Basic principles of the Baroque artistic system. Aesthetic principles: mannerism, baroque, classicism

Baroque is a European culture of the 17th – 18th centuries, the main characteristics of which are contrast, the desire for grandeur and luxury, the combination of reality with allusion, dynamic images and tension. Baroque appeared in Italy (Florence, Venice, Rome) and from there spread throughout Europe. The word "baroque" (Italian Barocco - strange, capricious) is intended to mean the sophistication of forms characteristic of this artistic style, excessive decorativeness,

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, a desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for merging and, at the same time, a tendency for autonomy of individual genres.

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy floridity and dynamism; A striking example is the work of Rubens (The Elevation of the Cross, The Descent from the Cross) and Jan Vermeer (the girl with a pearl earring).

Baroque architecture is characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Often there are large-scale colonnades and an abundance of sculpture on the facades and in the interiors. The Baroque style is becoming widespread in Spain, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Russia, France, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or locally known as Churrigueresco, which also spread to Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most elaborate version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), richness in rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by the desire for diversity, the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, the desire to explore existence in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life as a dream. Calderon's play “Life is a Dream” is famous. Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel, real-life and satirical novel are also developing.

Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of classicism. Composing and performing techniques of the Baroque period became an integral and significant part of the classical musical canon. Works of that time are widely performed and studied. The Baroque era saw the birth of such works as fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach, the Hallelujah chorus from the oratorio Messiah by George Frideric Handel, The Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi, and Vespers by Claudio Monteverdi. Musical ornamentation became very sophisticated, musical notation changed greatly, and ways of playing instruments developed. The scope of genres expanded, the complexity of performing musical works increased, and a type of composition such as opera appeared. Big number musical terms and concepts from the Baroque era are still used today.

The Counter-Reformation is a Catholic church-political movement in Europe in the mid-16th-17th centuries, directed against the Reformation and aimed at restoring the position and prestige of the Roman Catholic Church.

Baroque became the art of the Counter-Reformation. The first works of this style appear in Italy, and the Jesuit Order, the vanguard of the Counter-Reformation, spreads it in Catholic countries and Flanders, Southern Germany, Poland and Belarus, and Latin America through its missionary activities. Baroque solves the problem of strengthening faith and enhancing religious zeal. All arts seem to be united in his creations to glorify God and the Church.

Not only art, but the entire culture of this time bears the stamp of the Baroque style. Baroque trends in literature appear in connection with deep ideological conflicts in society, not only in the confrontation between Catholicism and Protestantism, but also in passionate polemics around Jansenism, Pietism, and Febronianism within the Church itself. The Counter-Reformation brought to life the flourishing of the genre of rhetorical preaching, didactic prose and school drama in connection with new tasks of explaining the truths of the Catholic faith and moral education. Many works on the theme of the Passion of Christ appear in literature; images of the Heart of Jesus, blood and the Savior’s crown of thorns are used. In Baroque music, it was reflected in the creation of opera (C. Monteverdi, A Scarlatti, K. Gluck), as well as in the flowering of organ music, the pinnacle of which was the work of J. S. Bach. Baroque music expresses reverence for God: “imitation of the choir of angels” becomes an ideal for composers.

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. BAROQUE: HISTORY OF APPEARANCE, MEANING OF THE TERM
1.1 Reasons for the appearance of Baroque
1.2 Origin of the term "Baroque"
CHAPTER II. ESSENCE AND EXAMPLES OF BAROQUE AESTHETICS
2.1. Essence, principles and aesthetics of Baroque
CONCLUSION
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
APPLICATIONS

Introduction

Baroque aesthetics. Reasons for the emergence of Baroque. History of the term "Baroque". Basic principles of Baroque.

