New genres of literature in the 17th century. Literature of the second half of the 17th century

Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)

. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Name words, or parts of speech;

2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.

2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.

In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Notes

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.

Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

• Functional words cannot be questioned.
• Function words are not parts of the sentence.
• Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
• TO service units speeches in Russian include the following

• pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
• union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
• particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

• Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech); they do not express relationships between in independent words and do not serve to connect words (as functional parts of speech).
• Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.

Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

Ticket number 8

Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.

Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its

Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.

Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.

Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they mean various items.

The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. feminine, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.

If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).

The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.

On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.

The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, the general meaning of a number of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.

The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), and is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.

Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.

Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (with the help of endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (not) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.

Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words "will" and "let's" in in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.

Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.

1 What is grammatical meaning? Explain with examples. Lexical meaning refers to reality itself and the grammatical meaning complements the lexical meaning. and expresses a relationship to another word (coordination, adjacency). Eg. lex. meaning "country" - designation "state", a certain territory, and gram-e meaning of the word“country” - noun, f.r. , units, etc. The gram form is a language means that serves to express gram values. These means are prefixes, suffixes, etc. Eg. there is ch. do - do, redo. Gram category - gram-x class values ​​united by the homogeneity of grammatic values: for example. syst. conjugations, category of tenses in Russian. language - present, past, future, old, pre-past, etc. Word forms are representatives of a specific grammatical category. The totality of all grammatical forms constitutes a paradigm. The grammatical form has both an external meaning (ending in the case, in the main form) and an internal meaning - a relation to someone. person, other object. One form can have several meanings: Eg. give someone something and someone (objective meaning) became cold (subjective). Sometimes grammatical meaning. superimposed on the semantic and historical. the words lost their meaning: oak - husband. kind, birch - f.r.

2 What are parts of speech? What are the principles of their classification?Parts of speech- the largest grammatical classes of words, which are characterized by 3 features: 1) the unity of a generalized grammatical meaning, it abstracts from the lexical and denotes categories of a more general order: objectivity, procedurality (verb ), quality (adjective) 2) commonality of grammatical categories and inflections. The commonality is determined by the composition of morphological categories, the commonality of their organization when they are arranged into a paradigm (conjugations, declensions)3) the identity of syntactic functions. Those. they appear in sentences, phrases in general view(i.e. nouns are usually subjects, verbs are predicates, etc.). 10 parts of speech in modern grammar, which are divided into 2 groups - significant (nouns, adjectives and numbers, as well as a pronoun (pronoun-noun only), verb and adverb) and auxiliary (preposition, conjunction and particles, as well as interjection (serves for expressive expression, feelings)).

3 Name the independent and auxiliary parts of speech. In modern grammar there are 10 parts of speech: one group is significant / independent (noun, adjective, number, pronoun, verb and adverb), the other is auxiliary (preposition, conjunction, particles and separately - interjection - their syntactic role is not defined.

4 What are modal words? Give examples. There are interjections introductory words, imitation (jin-jin), motivation, expression of feelings (ah, well, ah, yes)). Modal words are motivating, conciliatory, appreciative (obviously, probably, of course, of course). The functions of introductory words, and semantics - the definition of the relationship to reality, or an additional assessment.

5 Grammatical features of common and proper nouns. Existence is a part of speech, which denotes an object, names saints, abstracted from the bearer, and actions, abstracted from the subject. There are proper and common nouns. Narits are generalized phenomena. Own - individual. Usually the latter are used in the singular (Kyiv, Athens). Proper names can turn into common names, and vice versa (Pisces is a zodiac sign, and fish).

6 Specific and vested noun The first are concrete nouns, when objects appear in the form of individual instances or numbers. individuals, they combine with finite numerals and change in numbers, agreeing in gender, number and case (house, houses, three houses).

7 Grammatical features of collective nouns. Collective - denotes an indefinite set of objects as one indivisible whole: military, junk, animals, relatives, youth. There are complex transitional cases. For example, the words people, group, heap, collective do not belong to the collections, because they denote separate sets and are grammatically plural (peoples, groups).

8 Real noun - they denote a homogeneous mass that can be weighed, but not counted: flour, sulfur, salt, cereal, etc. They have not changed in numbers (although they vary in type: mineral waters, fragrant oils).

