine, Ambrose of Milan, Arnobius, Caecilius Firmian Lactantius). The desire to maintain the Roman tradition was expressed mainly in the appearance of commentaries on old authors such as Virgil. The classical poetic works of Claudius Claudianus appeared.

Book publishing

Book publishing and bookselling received great development in Rome. The most valuable source on the history of publishing is the correspondence of the author with those who took the trouble to publish his works. Titus Pomponius Atticus is especially famous. Under Augustus, the publishers worked, the brothers Sosia, who had their own bookstore in the Forum, near the statue of Vertumnus, and became famous for publishing the works of Horace. Virgil's works were published by Varius Rufus and Plocius Tucca. Later, the number of book publishers increased; one could buy the works of Livy and Seneca, the epigrams of Martial, or Quintilian’s treatise “The Education of the Orator.” Martial immortalized the names of his publishers in his epigrams. One of them was a freed renegade of a certain scientist, Gaius Pollius Valerian Secundus, who kept his shop in Rome near the Temple of Peace. Another acquaintance of Martial, Atrectus, sold books in the Roman quarter of Argilet. However, the poets did not receive copyright copies, so they gave their books very reluctantly. One publisher employed many copyists, whose wages depended, as in Greece, on the amount of text copied. The counting of lines was carried out according to a special stichometric system, probably introduced under Nero. After Diocletian's decree, 100 lines became the criterion for measuring the work of copyists. At the same time, copyright did not formally exist in Rome, although there was an unwritten right to respect the property of others, including the author of his books. Publishers tried to prevent private rewriting of books by releasing the maximum possible circulations onto the market to fully satisfy the demand for a particular work. It was not only about competition, but also about the quality of texts. The role of reviewers was usually performed by acquaintances and friends of the author, who read his works to them, such as the tragic poet Lucius Actius, who read to his brother Marcus Pacuvius. Terence brought his first comedy to the attention of the city aediles, who ordered the famous comedian Caecilius Statius to read it.

Education

Youth organizations

The beginning of Roman youth organizations should be sought in the 2nd century. BC e. In Italy they were known as "iuvenes" or "iuventus" ("young", "youth"), and in the provinces as "iuventus" and "collegium iuventutis". The expansion of their network was associated with the emergence of new schools in the cities of the empire (in Mediolan, Augustodunum, Burdigal, Carthage, Antioch, etc.). Unlike the Athenian ephebia, membership in organizations was voluntary and not mandatory, the exercises were not military in nature, and in addition, such organizations were based on collegial principles and did not have an appointed administration - they were headed by a master. Youth organizations flourished during the early Empire, when the municipal urban aristocracy began to effectively help state authorities. After the advent of the latifundial economy, the importance of Roman youth organizations fell.

Religion

The struggle and ban of Ancient Roman culture by Christianity

The prefect of the East, Cynegius, with the help of armed force and together with Christian monks, destroyed many of the remaining sanctuaries of the old faith.

The Edict of 391, even more strict, dealt the final blow to “paganism” by prohibiting the worship of gods not only in public, but also in private homes.

In 391, a crowd of Christian fanatics under the leadership of Patriarch Theophilus destroyed and burned the Library of Alexandria, which was a repository of Ancient Roman culture.

In Rome, the famous statue of Nike (“victory”), recognized as the palladium of ancient religion, was finally and forever removed from the Senate hall. The opposition of the old Roman nobility (with Symmachus and Praetextatus at their head) did not crush the decisions of Theodosius; sacred fire

The culture of Ancient Rome significantly influenced the development of European and world history. Even in those days, traditional values, norms of social life and socio-psychological patterns of behavior were laid down, which for a thousand years were the basis of European enlightenment. Rome was also the "founder" of democracy and civic responsibility, which indicates a high social level of development that contributed to the formation of a strong and developed state.

Initially, the culture of Ancient Rome was formed under the influence of the Greek and Etruscan peoples, but later the Romans surpassed their teachers in many ways, reaching admirable heights. It all started with a religion that recognized the power of spirits and deities. Since the Roman pantheon was always open to “foreign” forces, it was believed that new deities only increased the power of the Roman inhabitants, so the mythology of Rome began to identify its gods with the Greek ones.

It was the same with philosophy and literature. Initially, Greek sages and writers “became” Roman, and their works were translated into Latin, but then, by studying the works of great philosophers and supplementing their conclusions with their own experience, many truly Roman great writers and scientists showed their abilities. This is how the culture of Ancient Rome was born.