Fragment of work for review

The artistic concept of the Baroque considers wit to be the main creative force; the basis of this wit is the ability to bring together dissimilar things. From this wit comes a special attitude towards metaphor, emblem, which aesthetically represents a more elegant way of expression artistic meaning than the symbolization adopted as a basis in the Renaissance18.
Baroque puts the ability to surprise and amaze with novelty at the forefront. That is why baroque allows grotesque, ugly elements into its works, that is why it is so fantastic. The theoretical thought of the Baroque departs from the Renaissance thought that art (especially fine art) is a science, that it is based on the laws of logical thinking, that art is caused by the tasks of cognition. On the contrary, Baroque emphasizes the fact that art is profoundly different from the logic of science. Wit, in the Baroque, is a sign of genius. The artistic gift is given by God, and no theory can help to acquire it19.
In the Baroque era, man's worldview was not only split, but finally lost its integrity and harmony. The worldview, the worldview of a person has comprehended the depth, the internal contradictoriness of being, human life, universe20. This is the true meaning of Baroque aesthetics.
So, in general, Baroque is an artistic movement that reflects the crisis concept of the world and personality. Baroque heroes are either exalted martyrs who have lost faith in the meaning and value of life, or refined connoisseurs of its charms full of skepticism. The artistic concept of the Baroque is humanistically oriented, but it is socially pessimistic; it contains doubts about human capabilities, a feeling of the futility of existence and the doom of good to defeat in the fight against evil.
In general, Baroque, like others, is culturally - historical styles characterize a certain worldview and philosophy, as well as other specific features.
Let's take a closer look at them. It is characteristic of the worldview of a man of the Baroque era that he saw the main order of life in its contradictions and believed that there was nothing that did not have its antipode.
Cultural historians identify as a special category in the study of the Baroque the so-called antinomy - opposites incompatible with each other, which together exhibit a certain harmony and aesthetics21. This antinomy is extremely important for understanding the essence of the Baroque. Researchers note that this “consonance of the dissonant” is manifested in virtually every feature of the Baroque. The most characteristic antinomies of the Baroque are considered22:
- relationships between chaos and order;
- a person is simultaneously everything and nothing;
- contrast between life and death.
- in addition, there are certain oppositions at such levels of knowledge of existence as time, space and thinking.
It is typical for the philosophy of the Baroque era to see fragmentation and contradiction in the very foundation of things (this is especially noticeable when compared with the tendencies towards harmony and unity characteristic of the Renaissance).
The peculiarities, specific features of the Baroque, in comparison with other cultures, are23:
- increased emotionality;
- obvious dynamism;
- emotionality, contrast of images;
- great importance given to irrational effects and elements.
Let us summarize the main results of studying this issue:
- the essence of Baroque aesthetics lies in the fact that in the Baroque era the idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. Man no longer feels like he is a “most intelligent being”; on the contrary, he doubts his own rationality. Thus, in Baroque aesthetics, what was sometimes considered beautiful was what was ugly, for example in the Renaissance. At the same time, if we look more broadly, we will see that the Baroque begins to reject authorities and traditions not in themselves, but as prejudices, as an outdated substance. For the Baroque, what is primarily important is not the mechanical rejection of everything associated with antiquity and the Renaissance, but new forms for understanding the beautiful world around us and the mind. During the Renaissance, man was at the forefront. Baroque figures believed that it had been sufficiently studied and preferred to talk about reason, rejecting the spiritual component. These trends are the essence, the basis for understanding Baroque aesthetics.
- Baroque as an artistic movement reflects the crisis concept of the world and personality. The artistic concept of the Baroque is humanistically oriented, but socially pessimistic: it contains doubts about human capabilities, a feeling of the futility of existence and the doom of good to defeat in the fight against evil;
- the peculiarity, specific features of the Baroque, in comparison with other cultures, are: increased emotionality; obvious dynamism; emotionality, contrast of images; great importance is attached to irrational effects and elements. These features were most clearly manifested in architecture and sculpture, music, literature and art in various European countries;
2.2 Examples of the implementation of Baroque aesthetics
Let us illustrate the features of Baroque described above in relation to architecture and sculpture, music, literature and art in different European countries in the 17th – 18th centuries. . Let's say right away that Baroque in various countries Europe, sometimes, meant different cultural trends.
Baroque in architecture and sculpture.
Michelangelo is called the “father” of Baroque architecture, since in his statues, buildings, and drawings there is, at the same time, a return to the spiritual values ​​of the Middle Ages and the consistent discovery of new principles of form-building. Buanarotti, in the last years of his life, having exhausted the possibilities of classical plasticity, created previously unprecedented expressive forms24. His figures in the Sistine Plafond are not depicted according to the rules plastic anatomy, but according to other, irrational forces brought to life by the imagination of the artist himself. This revealed one of the first signs of the Baroque - redundancy of means and confusion of scales25. If in the art of Classicism all forms are clearly defined and delimited from each other, then Michelangelo’s “Sistine Plafond” is therefore the first work of the Baroque style, because in it there was a collision of drawn, but sculptural in tangibility figures, and an incredible architectural frame painted on the ceiling , not at all consistent with real space architecture. G. Vasari, a chronicler of the Renaissance, called this style “bizarre, extraordinary and new”26.
Thus, Baroque architecture is characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms.
Let us analyze the features of Baroque architecture and sculpture by country27.
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative was Carlo Maderna. His main creation is the façade of the Church of Santa Susanna, completed in 1603. The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini. In addition to these figures, P. Cortona, G. Guarini, R. Rainaldi and B. Lorena made their contribution to the development of Baroque.
His first works in this style date back to 1620. A separate school of Baroque in Italy includes the so-called Sicilian Baroque, which developed after the earthquake of 1693.
The Baroque style in architecture is becoming widespread in Spain, Germany, Flanders, the Netherlands, Russia, and France.
In Spain, the most popular Baroque monument is the Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela. In this country, architectural baroque is called “churrigiresco” (in honor of the architect José Churighera). Spanish Baroque spread from there to Latin America, where it mixed with national architectural traditions, resulting in the most elaborate type of Baroque - ultra-Borocco.
In France, the Baroque style is presented much more modestly. The Palace of Versailles is usually considered French Baroque. French Academy Sciences, Luxembourg Palace, etc. A characteristic feature of the Baroque architecture style in France is a certain style of landscape art (Versailles Park). In France, in the 18th century, the Baroque style transformed into Rococo, which in turn spread throughout Europe.
In Flanders, Baroque architecture is represented by the Grand Place ensemble (Brussels), as well as the Rubens house in Antwerp.
In Germany, the outstanding Baroque monument is the New and Summer Palace in Sanssouci.
In Russia, Baroque appears in the 17th century and develops in the era of Peter, during the construction of St. Petersburg and reaches its apogee under Elizabeth Petrovna. The main names associated with Baroque in Russian architecture are B. Rastrelli, D. Trezzini and S. Chevakinsky. The most significant work is Peterhof.
In general, Baroque is like architectural style began in the 16th century (where it is associated with the name of Michelangelo) and ended at the end of the 18th century. This style has become widespread in Italy, France, Germany, Flanders, Spain and Russia. Main feature- spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms.
Let's move on to Baroque music28.
Conventionally, Baroque music refers to the many compositional styles that existed in Europe for 150 years, in the 17th – 18th centuries. Here it is necessary to note that the term “Baroque” in relation to music began to be used relatively recently (from the beginning of the 20th century).
The main instruments of Baroque music are the viol, lute, baroque guitar and baroque violin.
The main significant moments in the history of Baroque music are the creation of opera in Italy, oratorio (disclosure musical means dramatic content) also in Italy, as well as cantatas and sonatas.
Main leitmotif instrumental music- Creation instrumental ensembles with the leading role of the violin. The suite genre is also developing.
Historically, Baroque music is divided into:
- music of the early Baroque – 1600 – 1654. (the main representative is Claudio Montervedi; characteristic features are the transition period from Renaissance music);
- music of the mature Baroque - 1654 – 1707. (representatives - Jean Baptiste Lupi, Arcangelo Carelli, differs from the early one by the spread of a new style, increasing the separation of musical forms, especially in opera);
- and music of the late Baroque – 1707 – 1764. (representatives Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Bach. Characteristic features - transition to the music of classicism).
Baroque music developed in Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, France and Austria and was a kind of transitional model from Renaissance music to classicism music. The main events of this period were the creation of an opera, oratorio, cantata, and sonata suite.
Let's study Baroque literature29.
Writers of the Baroque era perceived the real world as a dream or a kind of illusion. A characteristic feature is a combination of reality and allegory. The literature of this period widely uses metaphors, oxymorons, antitheses, and is also characterized by a desire for diversity and encyclopedicism. Baroque literature is marked by symbolism, attention to the theme of frailty, impermanence, night and sleep. At the same time, the actions of literary works are often transferred to ancient world, pretentiousness and metaphor are spreading in poetry.
Genres characteristic of Baroque literature are the sonnet, satirical novel, pastoral, concetti, etc.
Outstanding representatives of Baroque literature - G. Grimmelshausen, P. Calderon, D. Marino (Italy), Luis de Gongora and Argotte (Spain), V. Voiture (France), F. Prokopovich, M. Lomonosov, S. Polotsky (Russia) .
Let's take a quick look at painting30.
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, aristocracy, and unusual subjects. The most recognizable features are floridity and dynamism.
In Italy, Baroque painting is represented by such masters as Michelangelo Merisi, Andrea del Pozzo, and the Carracci brothers. Of the Baroque schools in Italy, the most famous is the Venetian one. The paintings are mainly written on religious themes, comparing the life of the artist’s contemporaries and the Hellenes, while great attention is given to certain gestures that indicate character.
In France, Baroque painting is represented mainly by the works of the painter Iasinte Riga, as well as his imitators Simon Vouet and Charles Lebrun. A characteristic feature is ceremonial portraits.
In Spain, Baroque is associated with the names of Velázquez and El Greco. It is characterized by decorativeness, the opposition of the real and the ideal, the funny and the sublime, a certain capriciousness, unreality, imagination, etc. This was most expressed in the works of El Greco. Velazquez became famous as a master of character portraiture. In general, Baroque in Spain represents the flowering of painting in this country.
In a certain way, the Baroque also influenced Flemish painting. This style flourished in the first half XVII century and is represented by the works of Rubens and Van Dyck. Baroque here was guided not by the feelings of the viewer, but by their rational attitude and calm attitude towards life.
In general, Baroque artists discovered techniques for spatial interpretation of form in art and intensified their life position. The unity of life in joy and tragedy forms the basis of beauty in Baroque painting.
Baroque - in painting, it is pomp, decorativeness, grandeur, intricacy, fluidity, impulse, passion, ecstasy, artistry, personality. It was intended to exalt Catholic Church and the king. Everything in art affirmed man as a particle of the cosmos. One of his constant themes is the theme of the divine sovereign31.
Thus, we will express a number of intermediate conclusions regarding the essence and principles of the Baroque:
- the Baroque features described above were used in architecture and sculpture, music, literature and art in different European countries in the 17th – 18th centuries, and Baroque in different European countries sometimes implied different cultural trends.
- Baroque as an architectural style began in the 16th century (where it is associated with the name of Michelangelo) and ended at the end of the 18th century. This style has become widespread in Italy, France, Germany, Flanders, Spain and Russia. The main feature is the spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms;
- Baroque music developed in Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, France and Austria and was a kind of transitional model from Renaissance music to classicism music. The main events of this period are the creation of an opera, oratorio, cantata, sonata suite;
- a characteristic feature of Baroque literature is a combination of reality and allegory; metaphors, oxymorons, and antitheses are widely used. Baroque literature is marked by symbolism, attention to the theme of frailty, impermanence, night and sleep. The main genres are sonnet, satirical novel, pastoral, concetti, etc.;
- The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, aristocracy, and unusual subjects. The most recognizable features are floridity and dynamism. Baroque painting developed mainly in Italy, Spain, Flemish and France.
Thus, we examined the essence and basic principles of Baroque in architecture and sculpture, music, literature and art in different European countries and came to the general conclusion that Baroque in different European countries sometimes implied different cultural trends.
CONCLUSION
Now, in accordance with the goals and objectives set, we will express several fundamental conclusions for this work.
In accordance with the objectives, we initially identified the prerequisites for the development of the Baroque. The main conclusions here are the following:
Chronologically, Baroque appeared in the 17th century, in Italy, against the backdrop of a crisis of Renaissance ideas. Italy itself during this period lost its economic and political significance and became a disunited semi-colony, while at the same time continuing to be cultural center Europe. Gradually, due to these socio-economic reasons, a new style, whose first task was to create the illusion of wealth and power, the rise of the Catholic Church and the Italian nobility, who had nothing but cultural leverage.
At the same time, it is not correct to consider the Baroque era solely as a time of transition from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment. Baroque represents an independent phase in the development of art and the reasons for its appearance are not only economic and political problems Italy. Moreover, Baroque, although it appeared in Italy, very quickly spread throughout Europe. Based on this, it can be argued that the Baroque reflected the mood of the entire European society, was in demand, and therefore could not develop without prerequisites, and these prerequisites were largely different in different European countries.
The ideological basis for the spread of the Baroque in Europe was the general weakening of spiritual culture, the split of the church - as a consequence of the decline in its authority, and the struggle of teachings that reflected the interests of different classes. At the same time, the role of state institutions is strengthening, and the struggle between secular and religious principles is intensifying. The natural sciences – optics, physics, thermodynamics and geography – are developing rapidly. This means that the prerequisites appear for the main leitmotif of the Baroque - the rejection of the soul, anthropocentrism and the Renaissance as a whole, in favor of enlightenment and reason.
Let us dwell on the history of the term “Baroque”.
The term Baroque appears somewhat later than the art movement itself. The etymology of this word most likely comes from slang, which originally meant pearl irregular shape, and was later used as a synonym for everything rude and false. This history of the origin of the term indicates that at the beginning this term meant a negative characteristic of the cultural and historical era itself as a whole, was often used mockingly and generally assessed the entire era from the point of view of a person of the 18th century. Only much later, in the 19th century, did the Baroque begin to be seen, along with the Renaissance, as an expression of two alternating principles, neither of which can claim priority.
Currently, the term “Baroque” refers to a number of historical and regional artistic styles of European art of the 17th-18th centuries, the last, critical stages of the development of other styles, the tendency of a restless, romantic attitude, thinking in expressive, unbalanced forms. The concept of “Baroque” is currently widespread in the field of art and literary criticism in many countries, and it is recognized as having a certain cultural and historical status.
Let's move on to the essence of the principles and foundations of Baroque aesthetics.
The essence of Baroque aesthetics lies in the fact that in this era the idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. Man no longer feels like he is a “most intelligent being”; on the contrary, he doubts his own rationality. Thus, in Baroque aesthetics, what was sometimes considered beautiful was what was ugly, for example in the Renaissance. At the same time, if we look more broadly, we will see that the Baroque begins to reject authorities and traditions not in themselves, but as prejudices, as an outdated substance. For the Baroque, what is primarily important is not the mechanical rejection of everything associated with antiquity and the Renaissance, but new forms for understanding the beautiful world around us and the mind. During the Renaissance, man was at the forefront. Baroque figures believed that it had been sufficiently studied and preferred to talk about reason, rejecting the spiritual component. These trends are the essence, the basis for understanding Baroque aesthetics.
Thus, we highlight the essence of Baroque as an artistic movement. First of all, it reflects the crisis concept of the world and personality. The artistic concept of the Baroque is humanistically oriented, but socially pessimistic: it contains doubts about human capabilities, a feeling of the futility of existence and the doom of good to defeat in the fight against evil;
The basic principles, features, specific features of the Baroque, in comparison with other cultures, are: increased emotionality; obvious dynamism; emotionality, contrast of images; great importance is attached to irrational effects and elements. These features were most clearly manifested in architecture and sculpture, music, literature and art in various European countries.