9 Eat single among them are singularities: dew - dewdrop, straw - straw. There are abstract ones - they denote qualities, properties, actions (abstract qualities): reading, anger, grief, joy. Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils.

10 Soulful and inanimate beings. The souls are named. living creatures, mythological animals (dinosaur). To inanimate. rel. named. plants (oak, maple), collective animate names (people, crowd - grammatically they behave like inanimate ones), as well as words such as “dead man (I see a dead man A), dead", but I see a corpse _ (it used to mean “dead, fallen tree”). There are difficult moments: playing Cossack And-robber And(the word behaves like an inanimate, for “a game called Cossacks-robbers”). Buy a crocodile A, but buy "Crocodile". Inanimate. more often refer to s.r.

11 Categories of grammatical gender. In inanimate noun it is defined formally, at the end (tree - s.r., cedar - (m.r.) pine, palm (f.r.)). Common names are belly - (m.r.), belly -s.r., although they are the same. To grammatical The genus is usually referred to by an abbreviation in accordance with that gram. genus, which underlies the core genus. But this is not true in general: university (higher educational institution), but the university is not neuter, but m.r. Ministry of Foreign Affairs - s.r., but for ordinary people - m.r. There is noun. of a general kind - also applies to m.r. and to Zh.R.: crybaby, headman, lecturer. Unmarked nouns - reader, student, i.e. in general these classes of people. “The student is now rude.”

12 Number category. There is singular, plural and dual: eye, eyes (plural), eyes (dual), four tables (dual), but five tables (plural). Words with an abstract meaning do not have plurals, although they can also have individualization, i.e. meaning is enriched (initiative (general activity) and initiatives (specific proposals)). Joy, stupidity, vulgarity, etc. These beings outwardly not countable, but when there are specific manifestations of this quality, then it can be used in the plural. - the beauty of nature, choose the lesser of two evils, say nasty things. At the same time, the meaning changes - shreds (clumps of snow, cotton wool), shreds - small pieces. Forms with stressed plural endings. with “a” began to spread even before the time of Pushkin (before, for example, the house y, but the forms of years, years with different ones have been preserved. meaning).

13 Case categories. Case - (“fall”) - “not direct meaning" Historically up to 10 cases. In R.P. there is also a genitive " parts" - drink a glass of tea. In Sentence P. has an explanatory meaning - to talk about tea, about business. Now there are 6 of them. V.P. goes to R.P. in case of denial (“don’t give him your hand”). V.P. used when talking about a specific item (don’t forget a suitcase).

15 Glass of tea- a measure of a substance (i.e. not a liquid, a dry brew poured into a glass). Glass of tea- the liquid we drink.

16. On the edge / on the edge. “On the edge” (more colloquial form) has a connotation of concreteness (to stand on the edge of the abyss (objectivity)). “On the edge” - more lit. the form is of a more generalized nature (meaning “on the outskirts”) (write on the edge (cap) of the board - i.e. in the very corner).

17 Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives. Adj. - part of speech, which is not a procedural sign of the subject. Select 3 categories of adjectives: 1) qualitative - directly denotes the quality, sacredness of objects (white, red). They can be used in both short and long form. 2) relative - through the relationship to other objects (glass - made of glass). 3) possessive - a relationship of ownership, belonging (father's portfolio).

18 Degrees of comparison of adjectives. Adj. can change according to degrees of comparison (stupid - even dumber), but not all (blind - there is no “blinder”). In addition to the comparative degree (lower), there is also the superlative degree (the dumbest). Elative - superlative degree with a hint of servility, deep. respect: in the shortest possible time.

19 Places of numerals. A numeral denotes a number and expresses a definition. number of homogeneous objects. There are 1) quantitative - this is a quantitative determinant of almost all entities that can be counted (one, two, three). They are divided into simple (two, three, thousand), derivatives (fifteen, four hundred - formed with a suf. or consist of 2 bases) and compound - two or more words (four hundred thirty-five) 2 ) collective (two (pair), three, four). They also have no gender or number. 3) fractional numerals - denote, numerals. in fractional units. (three and two tenths). They are composite in structure. May be f.r. (one sixth).