Further development occurred in all spheres of culture. The Romans made significant strides forward in architecture. They preferred the construction of buildings that were more in line with practical needs and emphasized the power that overwhelms man with its grandeur, rather than temple (spiritual) complexes. As a result of this, they developed new types of buildings (amphitheatre, thermal baths and basilica) and structures (arches, domes, pillars).

As already mentioned, the main feature of Roman thinking was practicality, which contributed to the development of applied sciences. In this regard, jurisprudence has reached a high level, according to which numerous literary masterpieces have reached us. In addition, new household utensils, glass and bronze dishes, water mills, devices for space heating and water heating, and much more were “invented.”

One of the reasons that Rome began to prosper was the improvement in the material and economic situation of the empire, which provided the necessary conditions for the formation of values ​​and gave birth to the ancient intelligentsia (poets, teachers, philosophers and other masters of the arts).

According to myths, the distant ancestor of the Romans was Aeneas, the son of the goddess Venus, who was saved by her during the fall of Troy. But the founder of Rome was not he, but the legendary Romulus, the son of the god of war Mars. Romulus, who, along with his brother, according to legend, was nursed by a she-wolf, founded Rome in the 8th century. BC. and at the end of his life he himself became a god under the name Quirinus (the Romans called themselves Quirites). So the key to the greatness of Rome was multiple divine patronage. And this greatness was constantly maintained by the heroic efforts of the Roman citizens. At the same time, they fulfilled their duty towards the Roman community - civitas.

Civitas is a community and a civil state, and the term "civilization" is associated with this word. Roman citizens were directly involved in the fate of Rome, in its consciously civilized (although not immediately, of course) development. Civic duty, civic responsibilities were very important in the life of Rome.

Rome itself consisted of two parts: the city itself and the “Roman field” outside its walls. The wall was a city boundary. Various rules were in effect inside. For example, it was forbidden to enter there armed or even in military attire. In the city, Roman citizens wore special clothes, the so-called togas. The toga was a sign of a Roman. The Romans were therefore called “togatus” (“toga wearers”). Outside the wall there was a “field of Mars”. An army could stand there, an unchanging essential component of the life of Ancient Rome.

In the Roman Republic, one of the first duties of citizens was to participate in wars. Once every five years in Rome a special survey of citizens was carried out - a census. And the first question was: in what military campaigns and under whose command did the citizen fight? Social activity was also valued in peacetime. Life given for the good of the republic was considered valuable (from lat. res publica- a public matter), for the benefit of Roman society and the state.

All this, which many historians have written about, characterizes, of course, separate and different periods in the development of the Italians, and during these periods - only some significant features of their life. But it is obvious that ancient civilization is not one-dimensional, that its Roman version initially appeared and was realized as unique, different from the Greek, although it was similar in type and turned out to be closely related to the latter, and was influenced by Greek culture.

This Roman civilization, like other ancient ones, was formed on the basis of the unification of different tribes: Latins, Sabines, Etruscans, Italics, the population of the Greek colonies in southern Italy. But on the Apennine Peninsula such polis formations as in Greece were not formed. It was Rome that fought with its neighbors and waged wars with them, gradually growing into a large center with regions dependent on it, and later provinces on the vast territory of what is now Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. A large and ever-expanding state was formed.

As in all ancient societies, at first many primitive or semi-primitive relationships between people were preserved. The everyday life of Roman civil communities was simple and poor. The accelerated development of Roman civilization began in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC. It turned out to be associated with the growth of Rome itself and a number of other cities - centers of regions, with the already advanced stratification of the population, with the appearance of large masses of slaves.

Roman civilization was similar in type to Greek, agricultural, maritime and trading. But the sea off the coast of Italy is rougher, the harbors worse than in Greece. The Greeks colonized distant lands, traveling separately from each city. And they did not conquer other countries, but settled in them, trading and interacting with the local population. Wars played an important role in the formation and development of Rome. They provided not only protection (this was also the case with the Greeks), but also the dependence of territories on Rome, their inclusion in the Roman state.

Rome succeeded significantly in organizing the army and waging war. The Roman legions with their varied weapons, developed strategy and tactics, excellent commanders (such as Caesar) demonstrated their superiority over the Carthaginians, Gauls, Spaniards, Germans, etc. The army of Rome relatively quickly became professional, hired, and therefore a formidable weapon in the fight not only against external opponents, but also in the struggle for power in Rome itself.