Bibliography

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Baroque aesthetics - (abstract)

Date added: March 2006

Topic: Baroque aesthetics.
PLAN:
reasons for the emergence of Baroque.
History of the term “Baroque”.
Baroque theorists.
Basic principles of Baroque:
special role of wit
the main role of genius, its connection with wit
orientation towards the internal contradictions of existence
subjective nature of beauty.
Baroque art:
painting;
poetry;
architecture.

In the history of aesthetics style directions, replacing one another, differing in opposite orientations, i.e. in the history of art and aesthetics the operation of the law of antithesis is observed.

If the art of antiquity was focused on the mind, then the art and aesthetics of the Middle Ages were focused on the emotional and mystical sphere; If the art of the Renaissance largely resurrected the traditions of antiquity and was guided by a rational search for beauty, then the Baroque that replaced it was in many ways the opposite of the norms of the Renaissance. Classicism and Enlightenment were the opposite of Baroque and focused on reason and reason. Romanticism relied entirely on feeling.

Considering the stylistic directions of the 17th century. (Baroque, classicism, rococo), one can be convinced of both their deep connection with the Renaissance and with the opposite of this era.

A kind of baroque period (a period of collapse, decline) can be found in any era. Thus, the Rhodian sculptural school and the art of the Diadons were a manifestation of “Baroque” for Ancient Greece. Construction of the Caesars III and IV centuries. V. , which had a grandiose and luxurious character, can also be described as baroque. Gothic is also an elaborate “fiery” style, that is, each historical period has its own peak and decline. Historical Baroque replaces the Italian Renaissance. But Renaissance culture also has features that blossomed later in the Baroque.

The “disease of the Catholic Church,” which was expressed first in the speeches of Savonarola, then in the speeches of Luther and the Swiss reformers, largely influenced the course of artistic life. All this dealt a huge blow to the church. This spiritual storm manifested itself in the works of Michelangelo, a follower and adherent of Savonarola.

After Michelangelo, the church managed to produce “loyal Protestants” who led to the Counter-Reformation movement. From this moment on, Baroque art, originating from the Sistine Chapel and Correggio Cathedral of Parma, acquired the character of a necessary and even official one. The words “Jesuit art” and “Baroque” are almost synonymous. Baroque is the spirit of tragedy, contradiction, the desire to move away from the earth, the art of doubt and unsatisfied aspirations, the struggle of asceticism with sensuality, ecstasy, even hysteria.

Until the 1630s, Baroque art was influenced by Michelangelo and the Counter-Reformation. Further, it becomes lighter, even cynical, outwardly decorative, glorifying not only the church, but also royal power to no lesser extent.

Baroque art (as well as its theory, which was not formalized into a coherent system) became most widespread in Italy. The term “baroque” means a syllogism, and a pearl of an unusual (strange) shape. Baroque meant something pretentious, even ugly. This name was given in mockery by aesthetes of the 18th century. art of the 16th and 17th centuries V. It was also inherited by art criticism of the 19th century. It was considered a decline in beauty and good taste. Therefore, to this day, critics often use the term baroque to characterize the completion or decline of a certain style. But historical baroque - XVII century. Over time, the term “Baroque” lost its negative connotation and began to be used in relation to sculpture, painting, music and literature. The German art historian G. Wölfin considered the Renaissance and the Baroque as an expression of two alternating principles, neither of which can claim priority.

Among the theorists we can name Giambattisto Marino Peregrini, Emmanuele Tesauro.

The Neapolitan poet Giambattisto Marino Peregrini (representative of the so-called “new art”) was the brightest representative of this trend. He consciously contrasted his creativity and his creative principles with Petrarch: “The poet’s goal is the miraculous and amazing. Anyone who cannot surprise... let him go to the hairdresser.” Marino considered this principle of the need for surprise to be common to different types arts Moreover, he believed that spatial and temporal arts are related. Painting is silent poetry. Poetry is talking painting. The idea of ​​a synthesis of the arts (in particular, music and poetry, not counting the ancient mysteries) is a baroque idea. It turned out to be very fruitful. Thanks to her, opera was born. The search for a synthesis of sculpture and painting undertaken by L. Bernini also turned out to be significant in the history of art.

Another Baroque theorist was Matteo Peregrini. His “Treatise on Wit” is famous. He was considered a theorist of the “moderate baroque”.

A significant exponent of Baroque ideas was the Italian Emanuele Tesauro. He owns the treatises “Aristotle’s Spyglass” (1654) and “Moral Philosophy” (1670). He agrees with Aristotle that art is an imitation of nature. But he interprets this imitation differently: “Those who know how to perfectly imitate the symmetry of natural bodies are called the most learned masters, but only those who create with the proper sharpness and show a subtle feeling are gifted with quickness of mind.” What is true in art is not at all what is true in nature. Poetic ideas “are not true, but imitate the truth,” wit creates fantastic images “from immaterial things it creates existing things.”

The artistic concept of the Baroque considers wit (anticipation of romantic irony) to be the main creative force. In many ways, the collapse of Renaissance ideals leads to this. Baroque wit is the ability to bring together dissimilarities.

Because the Baroque masters attached such great importance to wit, their special attitude towards metaphor, allegory, emblem, symbol (a more elegant, expressive way of expressing artistic meaning than medieval symbolization) is born. In Baroque art, metaphors are represented both in stone and in words.

Baroque art pays special attention to the imagination, the idea, which should be witty and amaze with novelty. Baroque allows the ugly, the grotesque, the fantastic into its sphere.

The principle of bringing opposites together replaces the principle of measure in Baroque art (thus, in Bernini, a heavy stone turns into the finest drapery of fabric; sculpture gives a picturesque effect; architecture becomes like frozen music, the word merges with music, the fantastic is presented as real, the cheerful turns into tragic). The combination of planes of the superreal, mystical and naturalistic is first present in Baroque aesthetics, then manifests itself in romanticism and surrealism.