20 Declension of fractional numbers. When declining, all their constituent words change (twenty-two hundredths - twenty-two hundredths). The word “one and a half, one and a half” stands out. An hour and a half, but one and a half melons, excl. one and a half days (from beat to first syllable). Options: with a thousand rubles (countable nouns), with a thousand rubles (displaces other forms), with a thousand rubles (this is a pure number)

21 Declension of numerals by =ten. Well, it’s like fifty, sixty—decline it yourself.

22 Declension of numerals 40, 90, 100. They have only two case forms. Ninety - stands apart. In I.P. ninety O, and in all indirect ones - ninety A, fourty A, st A. St O books—with two hundred A with books, no three hundred _ books, i.e. Either one part of the word or both can be declined.

24 Collective numbers, their grammatical features. With morphol. That is, numerals have neither gender nor number. Usage with noun m.r. (five men), with the words “children, guys, people, faces”, with the name of baby animals (four cubs), with a noun, which only have a plural form. (two sleighs), with paired nouns. (four stockings, but two pairs of stockings are better) Collect. number not used with noun w.r. (one cannot say three dressmakers, four janitors, four teachers), with noun. which means named. animals (two tigers are not allowed), with noun, called persons high. society provisions (minister).

26 Classes of pronouns. There are 3 categories: 1) pronoun-noun. 2) place-e-adjectives 3) place-e-numerals. The first category includes the words “I, you, you, who, what, this, anyone, someone...”. In the sentence they are either an object or a subject. The second category is “mine, yours, yours, this, some.” In the sentence either the nominal part of the predicate., or defined. In the third category: “how many, as many, several, not at all, several.” Ch. function of places. - replacement of semantically independent words in speech.

27 Morphological categories of the verb. Tense, person, number, voice, mood, aspect, gender - gram. verb categories. Many verb forms are not able to express all these 7 forms (complete). We must not forget about the infinitive - in it the verb reflects the aspect and voice.

31 Verb tenses. Synonymy of times. SV - the use of one tense in another: historical. S.: “I came yesterday and saw” (present tense). So everything can change: the present instead of the future, the past instead of the future. (“So I believed you!”), etc.

37 Adverb, its grammatical features. N. is a part of speech that conveys a quality or circumstance of other qualities or actions. There are qualitative N. (from qualitative adjectives) (to speak red), participle N. (looked questioningly), N. as a function. adj-x (so-so person). N. on “o” and “e” began to be actively formed in the end. XIX century, they have not changed (in absentia, ahead of schedule). N. has subjective assessments (it’s been a while, good). Eat comparative degree(more freely, brighter) N. and excellent (to ask most humbly, to bow most deeply). There is an emotional expression of the degree (raspberry, early, very stupid, extremely). There are transitional N. (in a good way, often blindly) these are qualitative and circumstantial shades. N. may refer to adj., moreover, to N. himself.

38 State category words. This is the state of something that does not fall under any part of speech. Ex. The expression on his face is scary(cr. adj.). It was scary (Adverb, which refers to an adverb) and interesting to him. He became scared (the description of the state is the words of the category of the state): boring, it is necessary, it is impossible, it must, it is possible, it is a pity - they are used. in function only predicate ( I miss). State category words can include nouns, pronouns, adverbs of time, place, quantity, and maybe an infinitive.

39 Word combinations, their categories. Types of phrases - substantive (noun - core word), verbal (predictive). The main thing is what the core word is. Word combination. divided according to structure into: 1) simple ( new house, give the book) 2) complex (uncontrollable desire to wander) 3) combined - i.e. those that consist of several core words, phrases, and those are in a state of adjacency, subordination to each other (enthusiastically reading an interesting book).

40 Sentences, their categories. Sentence categories - simple, complex, complex, repaired, complex, complex, non-union, introductory sentences, direct. speech, etc.

41 What is predicativity. This is the correlation of the statement with reality.

42 Essay as a syntactic connection. Opinion as a syntactic connection is a coordinating connection between equal elements. This is a sentence in which no element can be a component of another.

43 Subordination as a syntactic connection. This is the connection between elements of sentences that are mutually subordinate in meaning.

44 Agreement, its grammatical features. Concord is a type of subordinating connection, which is expressed likening dependent word form of the dominant one.

45 Management, its grammatical features. U. is one of the types of subordinating connections. It can be direct or through prepositions. There are options - to be amazed by something (to admire) and to be amazed by something (to be surprised). The phenomenon of “management” is semantic and grammatical in origin, which means the meaning is important. There is a decomposition. forms: review of something (lit.), review of something. (obsolete).