Roman expansion was much more powerful than Greek, and it united the growing state around one center - Rome, the “eternal city”. Wars, among other things, produced slaves. Roman slavery became an extremely significant factor in civilization. It was more intense than anywhere else, not so much in scale, but in the organization of the use of slave labor in all spheres of life. So, on a social basis, the population of Rome was divided, first of all, into slaves and free Romans, besides whom, later, free “barbarians” (not Romans) and freed slaves lived within the city and the Roman state. Along with this, the division of the population according to origin (nobility), wealth and power was also significant. Patricians (lit., “father families”), representatives of noble families, towered over the plebeians (non-nobles): small owners (rural plebs), artisans and traders (urban plebs). Noble and powerful landowners-slave owners (and later owners of workshops, mines, etc.) constituted the highest senatorial (Senate - assembly of elders) class. The class of the so-called “horsemen” united the trading and financial strata, which had a great influence on the life of Rome. Plebeians, unlike slaves and non-citizens, had the right to vote and relatively easily, although not without a struggle, won their place in power structures.

Slaves were actually outside society, although they also differed in position (servants, teachers, doctors, gladiators, workers in workshops, in mines). To survive, slaves needed strength, intelligence, and resourcefulness. Slavery gradually introduced contempt for work as a base occupation and, together with wars, gave scope for the development of cruelty and arrogance. Slavery, as it developed, led to the ruin of small owners and the formation of a layer of urban lumpen (free loafers, rabble), some of whom in the 2nd century. they began to take them into the army for pay.

The everyday life of the Romans, at first harsh and poor, gradually changed. There was an increase in the complexity of social relations and living comfort. In imperial Rome, the differences between the rich with their incredible luxury and the poor reached enormous proportions. Imperial Rome amazed not only with the rampantness of all kinds of passions, lust for power, ambition, immorality, but also with wealth, luxury, and the splendor of buildings and structures. Roman civilization as a whole developed tremendously! The Romans mastered a variety of construction techniques. They laid many beautiful roads that were used in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Romans built complex water conduits (aqueducts) and achieved a lot in organizing everyday comfort. Suffice it to recall the famous thermal baths (a kind of public baths). All this required a certain level of civilization and, at the same time, acted as a means of development of both civilization and culture (at least as regards the vital level of the latter). In Rome, various forms of cultural (ennobled) life were developed, which distinguished the Romans from the barbarians.

At the same time, a large mass of the population in cities found themselves in the position of dependents of the state. In the I-II centuries. their number in Rome reached 200 thousand. And each received 1.5 kg of bread daily, and subsequently also butter and meat. Sometimes there were money distributions. This idle crowd demanded not only bread, but also circuses, spending time in squares, taverns, bathhouses, and circuses (where they watched gladiator fights and baiting of animals). The growing bureaucracy was busy with intrigue. In general, life was different: at times gloomy and scary, at times quite bearable. Much depended on the person’s position in society and the general political situation.

The statehood and political life of Rome developed from a patriarchal kingdom to a republic and from a republic to an empire. The periodization of the history of the state is as follows:

• - period of patriarchal kingdoms (VII-V centuries BC);
• - The Roman Republic arose after the elimination of royal power (V-I centuries BC) and ended with the dictatorship of Sulla and the actual dictatorship of Caesar, killed by Brutus in 44 BC;
• - Imperial Rome (end of the 1st century BC - 5th century) (partially continued further in Byzantium).

It is characteristic that politics and other related aspects of life in Ancient Rome achieved a high degree of civilization through the development of legal relations. In this regard, it was Rome that gave a lot that was used in the further development of European, and through this, world civilization in the movement towards the so-called “rule of law”.

Early Roman law received its expression and formalization in the famous “Laws of the XII Tables”, adopted in 450 BC (although before them there were already legal acts, laws regulating life in the emerging republic). These and subsequent legal documents, and, most importantly, actions, were of great importance. Roman jurists gradually formalized property rights, family inheritance rights, political rights and obligations of citizens and the state, its governing bodies more and more clearly, and developed laws on criminal and other crimes. The main sources of law were laws (not customs), edicts (decrees) of Roman magistrates and decisions of the Senate, which were supplemented by decrees. In imperial Rome, unlimited legislative power was vested in the emperors, who continued their legislative activities. As a result, codes, sets of laws, edicts, etc. were formed, which included what was previously adopted and new legal acts. The “Code of Justinian” (compiled in 528-529), which served as a source of reception of Roman law in medieval and modern Europe, became especially popular.