The theoretical thought of the Baroque also departs from the Renaissance thought that art (especially fine art) is a science, that it is based on the laws of logical thinking, that art is caused by the tasks of cognition.

Baroque emphasizes the fact that art is deeply different from the logic of science. Wit is a sign of genius. The artistic gift is given by God, and no theory can help to acquire it. “It is not theory, but inspiration that gives birth to the creations of a poet and musician.”

In the Baroque era, man’s worldview was not only split (as in the Renaissance - self-affirmation and tragedy), but also completely lost its integrity and harmony. A person’s worldview and perception of the world has comprehended the depth and internal contradictoriness of existence, human life, and the universe.

It is no coincidence that during this period, but already in France, a thinker like Pascal appears. In many ways, he did not accept the rational paradigm and refused to recognize the world as stable; he lived on the edge of being and non-being, above the abyss.

Pascal felt the connection of beauty with the perceiving subject himself. He tried to combine the individuality of aesthetic experience with certain general, objective foundations. emphasized special role aesthetic experience, considered it a necessary element of social life: “This (beauty) something, so small that it is difficult to define it, moves the earth, principles, armies, the whole world. If Cleopatra’s nose had been shorter, the face of the earth would have been different.”

Baroque is pomp, decorativeness, grandeur, intricacy, fluidity, impulse, passion, ecstasy, artistry, personality. It was intended to glorify the Catholic Church and the king.

Everything in art affirmed man as a particle of the cosmos. The ideas of G. Bruno, Campanella, and the successes of physics and astronomy were not in vain.

The dominant types of art were fine art - architecture, sculpture, painting.

The style of palace buildings created absolutism. The palace is no longer a fortress, as in the Middle Ages, but, as E. Fuchs writes, “Olympus brought down to Earth, where everything says that the gods live here. An extensive entrance hall, huge halls and galleries. The walls are covered from top to bottom with mirrors that dazzle the eye. Neither pose nor the thirst for representation can do without mirrors...Gardens and parks are the sparkling glades of Olympus, forever laughing and forever cheerful.” (Illustrated history of morals. The Gallant Age. M., 1994, p. 13).

Baroque art - grandeur, pomp. One of his constant themes is the theme of the divine sovereign. Jupiter and Mars are endowed with sovereign traits. Ancient myths turned into a history of the life of the royal dynasty. “Thunder and lightning rest in his hands, and, burning with voluptuous languor, rush towards him divinely beautiful bodies Danae and Leda. From him a new generation will be born, and if the age of ancient heroes is brilliantly revived, it is only thanks to him (the sovereign).”

Baroque art is, first of all, the art of the Catholic religion. Baroque is an artistic movement of the 16th-17th centuries generated by the Renaissance crisis, which includes L. Ariosto, T. Tasso (Italy), G. Sachs, A. Gryphius, G. Grimmelshausen (Germany), Lope de Vega, P. Calderson, F. Quevedo (Spain), B. Johnson, J. Webster (England).

Torquato Tasso (1544 - 1595) acts as a poet and as an art theorist (“Discourse on the Heroic Poem”). His focus is on the theory of epic. Tasso relies on Aristotle, but unlike him, he gives preference not to tragedy, but to the heroic poem and builds his concepts on its material. The theory, according to Tasso, should develop a pattern heroic poem. However, this sample does not lie in any one, even the best poetic work (“Iliad” or “Aeneid”, for example); it can be created on the basis of a theoretical study of all existing poems.

In understanding the essence of poetry, Tasso comes from Aristotle’s “mimesis”: poetry is imitation in words. Tasso expresses an independent judgment about the subject of imitation: unlike the Stoics, who considered the subject of poetry to be the actions of gods and people, Tasso says that poetry is a verbal imitation of human actions (if poetry brings out gods and animals, it attributes human actions to them). Nature and its phenomena serve only as secondary decorations, but the main thing in poetry is man and everything human. It arouses friendly participation in us and can serve as an edification for our own lives.

The goal of the poet, according to Tasso, is the idea of ​​beauty. Tasso also speaks about the relationship between useful (practical) and aesthetically uninterested art and reality: “Comparing the goal of pleasure with the goal of utility, one cannot help but admit,” he writes, that the first is nobler than the second, because we desire this goal for itself and for everything We want something else for her. That is why this goal bears a perfect resemblance to bliss, which is the goal of the citizen; Moreover, it is friendly with virtue, for it elevates human nature.” These provisions of Tasso were a turning point for aesthetics in solving the problem of the purpose of art. Tasso speaks of two aspects in art: its benefit (lower principle) and pleasure (higher principle).

“If the poet, insofar as he is a poet, enjoys the subject, he will not withdraw from this goal, towards which he must direct all his thoughts, like archers their arrows; but since he is a citizen and member of the city, or, at least, since his art is subordinated to the art that is supreme over all (Tasso means the art of politics, government, conducting civil life), he chooses noble benefit as his goal. So, of the two goals proposed by the poet, one, in fact, belongs to his art, the other to the highest art; but, looking at his own goal, let him beware of going into the opposite, for noble pleasures are disgusting to ignoble ones.” Recognizing for artistic creativity social significance, Tasso sees in these possibilities, as it were, the external goal of art, while its internal goal - pleasure - is based on a disinterested attitude towards the object. Tasso considered citizenship a necessary property of an artist, but in the field of art a citizen must be a poet.

Tasso is a defender in theory and a guide in practice of the Aristotelian principle of unity of action.

The poem should be similar to the world created by God, and the latter has unity: “The world, containing in its bosom so many diverse objects, is one, one form and essence, one knot connecting all its parts with discordant agreement: there is no lack in it - and everything that exists in him serves for necessity or for decoration: similarly, in my opinion, an excellent poet (who is called divine for nothing else than because in his actions, becoming like the supreme artist, he becomes a participant in his divinity) creates a poem in which, as in a small world, troops are formed, battles are prepared on land and at sea, cities are besieged, single combats and tournaments take place, hunger, thirst, storms, fires, miracles are described; councils are held in heaven and hell; rebellion, discord, delusion, magic, exploits, cruelty, courage, politeness, generosity, love are alternately visible, sometimes happy, sometimes unhappy - and, despite all this variety of objects, the poem must be unified, its form and soul united, so that all these objects related to each other, depended on one another, so that when one part is taken away or its place is changed, the whole itself is destroyed.” Piece of art for Tasso - one world, holistic, internally closed, organized, cannot be changed in any of its parts without destroying the whole. The work of a poet for Tasso is an imitation of the work of God. The poet, according to Tasso, seems to create his own world: “the art of constructing a poem” is like “the mind of the universe, which is a combination of opposites, like the mind of music.”

The most significant and famous character of the Italian Baroque was Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). He glorified both absolutism and Catholicism. He was a man of enormous creative energy, who amazed with the variety of talents: architect, sculptor, decorator, painter, draftsman. He is one of those rare artists who lived a long and comfortable life. In fact, throughout his life, Bernini was the dictator of Roman artistic life. His authority was unquestionable.

On the one hand, his work is a reflection of the demands of the church (it is no coincidence that the church has always patronized his talent), on the other, it expanded the possibilities of spatial (plastic) forms of art. On the one hand, he created the glory of Catholic art, on the other, he “corrupted” church sculpture, created a scandalous, fidgety, indecently flirtatious type of religious statues, which became the canon for a whole century.

One of famous sculptures Bernini - David. It is presented in a completely different way than in Michelangelo. There is peace, here there is expression, feeling, impetuous movement. The same is reflected on the face. It is distorted by a grimace of anger and rage. In contrast to the monumentalism of the revivalists, Bernini strives for a concrete depiction of the event.

Action and dynamics are the core of the solution to Bernini’s compositions “The Rape of Proserpina”, “Apollo and Daphne”. This artist was one of the first (after ancient sculptors) approach the problem of motion transmission spatial view art. This is especially expressively presented in his sculpture “Apollo and Daphne” (the story of Apollo and Daphne is told by Ovid. Apollo pursues Daphne, the daughter of the land of Gaia and the god of rivers Peneus (or Ladon), who gave her word to maintain chastity and remain celibate. She turned to the gods for help , and the gods turned her into a laurel tree. In vain Apollo hugged him, it did not turn back into Daphne. And from then on the laurel became Apollo’s favorite plant).