46 Adjunction, its grammatical features. P. is subordinating connection, when k-th the role of the dependent word is played by the words immutable(adv., adjectives, infinitive, gerund).

49 Complex syntactic whole. This is a type of text in which the statement is built on the material of sequentially constructed complex sentences and complex syntactic structures. SSC is a unity of complex sentences that are built on the principle of consistency.

50 Text, features and properties. A text is a written or oral statement characterized by internal coherence and completeness. Its mandatory features are 1) completeness 2) connectedness.

51 What is discourse? Discourse - “movement back and forth” - a connected text in combination with extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors, i.e. which go beyond the context. Dr. words are speech immersed in life (reporting, live conversation). The discourse is divided into 1) frames - k.-l. typical situations, scenes; this is the structure of data that makes up a person’s knowledge about the world 2) scenarios - show how frames develop in a class. situations. The main functions are persuasion and emotional influence. Discourse is not a text; it cannot be applied to antiquity. Rhema - statement, verb, saying.

1. Grammatical meanings

In any significant word they combine lexical And grammatical meanings. The grammatical meaning acts as an addition to the lexical one and expresses different relationships(attitude to other words in a phrase or sentence, attitude to the person performing the action or other persons, attitude of the reported fact to reality and time, attitude of the speaker to what is being reported, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, a country has a feminine meaning nominative case, singular; verb read contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, imperfective.

Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed by the form of a word.

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed using other words with which given word connected in a sentence.

The term “grammatical categories” refers to a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. The meanings of individual cases are combined into the case category, the meanings of individual tense forms - into the tense category. The grammatical category relates to grammatical meaning as the general to the particular. Window: category of gender from the meaning of neuter gender. Read: category of mood from a verb form expressing the grammatical meaning of the imperative mood.

When identifying a grammatical form, we mean language means, used to express grammatical meanings. I'll take it: ending -у indicates 1st person, singular, present tense, indicative mood.

Grammatical form represents the relationship between grammatical meaning and grammatical method in their unity.

2. Parts of speech. Principles of their classification. Independent and service ch.r. Modal words

Parts of speech are the main lexical and grammatical categories (classes) into which the words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: 1) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.); 2) morphological (morphological categories of words); 3) syntactic (syntactic functions of the word).

Parts of speech - independent (notional) and auxiliary.

Special groups include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Independent(nominative) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings; in a sentence they act as main or minor members. Independent parts of speech - 7 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, state category.

Service parts of speech are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. They manifest themselves in the relationships and connections between words and sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as in the transmission of semantic and emotional shades of meaning expressed by independent parts of speech (particles). Functional parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles.

Modal words serve to express the speaker’s assessment of his statement as a whole or its individual parts s.t.z. their relationship to objective reality.

Interjections also lack the naming function. They are exponents of certain feelings (Oh! Chu! Fu! Alas!) and expressions of will (Out! Stop! Shh!).

Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc.: quack-quack, moo-u, ding-ding, etc.

3. Grammatical features of common and proper nouns

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into common and proper nouns.

Common nouns nouns serve as names of homogeneous objects, actions or states: person, mother, island, river, book, holiday, joy, grief, sleep, riding.

Semantically they are opposed to nouns own, which are the names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones: personal names, surnames, geographical, administrative-territorial names, names of literary works, astronomical names, titles historical eras and events, popular movements, significant dates, etc.: Ivan, Elena, Petrov, Vladimirov, Europe, Dvina, Ryazan, “War and Peace”, Mars, Earth, Renaissance, Great Patriotic War, Victory Day.

Formal grammatical feature proper nouns- they only have a singular form. The appearance of the plural is associated with the use of the word in a different meaning, therefore the plural form in this case is not correlative in meaning with the singular form.

Proper nouns are used in the plural form: 1) when denoting different persons and objects with the same name (two Ivanovs, both Americas); 2) when designating persons who are related (the Karamazov brothers, Messrs. Golovlevs). When denoting the type of people, the properties of their character, proper names can become common nouns: Manilovs, Chichikovs, Khlestakovs.

4. Grammatical features of concrete and abstract nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into concrete and abstract (abstract).