In relation to the absence of law and the underdeveloped legal state, its solid and thorough development and the effectiveness of legal acts have become important points not only in the development of civilization, but also in the cultivation of life. Relations between people, as they improved in legal aspects, were increasingly organized, streamlined and humanized, although in this process there were costs, and considerable ones. Legal institutions were formed and consolidated inevitably in favor of certain - dominant - segments of the population. A slave, for example, was not a subject of law at all. And the excessive cruelty of the slave owner was condemned only as his abuse of his right to property (which a slave was considered to be) and wasteful disposal of it. However, some elements of Roman law still had the character of “good for all,” legal protection of any Roman citizen, protection from lawlessness. By upholding legal rights, the sense of human dignity was also strengthened. In its development, Roman law, apparently, was not without reason influenced by Greek culture, with its powerful anthropocentrism, which at some points rose to humanism. However, this impact affected the sphere of legal relations not directly, but indirectly, through the implementation of common ties between two ancient cultures, similar in some ways, fundamentally different from each other in some ways.

At the end of the 1st century. BC. Ancient Rome becomes a world power. Roman culture developed as a result of the interaction of the culture of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the Etruscans, with Greek culture, carried out first through Magna Graecia (Greek colony cities in southern Italy and Sicily), then it intensified as a result of the conquest of Greece by Rome.

The culture of Ancient Italy and Ancient Rome falls into three main periods:

• 1) the culture of pre-Roman Italy (3 thousand - 3rd century BC);
• 2) culture of the Roman Republic (III-I centuries BC);
• 3) culture of the Roman Empire (I-V centuries AD).

The predecessor of the culture of Ancient Rome was Etruscan culture, whose country extended from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Apennine Mountains in the east, and its northern border in the 7th century. BC. reached the Po River. Etruria was a union of 12 city-states with a slave system based on the undivided dominance of the aristocracy. The heyday of Etruscan culture dates back to the VI-V centuries. BC, when it was strongly influenced by Greek culture.

Greek influences are visible in Etruscan painting and sculpture (statue of Apollo from Vei, master Vulcus, 6th century BC; paintings of tombs in Corneto, Chiusi, Vulci, Cervetri, Orveto, 6th-5th centuries BC .), but there were also Etruscan traditions proper, which are most clearly expressed in monumental terracotta sarcophagi with figures of the dead (sarcophagus from Cervetri, 6th century BC), bronze casting (Capitolian She-wolf, 6th century BC. ), making clay vessels buquenero(“black earth”)

The culture of Ancient Rome developed as a synthetic one, which included Etruscan, Greek and Roman traditions proper and features characteristic of the culture of the peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes at a higher stage of development. Like the Greeks, the Romans did not imagine life outside the civil community, to serve which was a duty and blessing, outside freedom and independence, outside connection with gods and demigods.

Without having their own developed mythology, the Romans almost completely adopted it from the Greeks, calling the gods by their own names: Zeus - Jupiter, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Dionysus - Bacchus, etc.

The Romans introduced features of a more sober worldview into ancient humanism. Precision and historicism of thinking, harsh prose form the basis of their artistic culture. The Romans believed that the gods did not need the feelings of people, but sacrifices (wine, blood, smoke, etc.), and the Latin word itself "religion" (religion) means originally connection between man and the gods (I give to you so that you give to me).

The practical makeup of Roman culture is reflected in everything: in sobriety of thinking, a normative idea of ​​the expediency of order, scrupulousness Roman law(closely related to religion), which took into account all life phenomena, gravitating towards exact historical facts. Scientific and philosophical ideas, literature and art - everything was rethought from the point of view of “Rome - the center of the World”.

Roman law evolved over several centuries. It was a system of norms and legal laws of the slave state, included private and public law, regulated property, private property and civil relations.

The Romans were equal in their responsibility before the law, but they were not equal in the political and social spheres. The noble and rich had a monopoly on rights, but they also bore more responsibilities. Unlike the Greeks, ordinary people could not count on high positions, but any Roman citizen had the right to land ownership.

In Roman art during its heyday, architecture played a leading role, embodying the ideas of the power of the state. The main place in it belonged not to temple (like the Greeks), but to social and civil construction. The Romans invented waterproof concrete; arched, vaulted and domed structures were widely used; introduced new engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses); improved the layout of large cities. Social life took place

forum - squares decorated with temples, basilicas, merchants' shops, statues of eminent citizens, and markets. The forum was the center of trade, political and social life of the Romans (Roman Forum or Forum Romanum, forums of the emperors Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Trajan).