Bernini surprisingly accurately conveyed the moment of metamorphosis of the nymph’s body into the roots and branches of a tree. The stone conveys the tenderness of Daphne’s skin, the lightness of her hair, and the surface of the emerging tree.

Bernini managed to approach the genre sculptural portrait. The portrait of Cardinal Scipione Borghese conveys the sagging skin, the satin of the robe, and the characteristic movement; one feels a self-confident, intelligent, sensual, and powerful person. Interestingly, Bernini was the author of wonderful caricatures. He knew how to capture the most striking features of a person.

Bernini created a number of wonderful so-called ceremonial portraits (sometimes they say ceremonial - romantic). For example, the portrait of Francesco d'Este depicts a true ruler, a sovereign. One of the most characteristic works Bernini's portrait of Louis XIV century in this genre. Even without knowing whose portrait it is, you can guess by the turn of the head, the ceremonial attire, the curls of the wig that this is the king. Bernini shows, along with greatness, aristocratic arrogance, empty arrogance, and selfishness.

E. Fuchs in “The Illustrated History of Morals” writes about the Baroque era as “an artistic reflection of princely absolutism, an artistic formula of greatness, pose, representativeness... There is no one higher than the monarch, either in idea or in practice... In the person of the absolute sovereign, the deity himself walks on earth . Hence the splendor, the golden sparkling pomp in which the absolute monarch is clothed.... the prim, thoughtful ceremony down to the smallest detail, which is furnished with every service rendered to him from the moment of awakening to the moment of his immersion in sleep.

Interestingly, Louis XIV could neither read nor write. Nevertheless, notes E. Fuchs, when the famous J.B. Colbert (Minister of Finance from 1665) learned that his son was included in the courtiers of Louis, he saw this as the highest happiness. He addresses Louis like this: “Sire, it is our duty to remain reverently silent and thank God every day for allowing us to be born under the scepter of a sovereign who recognizes no other boundaries than his own will.”

Bernini's sculptural works capture the pathos of feelings, spectacular splendor, pictorial effects, the combination of materials of different textures and colors, and the use of light. Papal tombstones are actually theatrical stage settings; everything in them is created in such a way as to evoke a flurry of emotions.

Bernini did not ignore his favorite cult subjects of the 17th century. -martyrdom, ecstasies, visions, apotheoses. Thus, the plot of his famous sculptural composition “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” was one of the letters of a Spanish nun of the 16th century. , in which she told how she saw an angel sent to her by God.

Bernini managed to convey internal state this nun, which no artist has ever done before (the sculptural composition is located in the Cornaro Chapel).

Bernini's work is also distinguished by the fact that he seeks new techniques to enhance expressiveness and turns to the synthesis of arts (sculpture and architecture). For example, the canopy and pulpit in the Cathedral of St. Petra. Bernini extracts from traditional materials unprecedented plastic effects. TO to the most beautiful creatures Bernini owns fountains filled with enormous dynamic power. The union of sculpture and water is interesting here. For example, the famous Triton fountain, the fountain of “four rivers”. Bernini's fountains have become an integral part of the architecture of Rome.

Bernini remained in history as a famous architect. In Baroque architecture, the harmony of forms inherent in Renaissance architecture disappears. Instead of an equilibrium of parts, there is their struggle, contrasts, dynamic interaction. The relief of the wall becomes more complex, the forms are more plastic, as if mobile, they “generate” and continue each other. Baroque architecture seems to draw a person into its space. Bernini's works include the church of Sant Andrea al Quirinale: the facade seems to bend, the fence is concave, semicircular steps, the outline of the church is based on an ellipse, the interior is surrounded by chapels-niches; columns, pilasters, sculpture are visible from complex angles, which creates the impression of their endless variety; Interesting. The solution of the dome is also interesting: the caissons are located decreasing in size towards the center, which creates the illusion of the special lightness of the dome and its special upward direction.

The solution to the “Royal Staircase” in the Vatican is also very interesting. By using various perspective techniques, Bernini creates the illusion of its enormous scale and extent.

In the Barbenini Palace, the rooms are located in an enfilade, along one axis, and this gradual opening, a kind of “movement” of space, set an elevated and majestic rhythm for the festive ceremonies.

The square in front of the Cathedral of St. Petra is one of Bernini's great creations. Two galleries leading into a colonnade embrace the space of the square, “like open arms,” as Bernini put it. The center of the square (its total depth is 280m) is marked by an obelisk, fountains on the sides of it define its transverse axis. The area in front of the cathedral especially clearly reveals Bernini's architectural genius and his ability to model space.

He achieved the impression of compositional unity of the cathedral, a building built by various masters over two centuries. The façade of the cathedral appears in front of the walker at the moment of immediate approach to it, but the grandiose square already psychologically attunes the person to this perception. The square in front of the cathedral is considered the best architectural ensemble Italy XVII V. All this taken together enhanced the mood of religious pathos. Bernini's architectural work confirms the emotional principle.

The Church of Sant'Carl, by the famous architect Francesco Borromini, is a truly living organism from the façade; it has a restless rhythm of architectural forms. It appears as a spectacular decorative spectacle. The painter Caravaggio (1573–1610) is the personification of unbridled temperament in painting. A characteristic feature of his work is type. His works include folk images(“Martyrdom of the Apostle Peter”).

Peter Paul Rubens occupies a special place in the Baroque movement. This Flemish artist Many art historians classify it as a baroque movement in art.

Baroque manifested itself in architecture (G. L. Bernini), in music (A. Vivaldi), in painting (M. Caravaggio, P. P. Rubens), in literature (P. Calderon). Within the Baroque as a movement, a number of movements and schools developed: Mannerism (Italy), Gongorism (Spain), Precision Literature (France, Metaphysical School (England), Second Silesian School (Germany). Generated by the era of devastating wars, spiritual and material crises, social disunity , Baroque gives way to classicism, based on a society in which there was a consolidation of social forces under the auspices of strong royal power.

BAROQUE(Italian barosso fancy, pretentious, strange) - art style in European art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. (in Germany, Russia until the end of the 19th century).

Baroque originates in Italy in the 16th century. as a reflection of the crisis of ideas and artistic principles of the Renaissance, deep contradictions of a political, social and religious nature. The idea of ​​world harmony and the idea of limitless possibilities person. The leading art of the Baroque is architecture; applied art, painting, and sculpture are subordinate to it.

IN Baroque architecture the decorative principle prevails over the constructive one. The artistic task is to amaze, to dazzle with splendor. A strict sense of proportion in the works of artists High Renaissance gives way to fantastic richness and variety of decor, sometimes to the detriment of beauty. Curvilinear outlines, asymmetry, dominant ascending line, complexity of composition, unclear division of space - features architectural structures Baroque. Richly ornamented pilasters are used, columns become a purely decorative element and no longer carry a structural load. Caryatids, atlases, ornaments overloaded with sculpting, niches and porticos, galleries with statues, the play of light and shadow are designed to influence the emotions of the viewer.

Such are the palaces of Versailles, Sans Souci, Winter Palace. The interior corresponds to the new tastes: the corners of the ceiling and walls are smoothed, the lampshades and walls are decorated with richly colored paintings, stucco moldings, gilded rosettes, the rooms are richly decorated with tapestries, statues, and mirrors. Inlaid floors, crystal chandeliers, and elegant furniture on thin legs complete the palace decoration. The fresco paintings are dominated by motifs of destructive catastrophes (World War II, Hell), martyrdom, and the struggle of everything that causes tension in spiritual and physical forces. These are, as a rule, multi-figure compositions, where everything is in motion, in unusual angles, with many purely decorative details. The life-affirming principle in them coexists with asceticism, the deliberately rough with the refined (Rubens, Van Dyck, sculptures by Bernini). The portraits are ceremonial and theatrical with all the accessories of power.

IN Baroque literature– given form higher value than the content, visual and expressive means acquire a self-sufficient significance. Complex syntactic constructions, pretentious, pompous syllables with an abundance of mythological grotesque images are widely used. Poems are printed in the shape of a cross, rhombus, or circle. Tragedies abound with horror and bloody scenes. Comedies shine with humor and unexpected verbal discoveries (P. Calderon, A. Grifius, Tirso de Molino, S. Polotsky).

Baroque in music presented by G. Gabrieli, M. Cesti (Italy). They name Wach and Handel, but their genius stepped beyond the Baroque. Greatness, complexity of composition, richness of intonation, drama, deep reflection of the world human passions- the main features of their work (these are the majestic “St. John Passion” and “Matthew Passion” by J. S. Bach, concerts and oratorios by G. F. Handel). Some Baroque features are used by modern modernist trends in art.