Specific nouns are used to name certain objects and phenomena of reality, taken separately and therefore subject to counting: book, school, house, girl.

Distracted(abstract) nouns name an action or sign in abstraction from the producer of the action or the bearer of the holiday. Such names do not form correlative forms of numbers and are not combined with cardinal numerals: study, emergence, departure, whiteness, hatred, selfishness, lyricism, elections, vacations. However, some abstract nouns, acquiring a specific meaning, are used in the plural: winter cold, different destinies, seven troubles - one answer, southern latitudes, different temperatures.

5 . Grammatical features of collective nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into collective nouns.

Collective singular nouns denote a collection of identical persons or objects as one indivisible whole. They are not determined by cardinal numerals, but have special word-forming suffixes: -в(а), -ств(о), -еств(о), - ру(а), -аt: foliage, children, students, teachers, professors, proletariat .

6 . Grammatical features of real nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into real ones.

Real nouns denote a homogeneous mass, substance (liquids, metals, chemical elements and connections, food products, agricultural crops, etc.): water, lead, amidopyrine, oxygen, sugar, cheese, meat, rye, cotton. They have the form of only one number (either singular or plural): milk, nitrogen; cream, yeast. They are not combined with cardinal numbers, but, like words denoting the substance being measured, they can be combined with words of measure: a kilogram of flour, a hectare of wheat, a liter of milk, a lot of water. In this case, real nouns are used in the genitive singular form, in contrast to immaterial nouns, which in such cases have a plural form. A number of masculine nouns have two forms of the genitive case: sugar - sugar, tea - tea, snow - snow.

7 . Grammatical features of singular nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are also divided into singular ones.

Single nouns (singulatives) name individual objects isolated from a mass of matter or a collection of homogeneous objects: pea (peas), pearl (pearl), pine (tesina), snowflake (snow), peasant (peasantry), professor (professorship). IN in some cases singularities are formed analytically: a head of onion, a head of cabbage.

8. Grammatical features of animate and inanimate nouns

A noun is a part of speech that combines words with a grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is expressed using independent categories of gender, number, case, animateness and inanimateness. In the sentence i.s. acts as subject and object.

Depending on lexical-semantic and partly grammatical features, nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.

Animation-inanimation The meaning of nouns is lexically manifested in the fact that animate nouns denote mainly living beings (people and animals), and inanimate nouns denote objects and phenomena of reality that are not classified as living nature. Grammatically, the category of animateness - inanimateness is manifested in the declension of nouns: the accusative case form of animate nouns coincides with the genitive case form, and the accusative case form of inanimate nouns coincides with the nominative case form: student - animate name (v.p. = r.p. student), table (v.p. = r.p. table).

The category of animacy covers mainly masculine and feminine nouns. In masculine nouns, except nouns. on -a, -i, it appears in both numbers (v.p. = r.p. student, students). In nouns, feminine and masculine on -а, -я - only in the plural (v.p. = r.p. students, boys, judges).

Animated nouns of the neuter gender include: 1) nouns with the suffixes -ish-(e), -ovishch-(e), -lish-(e): monster, monster, monster; 2) some substantive adjectives and participles: animal, insect, mammal; 3) nouns child, person (meaning person), creature (meaning living organism).

A number of nouns exhibit fluctuations in the expression of the category of animation - inanimateness (in the names of microorganisms, in nouns image, type, character): consider ciliates and ciliates; kill bacteria and germs; create vivid images, special characters.

The lexico-grammatical category of gender is inherent in all nouns (with the exception of words used only in the plural). it is syntactically independent: the gender of the noun determines the gender form of the agreed words (big house). Nouns of different genders differ in their declension paradigm (house - at home, home), word-formation structure (brother - brothers, teacher - teacher), and some lexical-semantic features (Tbilisi, lady). For inanimate nouns, the gender is purely formal, for animate nouns it is not only formal, but also significant, because associated with distinguishing the names of male and female persons and animals. The genus category is clearly displayed only in singular forms.

Masculine- this is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging of male creatures to it: table, edge, house, young man.

Feminine - This is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension, and for animate nouns - by the belonging to it of the names of female creatures: country, Moscow, week, cherry, joy, pea, daughter, sister. The feminine gender includes nouns that have i.p. units endings -а, (-я): book, earth.