The needs of Roman society also gave rise to such types of structures as amphitheaters (Colosseum), baths (the baths of Caracalla, Diocletian), triumphal arches (Arch of Traction) and columns (Trajan's Column). New types of palaces, country villas and tomb monuments appeared in the architecture of Ancient Rome.

Giant spectacular building of Ancient Rome - Coliseum(from lat. colosseum - colossal) was intended for grandiose performances and gladiatorial fights. The Colosseum, built of tuff, could accommodate up to 50 thousand spectators. The construction of the amphitheater began when he came to power after the civil war of 68-69. AD Titus Flavius ​​Vespasian(9-79 AD). Its construction was completed during the reign of Vespasian's son - Tita(from 79 to 81 AD). In honor of the opening of the Colosseum, a hundred-day gladiatorial games were held. In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 m in circumference), dissected by transverse and circular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance of the Colosseum, monumental and majestic, is determined by a ring wall designed in the form of a multi-tiered order arcade: below - Tuscan, above - Ionic, in the third tier - Corinthian, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.

In order to drain sewage and dirty water, an underground pipe was built in Rome - cloaca. The Romans made great progress in constructing the buildings necessary for the economy. Public baths were built in Rome - baths, had a constant supply of clean water; swimming pools with warm and cold water.

The best legacy of Roman culture was portraiture as an independent form of creativity from the beginning of the 1st century. BC. The Romans showed realism in depicting the facial features of a particular person. Roman portrait painters historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their morals and ideals.

In the painting of the Roman Empire, one decorative style replaces another. The first Roman pictorial portraits created by Greek artists appear. Their distinctive feature is the use of the form tondo - circle. Painting of the 2nd century. AD - These are mainly paintings of tombs, frescoes of residential buildings and nymphaeions (pools), characterized by the severity of the samples and the static nature of the figures.

In ancient Roman art, it is also worth mentioning monumental wall paintings, known from excavations of houses in the city of Pompeii in Italy. The frescoes depicted colorful pictures of mythological, historical, everyday subjects and were reminiscent of Greek ones.

Roman theater, unlike Greek, it had little connection with religious cults. The main place among stage performances was played by the mime. The actors were free to improvise. Dance and gesture played an important role.

According to the Greek model, Rome was rebuilt stage performances. Authors usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. The comedies of Plautus and Terence have been completely preserved. Comedy Plautus(c. 254-184 BC) were very popular. The main character of his works was a clever slave, inexhaustible in inventions, who helped the owner’s son deceive his stingy father, luring him out of money. The performances were accompanied by flute playing and masks were used. The lyric poetry of Republican Rome reached its highest development in the works Catullus(87-54 BC). The Roman poet brings to the fore spontaneous, contradictory emotions beyond the control of reason, turns to the inner world of man, and glorifies love.

During the era of the first emperor Augustus, his associate Maecenas provided material support and patronized outstanding poets - Virgil, Horace and Ovid. Virgil

(70-19 BC) published Bucolics, a collection in which he glorified Augustus; “Georgics” is a poem dedicated to rural life. And the poem “Aeneid” brought him fame. Horace(65-8 BC) praised antiquity in poetry and also praised Augustus. He wrote love poems and satires ridiculing the vices of Roman society. Ovid(43 BC - 17 AD) became famous for his love poems and the poem "Metamorphoses", based on myths.

In the 1st century BC. Philosophical works also appeared in Rome. The most outstanding of the Roman thinkers was considered a materialist philosopher Lucretius Carus(c. 98-54 BC). He outlined his views on the emergence of the universe, nature, and man in the poem “On the Nature of Things,” where with brilliant skill he described complex philosophical problems in an accessible form, in verse.

In the 1st century AD in the depths of the Roman Empire Christianity was born. A fierce internal struggle for power and changes in the socio-economic and political conditions of life of the peoples of Europe led the Roman Empire to decline. The Christian Church had a negative and hostile attitude towards ancient culture, considering it barbaric. This factor accelerated the death of the culture of Ancient Rome.

In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476. The Eastern Roman Empire, called Byzantium, lasted another thousand years. Destroyed and plundered by barbarians in the IV-VII centuries. Rome is deserted; New villages grew up among its ruins, but the traditions of Roman art continued to live on.