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on the topic Aesthetic principles of the Baroque

Moscow 2008

Introduction

1 . Aesthetic principles of the Baroque

1.1 Reasons for the appearance of Baroque

1.2 Historical background

1.3 History of the term "Baroque"

1.4 Baroque theorists

1.5 Basic principles of Baroque

1.5.2 The special role of wit

1.5.4 Orientation towards the internal inconsistency of existence

1.6 Baroque art

1.6.1 Baroque artists

List of sources used

INTRODUCTION

Era, direction, style... Where are the boundaries of these concepts, how do they relate to each other? More than one generation of art critics has tried to find answers to these questions. Dozens of books and articles are devoted to this topic. In fact, is Baroque a style, a movement or an era? Or maybe both and the third at the same time?..

The Middle Ages is, of course, an era. But does the culture of this time have any common features or is it a mixture of styles that predominates? Is it generally legitimate to divide culture into certain periods, stages, eras? It is not without reason that scientists have been persistently trying for centuries to find that common and special thing that mysteriously connects the phenomena of art, to restore the chain of accidents, the links of which turn out to us with new facets.

In the history of aesthetics, stylistic directions that replace one another are distinguished by opposite orientations, i.e. that in the history of art and aesthetics the operation of the law of antithesis is observed.

Thus, if the art of antiquity was oriented towards reason, then the art and

the aesthetics of the Middle Ages into the emotional and mystical sphere; if the art of the Renaissance largely resurrected the traditions of antiquity and was guided by a rational search for beauty, then the baroque that replaced it was in many ways the opposite of the norms of the Renaissance. Classicism and Enlightenment, in turn, were opposite to Baroque and focused on reason and reason. Romanticism, in turn, relied entirely on feeling.

1. AESTHETIC PRINCIPLES OF BAROQUE

1.1 Reasons for the appearance of Baroque

Considering style directions XVII V. (Baroque, classicism, rococo), one can be convinced of both their deep connection with the Renaissance and with the opposite of this era. A kind of baroque period (a period of collapse, decline) can be found in any era. Thus, the Rhodian sculptural school and the art of the Diadochi were a manifestation of the “Baroque” for Ancient Greece. The construction of the Caesars in the 3rd and 4th centuries, which had a grandiose and luxurious character, can also be characterized as Baroque. Gothic is also an elaborate “fiery” style, i.e. Every historical period has its peak and its decline. Historical Baroque comes to replace Italian Renaissance. But isn’t it possible to note already in Renaissance culture features that flourished later than the Baroque? If Leonardo, Raphael, Titian are health, joy, balance, harmonization, then Michelangelo is often called the “father” of the Baroque. Or the artist Correggio? What was this connected with? Largely due to the religious and political situation.

The “disease of the Catholic Church,” which was first expressed in the speeches of Luther and the Swiss reformers, largely influenced the course of artistic life. All this dealt a huge blow to the church and drove the northern peoples away from it. This spiritual storm manifested itself in a special way in the works of Michelangelo, a follower and adherent of Savonarola.

After Michelangelo, the church managed to produce the so-called “loyal Protestants”, leading to the Counter-Reformation movement. From this moment on, Baroque art, originating from Sistine Chapel and the Parma Cathedral of Correggio (1530), acquires the character of a necessary and even official. The words “Jesuit art” and “Baroque” are almost synonymous. Baroque is the spirit of tragedy, contradiction, the desire to move away from the earth, the art of doubt and unsatisfied aspirations, the struggle of asceticism with sensuality, ecstasy, even hysteria.

Until the 1630s Baroque art is influenced by Michelangelo and the Counter-Reformation. Further, it becomes lighter, even cynical, outwardly decorative, glorifying not only the church, but also royal power to no lesser extent.

1.2 Historical background

17th century New time, Baroque era. In a mysterious way this era still lives in our consciousness, its novelty has not become outdated for almost four centuries. The dramatic tension of the worldview, the intensity of spiritual life is felt at a distance, attracting through the centuries. The attraction of Baroque art does not weaken: the drama of Shakespeare, the architectural ensembles of Baroque Rome, the painting of Rubens, Rembrandt, and the sculpture of Bernini. Not yet mentioned are Calderon, Grifius, Grimmelshausen, Schoenfeld, El Greco, Descartes, Kepler, Boehme, Pascal... The product of the spiritual atmosphere of the era was the music of A. Scarlatti, D. Scarlatti, G. Frescobaldi, C. Monteverdi, I. Pachelbel, Buxtehude, Schutz, Corelli, Vivaldi, Handel, Bach. If you look from our “historical distance” at the Baroque era, you cannot help but be struck by its internal roundness, completeness, and exhaustion of meaning. Baroque - the time from “Hamlet”, his “days that connected the thread was broken” (1601) to the death of Bach, his “Before your throne I appear this day” (1749). The beginning of an era is a breakthrough into the future. But was it really that unexpected?

Western Europe has entered a new phase of economic and political relations, bringing with it new culture. This phase is characterized primarily by the development and struggle of feudal and capitalist relations, leading to a clash of two class worldviews. Centralization occurs state power and the formation of national state associations formed on the basis of absolutist regimes. The 17th century is one of the most grandiose eras in all of history: all European countries developed in the same direction: from feudalism to capitalism, and this movement took on highly dramatic forms, and the very nature of development was sharply uneven: bourgeois relations had already developed in Holland; in England - the bourgeois revolution; in France - the rise of absolutism; in Italy - counter-reformation; preserved in Germany feudal fragmentation, there is a Thirty Years' War (1618-1648); Spain is one of the most backward regions.

The leading social strata become the bourgeoisie, the landed aristocracy and the peasantry. But precisely from the 17th century. the contours of a single world cultural and historical process are outlined. This is not just a time of transition from the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries) to the Age of Enlightenment (XVII century), but a large, significant independent phase in the development of world culture. Therefore, despite all the uneven movement of countries (which will determine national characteristics spiritual life, creation national schools), great importance is given to general aspects, such as attitude, worldview...

1.3 History of the term "Baroque"

The Baroque style (from the Italian “barocco” - strange, bizarre) was dominant in European art from the end of the 16th century to early XVIII centuries.

Baroque art (as well as its theory, which, by the way, was not formalized into a coherent system) became most widespread in Italy. The term "baroque" means both a syllogism and a pearl of an unusual (strange) shape. Baroque meant something pretentious, even ugly. This name was given in mockery by 17th-century aesthetes. It was also inherited by art criticism of the 19th century. It was considered a decline in beauty and good taste. Therefore, critics still often use the term baroque to characterize the completion or decline of a certain style. But historical baroque is the 17th century.

1.4 Baroque theorists

Among the theorists of the Baroque we can name Giambatista Marino, Matteo Peregrini, Emmanuele Tesauro. The Neapolitan poet Giambattista Marino (representative of the so-called “new art”) was the brightest representative of this trend. He consciously contrasted his creativity and his creative principles

Petrarch: “The poet’s goal is the miraculous and amazing. Anyone who cannot surprise... let him go to the comb."

Marino considered this principle of the need for surprise to be common to different types of art. Moreover, he believed that the spatial and temporal arts are related. Painting is silent poetry. Poetry is talking painting. The idea of ​​a synthesis of the arts in particular, poetry and music, not counting the ancient mysteries) is a Baroque idea. It turned out to be very fruitful. Thanks to her, opera was born. The search for a synthesis of sculpture and painting undertaken by L. Bernini also turned out to be significant in the history of art.

Another Baroque theorist was Matteo Peregrini. His “Treatise on Wit” is famous. The Spaniard Gracian wrote a treatise with a similar title: “Wit, or the art of a sophisticated mind.” Peregrini was considered the theorist of the "moderate baroque".

A significant exponent of Baroque ideas was the Italian Emanuele Tesauro. He owns the treatises “Aristotle’s Spyglass” (1654) and “Moral Philosophy” (1670). He agrees with Aristotle that art is an imitation of nature, but interprets this imitation differently: “Those who know how to perfectly imitate the symmetry of natural bodies are called the most learned masters, but only those who create with due sharpness and show a subtle feeling are gifted quickness of mind." What is true in art is not at all what is true in nature. Poetic intentions “are not true in nature. Poetic ideas “are not true, but imitate the truth,” wit creates fantastic images, “out of immaterial things it creates existing things.”