Meaning general kind can be correlated with both a male and a female person: orphan, slob, smart girl, Sasha, vis-a-vis, protégé, incognito.

Neuter gender is a type of grammatical gender of nouns, characterized by a special paradigm of declension and the meaning of inanimateness (with a few exceptions): village, gun, child, insect, monster.

Category numbers nouns - a lexical and grammatical inflectional category, which finds its expression in the opposition of correlative forms of singular and plural: student - students, teacher - teachers.

The form of a number denoting one object in a series of homogeneous objects is the form the only one numbers: table, notebook, textbook. The number form denoting an indefinite set of homogeneous objects is the plural form: tables, notebooks, textbooks.

The singular and plural differ in means of expression:

1) the presence of different endings: book - books, house - houses.

2) a change in the ending combined with a change in the place of stress: wall - walls, window - windows.

3) truncation, extension or alternation of suffixes at the base: peasant - peasants, leaf - leaves, foal - foals.

4) using suppletive forms: person - people, child - children.

A number of nouns do not have correlative singular and plural forms.

Nouns that have only singular forms include:

1) abstract nouns (courage, courage, sadness, linguistics)

2) collective nouns (foliage, students)

3) a number of material nouns (silver, hydrogen, raspberry, milk)

4) proper names (Moscow, Don, Ural)

Nouns that have only plural forms are:

1) some abstract nouns (vacations, farewell, twilight)

2) a number of material nouns (cream, cabbage soup, perfume, sweets)

3) individual names own (Cheboksary, Kuriles, Pyrenees)

4) the names of some games (chess, checkers, blind man's buff, hide and seek)

5) concrete nouns denoting objects consisting of several parts or paired objects (scissors, gates, watches, rakes, railings).

Material nouns in the plural form are used to name various varieties and types of substances (high-quality steels, noble wines, territorial waters), products made from a given material, they can indicate a large number of substances, vast space (desert sands, endless snow). Proper names are used in the plural form and to designate the type of people (Kabanikhas, Chichikovs), as well as members of the same family (the Artamonov family).

Case- an inflectional lexico-grammatical category of a noun, which, through a system of case forms opposed to each other, expresses the relationship of the object denoted by the noun to other objects, actions and characteristics. Relationships created with the help of cases appear at the level of phrases and sentences. There are 6 cases in modern Russian, but the number of meanings they convey is much greater than the number of case forms.

The meanings expressed by cases are divided into 4 main groups: subjective, objective, attributive and circumstantial.

Nominative- independent case form. It is not used with prepositions. Meanings: 1) Subjective (the boy is reading); 2)Objective (The lecture is recorded by students); 3) Definitive (he was a peasant).

Indirect cases according to their use are divided into verbs And applied: read a book (verb v.p.); reading a book (noun genitive case). V.P. It can only be a verb.

Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.

Lexical meaning words are a reflection in a word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).

Grammatical meaning a word is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table- masculine noun) as an element of the inflectional series ( table, table, table etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which a word is associated with other words ( table leg, put the book on the table).

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

Grammatical meaning, on the contrary, characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical .

Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.

An important sign of grammatical meaning What distinguishes it from the lexical meaning is the obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meanings (using endings, prepositions, etc.). So, saying the word table, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. — I see the table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.

Pronouncing a word form table (for example, in the sentence The passage was blocked by a table), we use the ending -оm to express grammatical meanings instrumental case (cf. endings used to express case meanings: table-a, table-u, table-e), masculine (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. tables). Lexical meaning words table- “a piece of home furniture that is a surface made of hard material, supported by one or more legs, and used to put something on it” - remains unchanged in all case forms of this word. In addition to the root base table-, which has the specified lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar means expressions of grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.

TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANINGS OF WORDS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By nomination method straight lines and figurative meanings words

Direct(or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.

For example, words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings:

1. “A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.”

2. "The color of soot, coal."

3. “Burgle, bubble, evaporate from strong heat” (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant “throne”, “reign”, “capital”.

The direct meanings of words depend least of all others on context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

Portable(indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of names from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.

Yes, word table has several figurative meanings:

1. “An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape”: operating table, raise the machine table.

2. "Nutrition, food": rent a room with a table.

3. “A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs”: information desk.

At the word black such figurative meanings:

1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter called white": blackbread.