1.5 Basic principles of Baroque

1.5.1 Specific features of the Baroque era

Typical specific features of the era can be considered:

1. Strengthening religious themes, especially those related to martyrdom, miracles, visions;

2. Increased emotionality;

3. Great importance of irrational effects and elements;

4. Bright contrast, emotionality of images;

5. Dynamism (“the world of baroque is a world in which there is no peace” Bunin);

6. Gravitation towards generalizing and connecting forms: a) integral systems of philosophy; b) search for unity in the contradictions of life; c) in architecture: an oval in the line of the building; architectural ensembles; d) the sculpture is subordinated to the general decorative design; e) in painting - refusal of rectilinear perspective, emphasizing the “infinity” of space; f) in music - the creation of cyclic forms (sonata, concert), multi-movement works (opera). In the Baroque era, works of art “actively seek to connect with others” (Lipatov). That. The master of the Baroque era thinks like a sculptor, an architect, and a decorator at the same time (Bernini’s “St. Peter’s Basilica”).

1.5.2 The special role of wit

The artistic concept of the Baroque, therefore, considers wit (anticipation of romantic irony) to be the main creative force. In many ways, the collapse of Renaissance ideals leads to this. Baroque wit is the ability to bring together dissimilarities. It is precisely because the Baroque masters attached such great importance to wit that their special attitude towards metaphor, allegory, emblem, symbol (a more elegant, expressive way of expressing artistic meaning than medieval symbolization) is born. In Baroque art, metaphors are represented both in stone and in words. Baroque art pays special attention to the imagination, the idea, which should be witty and amaze with novelty. Baroque allows into its sphere the ugly, the grotesque, the fantastic (again anticipating the romantics). The principle of bringing opposites together replaces the Renaissance principle of measure in Baroque art (for example, in Bernini, a heavy stone turns into the finest drapery of fabric, sculpture, in fact, gives a picturesque effect, architecture becomes like frozen music, the word merges with music, the fantastic is presented as real, the funny turns out to be tragic). The combination of planes of the superreal (surreal), mystical and naturalistic is first present in Baroque aesthetics, then manifests itself in romanticism and, finally, in surrealism. (It is no coincidence that the era that admires surrealism and gave birth to it has a nostalgic interest in Baroque music - T. Albinoni (1653-1706), G. F. Handel (1685-1759), G. Purcell (1659-1695), L. Boccherini (1743-1805).)

1.5.3 The special role of genius, its connection with wit

The theoretical thought of the Baroque also departs from the Renaissance thought that art (especially fine art) is a science, that it is based on the laws of logical thinking, that art is caused by the tasks of cognition. Baroque emphasizes the fact that art is deeply different from the logic of science. Wit is a sign of genius. The artistic gift is given by God, and no theory can help to acquire it. “It is not theory, but inspiration that gives birth to the creations of the poet and musician” (Sforza Pallavicini).

1.5.4 Orientation towards the internal opposite of being

In the Baroque era, man’s worldview was not only split (as in the Renaissance - self-affirmation and tragedy), but completely lost its integrity and harmony. A person’s worldview and perception of the world has comprehended the depth and internal contradictoriness of existence, human life, and the universe.

It is no coincidence that during this period, but already in France, such an amazing thinker as Pascal appears. In many ways, he did not accept the rational paradigm and refused to recognize the world as stable; he lived on the edge of being and non-being, above the abyss.

abyss

Pascal had a whirlpool without a bottom in his soul,

Everything is a greedy abyss: words, dreams, desires.

Silence revealed the secret of horror to me,

And I grow cold from a black consciousness.

Above, below, everywhere - bottomlessness, depth,

A terrible space with the poison of silence.

In the darkness of my nights the ugliness of sleep arises

Diverse - a nightmare without ending.

It seems to me that the night is a gaping hole,

And whoever steps into it is captured by darkness.

Through every window there is bottomlessness before me.

My spirit would disappear into nothingness with delight,

To cover your torment with the darkness of insensibility.

A! never be outside of Numbers, outside of Consciousness!

(C. Baudelaire. Translated by K. D. Balmont).

1.5.5 Subjective nature of beauty

Lascal felt the connection of beauty with the perceiving subject himself. He tried to combine the individuality of aesthetic experience. With some general, objective foundations. He emphasized the special role of aesthetic experience and considered it a necessary element of social life: “This (beauty) is something so small that it is difficult to define it, moves the earth, princes, armies, the whole world. If Cleopatra’s nose had been shorter, the face of the earth would have been different.”

1.6 Baroque art

These theoretical principles are fully confirmed by Baroque practice.

Baroque is pomp, decorativeness, grandeur, intricacy, fluidity, impulse, passion, ecstasy, artistry, personality. It was intended to exalt (first of all, as already noted) the Catholic Church (let us not forget that this was a period of counter-reformation) and the king.

Everything in art affirmed man as a particle of the cosmos. The ideas of G. Bruno, Campanella, and the successes of physics and astronomy were not in vain. The dominant types of art were fine arts - architecture, sculpture, painting, but we must not forget about the arts that emerged as a result of the synthesis of poetry and music.

The style of palace buildings created absolutism. The palace is no longer a fortress, as it was in the middle of the century, but, as E. Fuchs writes, “Olympus brought down to earth, where everything says that the gods live here. An extensive entrance hall, huge halls and galleries. The walls are covered from top to bottom with mirrors that dazzle the eye. Neither pose nor the thirst for representation can do without mirrors... gardens and parks are the sparkling glades of Olympus, forever laughing and forever cheerful.”

Baroque art - grandeur, pomp. One of his constant themes is that of the deified sovereign. Jupiter and Mars are endowed with sovereign traits. Ancient myths are turned into the life story of a royal dynasty. “Thunder and lightning rest in his hands, and, burning with voluptuous languor, the divinely beautiful bodies of Danae and Leda rush towards him. From him a new generation will be born, and if the age of ancient heroes is brilliantly revived, it is only thanks to him (the sovereign).”

But, of course, Baroque art is, first of all, the art of the Catholic religion.

1.6.1 Baroque artists

The most famous and significant artist of the Italian Baroque was Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). He glorified both absolutism and Catholicism. He was a man of enormous creative energy, with a variety of talents that amazed him: architect, sculptor, decorator, painter, draftsman. He is one of those rare artists who lived a long and comfortable life. In fact, throughout his life, Bernini was the dictator of Roman artistic life.

On the one hand, his work is a reflection of the demands of the church (it is no coincidence that the church has always patronized his talent); on the other hand, it expanded the possibilities of spatial (plastic) forms of art. On the one hand, he created the glory of Catholic art, on the other, he “corrupted” church sculpture, created a scandalous, fidgety, indecently flirtatious type of religious statues, which became the canon for a whole century.

One of Bernini's famous sculptures is David. It is presented in a completely different way than in Michelangelo. There is peace, here there is expression, feeling, impetuous movement. The same can be seen on the face. It is distorted by a grimace of anger and rage. Truly inexhaustible biblical images and their interpretation. In contrast to the monumentalism of the revivalists, Bernini strives for a concrete depiction of the event.

Action and dynamics are the core of Bernini’s compositions (“The Rape of Proserpina”, “Apollo and Daphne”). This magnificent artist was able to be one of the first (after ancient sculptors) to approach the problem of transmitting movement through a spatial form of art.

This was especially expressively represented in his sculpture “Apollo and Daphne” (the story of Apollo and Daphne is told by Ovid. Apollo pursues Daphne, the daughter of the land of Gaia and the god of rivers Peneus (or Ladon), who gave her word to remain chaste and remain celibate, like Artemis. She turned for help to the gods, and the gods turned her into a laurel tree. In vain Apollo hugged him, it did not turn back into Daphne. And the laurel from then on became Apollo’s favorite sacred plant). Bernini surprisingly accurately conveyed the moment of metamorphosis of the nymph’s body into the roots, leaves, and branches of a tree. The stone conveys the tenderness of Daphne’s skin, the lightness of her hair, and the surface of the emerging tree. Probably for the first time the sculpture was so frank and authentic.

Bernini managed to approach the genre of sculptural portraiture.

The portrait of Cardinal Scipione Borghese conveys the sagging skin, the satin of the robe, and the characteristic movement; one feels a self-confident, intelligent, sensual, and powerful person.

Bernini created a number of wonderful so-called ceremonial portraits (sometimes they say ceremonial - romantic).

For example, the portrait of Francesco d'Este depicts a true ruler, a sovereign. One of Bernini's most characteristic works in this genre is the portrait of Louis XIV. Even without knowing whose portrait is in front of us, we can guess that it is the king. Bernini shows, along with greatness, aristocratic arrogance, empty arrogance, and selfishness.

E. Fuchs in “The Illustrated History of Morals” writes about the Baroque era precisely as “an artistic reflection of princely absolutism, an artistic formula of greatness, pose, representation... There is no one higher than the monarch, either in idea or in practice... In the person of the absolute sovereign on earth the deity itself is walking. Hence the splendor, hence the glittering golden pomp in which the absolute monarch is clothed... the prim, carefully thought-out ceremony down to the smallest detail, which surrounds every service rendered to him from the moment he awakens until the moment he falls into sleep.”

Louis XIV could neither read nor write. But nevertheless, notes E. Fuchs, when the famous J.B. Colbert (Minister of Finance from 1665) learned that his son was included in the courtiers of Louis XIV, he saw this as the highest happiness. He addressed Louis like this: “Sire, it is our duty to remain reverently silent and thank God every day for allowing us to be born under the scepter of a sovereign who recognizes no other boundaries than his own will.” Bernini's art, revealed in the portrait of Louis XIV, remarkably reflects the psychology and language of the era of absolutism.

Bernini's sculptural works capture the pathos of feelings, spectacular splendor, pictorial effects, the combination of materials of different textures and colors, and the use of light. Papal tombstones are actually theatrical mise-en-scenes, everything in them is created in such a way as to evoke a flurry of emotions (in particular, the tombstones of the pope are distinguished by this Alexandra VII Pope Urban VIII).

Bernini did not ignore his favorite cult subjects of the 17th century. - martyrdoms, ecstasies, visions and apotheoses. Thus, the plot of his famous sculptural composition “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” was one of the letters of a 16th century Spanish nun, in which she told how she saw an angel sent to her by God. Bernini managed to convey the inner state of this nun, which no other artist had yet to do.

The characters in the composition appear before the viewer unexpectedly. The altar wall seems to open up, the columns part. The figures of Teresa and the angel, made in white marble, resemble a vision. But for Teresa, the angel is reality. The moment of supreme emotional excitement is perfectly captured. The head is thrown back, the hand hangs limply. The broken folds of clothing only intensify the passion of the experience. Before us is truly painful and sweet ecstasy. (There is a very definite orientation of Western Catholic art towards experience, and not towards a mystical feeling. In sculpture, recreating a completely precise religious feeling, there is certainly a strong touch of eroticism, which has never been, for example, in a Russian icon.) plays a special role in the composition light reflecting from the brass rays, which also enhances the experience. Sculptural composition located in the Cornaro Chapel.

Bernini's work is also distinguished by the fact that he seeks new techniques to enhance expressiveness and turns to the synthesis of arts (sculpture and architecture). For example, the canopy and pulpit in the Cathedral of St. Petra. Bernini extracts unprecedented plastic effects from traditional materials.

Among Bernini's most beautiful creations are fountains filled with enormous dynamic power. The union of sculpture and water is interesting here. For example, the famous Triton fountain, the fountain of the Four Rivers. Bernini's fountains have become an integral part of the architecture of Rome.

Bernini remained in history as a famous architect. In Baroque architecture, the harmony of forms inherent in Renaissance architecture disappears. Instead of an equilibrium of parts, there is their struggle, contrasts, dynamic interaction.

The relief of the wall becomes more complex, the forms are more plastic, as if mobile, they “generate” and continue each other. Baroque architecture seems to draw a person into its space.

Bernini's works include the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale (the facade seems to bend, the fence is concave, semicircular steps, the outline of the church is based on an ellipse, the interior is surrounded by chapels - niches; niches, columns, pilasters, sculpture are visible from complex angles, which creates the impression of them endless variety; the solution of the dome is also interesting: the caissons are located decreasing in size towards the center, which creates the illusion of the special lightness of the dome and its special upward direction.

The solution to the “Royal Staircase” in the Vatican is also very interesting. By using various perspective techniques, Bernini creates the illusion of its enormous scale and extent.

In the Barberini Palace, the rooms are located in an enfilade, along one axis, and this gradual opening, a kind of “movement” of space, set an elevated, stately rhythm for the festive ceremonies.

The square in front of St. Peter's Basilica is one of Bernini's great creations.

Two galleries leading into a colonnade embrace the space of the square, “like open arms,” as Bernini put it. The center of the square (its total depth is 280 m) is marked by an obelisk, the fountains on the sides of it define its transverse axis. The area in front of the cathedral especially clearly reveals Bernini's architectural genius and his ability to model space. When going to the cathedral, a person must walk under or along the colonnade, so he perceives the building from different points of view and in unity with the colonnade and fountains.

Bernini achieved the impression of compositional unity of the cathedral - a building built by various masters over two centuries. The facade of the cathedral appears in front of the walker at the moment of immediate approach to it, but the grandiose square already psychologically prepares a person for this perception (one of the principles of the Baroque is surprise, the desire to amaze the imagination, all this is present in Bernini). The square in front of the cathedral is considered the best architectural ensemble of Italy in the 17th century. (I. Pruss).

All this taken together enhanced the mood of religious pathos.

Bernini's architectural work confirms the emotional principle.

The Church of St. Charles of the famous Francesco Borromini is, from the facade, a truly living organism; it has a restless rhythm of architectural forms. It appears as an effective decorative spectacle.

The painter Caravaggio (1573-1610) is the personification of unbridled temperament in painting. A characteristic feature of his work is type. His works feature folk images (“The Martyrdom of the Apostle Peter”).

Peter Paul Rubens occupies a special place in the Baroque movement. This Flemish artist is considered by many art historians to belong to the Baroque movement in art.

Rubens is the brightest representative of the Baroque era. The desire for a solemn “grand style” (a consequence of the establishment of European monarchies) was combined in the Baroque with an attitude towards the world as a complex and changeable whole. Hence - everything that is considered the “trademark” of the Baroque: contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion.

Peter Paul Rubens was born on June 28, 1577 in Siegen, in Westphalia (now part of Germany). He was the seventh child in the family of lawyer Jan Rubens. For a long time The Rubens family lived in Antwerp, but in 1568 moved to Cologne. The fact is that around this time, Jan began to lean towards Protestantism, which caused strong discontent on the part of the local Catholic community. In Cologne, he received the position of secretary to Anna of Saxony, the wife of William I of Orange. In 1591, Rubens began to study painting. For some time he worked as an apprentice to Tobias Verhahat; about four years - with Adam van Noort; another two years with Otto van Ven. In 1598 he was finally accepted into the Guild of Artists of St. Luke. Rubens's first teachers were very mediocre painters, but studying with van Wen benefited Rubens. In May 1600, Peter Paul set out for the promised land of artists. He lived in Italy for eight years, which determined his future. It is unlikely that any of the Northern European painters who came to Italy in those years immersed themselves in Italian culture as deeply as Rubens. In October 1608, Rubens received notice that his mother was seriously ill. He hurried to Antwerp, but he never had the chance to see his mother alive. On September 23, 1609, Rubens received a position as court painter at the court of Archduke Albert and his wife Isabella, who then ruled Flanders on behalf of the Spanish crown, and ten days later he married 17-year-old Isabella Brant. The following year, Rubens finally settled in Flanders, buying a large house in Antwerp. Over the next decade, Rubens actively participated in this work, creating one after another amazing altarpieces. Among them, the triptychs “The Raising of the Cross” and “The Descent from the Cross”, written for the Antwerp Cathedral, stand out. Fate dealt him the first cruel blow in 1623, when Rubens’ daughter died (he had two more sons), and the second in 1626, when his wife died (“a friend and an irreplaceable assistant,” as Rubens himself wrote in one of his letters).Happiness accompanied the artist in his personal life. In 1630, Rubens married 16-year-old Helena Fourment, the niece of his first wife. This marriage, like the first, turned out to be very successful. Rubens and Helena had five children (their last daughter was born eight months after the artist’s death). In 1635, Rubens acquired the castle of Steen, located approximately 20 miles south of Antwerp. While living in the castle, he became very fond of painting local landscapes. On May 30, 1640, while in Antwerp, Rubens unexpectedly died of a heart attack. The artist, who turned 62, was mourned by the entire city.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

1. Kondrashov V.A., Chichina E.A. Ethics. Aesthetics. - Rostov n / D: Publishing house "Phoenix", 2000. - 512 p.

2. http://www.kultreferat.popal.ru/printout518.html

3. http://www.prubens.ru/content/view/639/

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