2. “Taken a dark color, darkened”: blacksunburn.

3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): blackhut.

4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": blackthoughts.

5. “Criminal, malicious”: blacktreason.

6. “Not main, auxiliary” (full form only): blackmove in the house.

7. “Physically difficult and unskilled” (long form only): blackJob etc.

Word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. “Manifest to a strong degree”: work is in full swing.

2. “To manifest something with force, to a strong degree”: boilindignation.

As we see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but are closer to it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal, seething with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.

In their reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock ticking and under. In such cases, they talk about extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, about dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation values ​​are highlighted unmotivated(non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the word, and motivated(derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-forming affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. words dining room, tabletop, dining, completion, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness motivated meanings are inherent, they are, as it were, “derived” from the motivating part, word-formative formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative base.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to identify their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family connections of the word with other words and makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows us to identify historical roots in words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag(envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation for one or another meaning of a word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with philological training, while to a non-specialist the semantic connections of this word seem lost.

3. If possible, lexical compatibility The meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink combined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, run, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the “freedom” of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.

Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and linguistic factors. For example, the word win goes with words victory, top, but does not fit with the word defeat. You can say lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can’t —“ lower your hand» ( leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined. The first are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend(you cannot swap the elements of these phrases).

Syntactically determined meanings words are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in the sentence. Yes, words log, oak, hat, acting as a nominal part of a compound predicate, they obtain the meanings " stupid man "; "stupid, insensitive person"; "sluggish, uninitiative person, bungler". V.V. Vinogradov, who first identified this type of meaning, called them functionally and syntactically determined. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are classified as figurative meanings.

As part of the syntactically determined meanings of words, the meanings are also distinguished structurally limited, which are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word vortex with the direct meaning “gusty circular movement of the wind” in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case receives a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events- "rapid development of events."

4. By the nature of the functions performed Lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the predominant is the emotional-evaluative (connotative) sign. For example, in the phrase A tall man word high points to a big increase; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word Human, not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and stand among expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.

5. By the nature of the connections of one meaning with another in the lexical system of a language the following can be distinguished:

1) autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and denote primarily specific objects: table, theater, flower;

2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other according to some characteristics: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,

3) deterministic values, i.e. such “which are, as it were, conditioned by the meanings of other words, insofar as they represent their stylistic or expressive variants...”. For example: nag(cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), wonderful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

Thus, modern typology lexical meanings are based, firstly, on conceptual-subject connections of words (i.e. paradigmatic relationships), secondly, derivational (or derivational)) connections between words, thirdly, the relationship of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). Studying the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand semantic structure words, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

Introduction:

Language is a set of words and the rules for their formation and change, as well as the rules for combining word forms in a sentence.

Language as a communication system ensures the transmission of various types of information. This includes information about objects, phenomena, states of affairs in external reality, and information about subjective acts of cognitive (cognitive) activity and personal experiences of the speaker, and information of a service nature concerning the methods used for constructing coherent speech and the characteristics of the behavior of the language units used in it and their options. Thus, our speech is not a mechanical collection of words. But to be understandable, you need not only to choose the words correctly, but also to put them in the appropriate grammatical form, skillfully connect and arrange the forms of words in a sentence.

The word is studied in different branches of linguistics, as it has sound design, meaning, grammatical characteristics, that is, it combines features of different aspects of language.

A word is a two-way unity: it combines form (a certain sound or letter complex) and meaning. A sound or letter sequence becomes a word only when it acquires meaning. There are lexical and grammatical meanings.

Lexical meaning:

Lexical meaning is the content of a word, reflecting in the mind and consolidating in it the idea of ​​an object, property, process, phenomenon, etc.

The lexical community of words is, as a rule, contained in the root morpheme - the bearer of a conceptual idea. The lexical meaning, therefore, represents the semantic side of the word and is devoid of a standard (regular) expression. According to the classical definition of V.V. Vinogradov, the lexical meaning of a word is “subject-material content, formalized according to the laws of grammar of this language and being an element of the general semantic system of the dictionary of this language"

In the semantic structure of a word, as in other aspects of language, there are elements of the new, living, developing elements, and elements of the old, dying elements, receding into the past.

A word can have several free meanings, which directly reflect different objects and phenomena of reality (cf. cap - “headdress” and “heading in large font, common to several articles”).

1) an object for which a word is used (“a word is the most important structural and semantic unit of language, used to name objects, processes, properties” - the definition of a word proposed by O.S. Akhmanova);

2) sound shell (the following definition: a word is a sound or a complex of sounds that have meaning and are used in speech as an independent whole - A.V. Kalinin);

3) the concept of a named object that arises in the human mind (cf. a word is the shortest unit of language that expresses the concept of an object, process, phenomenon of reality, their properties or relationships between them - D.E. Rosenthal).

All three elements are interconnected, forming a so-called semantic triangle, the vertex of which is the phonetic shell of the word, and the two opposite corners are the subject and the concept. The phonetic shell of a word (i.e., the sequence of its sounds) is connected in the human mind and in the language system, on the one hand, with the object of reality (phenomenon, process, sign), and on the other, with the concept, with the idea of ​​this object. The concept is the basis for the formation of the meaning of a word.

The meaning of a word is the reflection in the word of an idea about an object (phenomenon, process, sign), this is a product of human mental activity. It is associated with such types of mental processes as comparison, classification, generalization.

The meaning of a word as its content is connected with the concept as a reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena of the external world. In this sense, the dialectical unity of linguistic and extra-linguistic content is enshrined in the meaning of the word. The lexical meaning of a word is determined, therefore, through its correlation, on the one hand, with the corresponding concept, and on the other, with the rest of the words of the language, i.e. through its place in the lexical system of the language. Meaning and concept are therefore closely related to each other.

A concept is a category of logic and philosophy. It is “the result of generalization and identification of objects (or phenomena) of a certain class according to certain general and generally specific characteristics for them. From the point of view of linguistics, “a concept is a thought that reflects objects and phenomena of reality in a generalized form by fixing their properties and relationships.” Both definitions indicate the generalizing nature of this category, since the concept captures the most general and essential features of cognizable objects (for example, the concept of “man” captures such essential characteristics in the thinking of the cognizer as the ability to think, morally evaluate one’s actions, create complex tools, etc.). Expressed in words the concept corresponds not to a separate, specific object, but to a whole class of homogeneous objects, thus representing the highest form of generalization.

The meaning of a word can be broader than the concept, since there is only one concept in a word, but there can be several meanings, especially for polysemantic words (the word core, for example, expressing the concept “inner part of something”, has several meanings: 1) the inner part of the fruit, enclosed in a hard shell (kernel of a nut)", 2) the internal, central part of something (nucleus of an atom)", 3) the most important part of the cell of an animal and plant organism, etc.);

Grammatical meaning:

Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.

The grammatical meaning differs from the lexical one more high level abstractions, because “this is an abstraction of characteristics and relationships” (A.A. Reformatsky). The grammatical meaning is not individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words, united by a commonality of morphological properties and syntactic functions. Some particular grammatical meanings can change in a word in its different grammatical forms (for example, a change in the meaning of number and case in nouns or tense in verb forms, while the lexical meaning of the word remains unchanged in them). Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not called a word directly, directly, but is expressed in it “in passing”, in a strictly defined way, with the help of specially assigned grammatical means (affixes). It accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

The grammatical meaning of a word often includes its word-formation meaning (if the word is derivative), since word-formation is part of the grammatical structure of the language. Derivative meaning is a generalized meaning inherent only to motivated words, expressed by word-forming means.

Despite the fact that the grammatical meaning is, as it were, a side meaning of the word, it plays a significant role in creating the holistic meaning of the sentence (for example, I put a gift for a friend... and I put a gift for a friend...,), changing the grammatical meaning of the case in the word friend leads to a change in the meaning of the sentence.

Grammar and lexical meaning represent the main types of plan for the content of language units. In a word they appear in unity, and for some categories of words they are simply indivisible. For example, about the semantics of pronouns it can be argued that it has an intermediate, transitional character between vocabulary and grammar.

The functional classification of word elements - morphemes - is based on the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings. However, division into roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections, etc. requires a more detailed differentiation of meanings.

Some grammatical meaning may, over time, losing its binding nature and narrowing the scope of its application, turn into a lexical meaning.

In general, despite all the borderline and transitional cases, lexical and grammatical meanings retain their global opposition in the language system.