Empire, classicism, baroque and other styles: common features and differences. Baroque and classicism - mentality, worldview and style of the 17th century

They have both common features and differences, because each of the architectural directions has its own unique properties.

In the era of Enlightenment and New Time in European countries - the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, bright and rich stylistic trends in art appeared. Baroque, Rococo, Classicism, Empire - these are a few of the styles that were known at that time. Such a high development of architectural art was caused by the fact that royal, imperial and aristocratic dynasties succeeded each other, and each of them wanted to glorify itself and the period of its reign with real masterpieces of art and magnificent creations of architecture.

How does the Empire style (late classicism) differ from ordinary classicism?

Two popular trends - Empire and classicism in architecture - have left a great mark on history. At its core, the Empire style is one of the stages in the historical development of classicism, one of its branches, therefore it is impossible to talk about these styles as completely different directions.

If you ask architects how Empire differs from classicism, it will be difficult even for specialists to answer this question. Empire style is the final stage in the development of classicism; it was popular in the first three decades of the 19th century. Empire, or late classicism - this is how this direction is designated in art, was called upon to serve the state during the reign of Napoleon in order to glorify his personality and the exploits he accomplished.

Classicism began to gradually move into the Empire era during the Napoleonic Empire; these trends were focused on the depiction of art from the period of antiquity. The architects of this time used elements that allowed them to convey as accurately as possible the military valor and majestic power of the state.

For this purpose, decorative techniques such as lictors' bands, military armor, laurel wreaths, lions, and eagles were used. Such elements were also used during the era of the development of classicism in architecture, however, the significant difference is that the Empire style borrowed architectural forms inherent primarily in Ancient Rome, and classicism mainly used the heritage of Ancient Greece. A striking example of a building in the classicist style is the Villa Rotonda in Italy, the author of which was the architect A. Palladio.

How does the Empire style differ from classicism when it comes to choosing colors when arranging premises? The interior, decorated according to the laws of classicism, was strictly maintained in light and rich tones of vanilla, pale blue and the color of young foliage were widely used.

Objects in bright, saturated colors were almost impossible to see, while during the Empire period, on the contrary, designers skillfully combined flashy bright colors with delicate and soft shades. The predominance of rich green and purple shades, as well as gilding, is another technique characteristic exclusively of the Empire era.

The difference between neoclassicism and classicism and empire style

Another common feature for these two directions is the use of expensive wood and luxurious fabrics when decorating the interior of the premises. It was often possible to see pieces of furniture decorated with inlays made of other types of wood, natural stone or ivory.

Among the general characteristics of the trends, one cannot help but notice that they equally often use flower patterns as decoration. Special attention was paid to the choice of fabrics for interior decoration in the era of classicism and empire style. It was possible to add luxury and pomp to the room through the use of natural silk and tapestries with various motifs. Here we should immediately note the difference between neoclassicism and classicism and empire style - it uses exclusively artificial silk, which looks as expensive as natural material.

The differences between Empire style and classicism lie in the fact that the former was characterized by pronounced pomp and luxury. Classicism was endowed with less monumentality; it is more characterized by restraint of forms and lines in the construction of architectural structures and interior design. There is another distinctive feature of the Empire style, characteristic exclusively of this direction - the widespread use of mirrors.

Classicism, neoclassicism and Russian Empire style: similarities and differences

Classicism, Russian Empire and Neoclassicism, like many other architectural styles, had much in common.

First of all, we should mention the following similarity of directions:

1. Luxury. The styles were intended for decorating the interiors of representatives of the aristocracy, which is why many call them “palace” and “royal”. If you pay attention to all the styles that declared themselves in the period from the 17th to the 19th centuries, the most modest was classicism and neoclassicism, although in fact the interiors were distinguished by unprecedented luxury.

2. Large and spacious rooms. The premises of these eras were characterized by rooms with large spaces and high ceilings. This was least characteristic of the Rococo style if we compare all architectural trends of that time.

3. Decoration methods. To decorate the premises, the purpose of which was to give the interior luxury and richness, elements such as stucco molding, wall paintings and paintings with classical subjects, and wood carvings were used.

Neoclassicism differs from classicism and empire style in that this trend, popular at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, inherited the traditions of not only the period of antiquity, but also the art of the Renaissance can be traced in it. In principle, neoclassicism is essentially a continuation of classicism, its modern completion.

Modern, Baroque, Empire, Classicism: distinctive features

Baroque, classicism and modernism are movements that have many distinctive features. Modernism is a “quotation” of all three of these classical styles. It was formed under the strong influence of the culture of Japan, Ancient Egypt and countries of other ancient civilizations.

The difference between Baroque, Empire and Classicism on the one hand and Art Nouveau on the other is that with the advent of the latter movement, architectural art abandoned the heritage of previous eras. During this period, there is a rejection of straight lines and clear geometric shapes, conservatism and pathos in favor of more natural curved, rounded lines and asymmetry.

What is the difference between eclecticism and modernism from empire style?

The majestic Empire style was replaced by eclecticism at the beginning of the 19th century.

Eclecticism and modernism differ from empire style and classicism in that they represent a mixture and “quotation” of all previous styles at the same time.

As a rule, eclecticism unites adjacent, not opposite, directions. Interior elements that are different in style must have something in common - color, texture, general design. On furniture you can see patterns such as stripes, zigzags, circles. Oriental bedspreads and carpets, patterned wallpaper, niches, rounded corners - all this is characteristic of eclecticism.

In general, classicism has much in common, while modernism and eclecticism are their complete opposite.

The art of the 17th and 18th centuries formed two amazing styles - classicism and baroque. These two largest pan-European styles existed side by side for two centuries. Despite obvious differences, they interacted closely with each other. During their development, classicism and baroque found themselves not only in world and Russian architecture, but also in sculpture, literature, interior design and art. We will consider a comparison of classicism and baroque, two styles, bright, shocking and unique.

History of classicism

Classicism translated from Latin means “exemplary”. A memorable trend in European culture arose in the 17th century. This was the era of the strengthening of the monarchy, everything had to be perfect and at the same time luxurious, which can be seen in the impeccable figures of the ancient world.

The founder of the classicism style was France, where the spirit of freedom and perfection of man, both spiritual and physical, flew. Strict, ideal silhouettes in architectural ensembles, antique subjects in paintings and sculptures, rich but restrained interior decoration. All these are features of classicism.

In Russia, this style took hold under Catherine II; her desire to Europeanize the country played a key role in the construction of famous architectural monuments of that time.

Classicism is classic, harmony of man and nature, simple and laconic in its direction. The style, where certain rules must be followed, very quickly found itself in the palace culture in Germany, Italy, England and Russia.

Baroque history

Baroque means “loose”, “prone to excess”. Italy became the founder of this pompous style. End of the 16th century. - the era of the Renaissance, the strengthening of Catholic power, bright, bold and majestic, it had to make an impression. All the distinctive elements of the Baroque were embodied in the Catholic cities of Italy.

However, European countries also adopted for themselves certain attributes and elements of the “loose” Italian style. England, France, Russia used new cultural trends in their architecture and interior in order to emphasize their brilliance and uniqueness.

The style, aimed at creating the illusion of wealth and luxury of the church, as well as the Italian nobility, was subsequently reflected in all countries of Europe, America and Russia. And he remained an immortal companion of the Catholic Church.

Comparison and classicism

The two styles have walked side by side for centuries. However, they have obvious differences in the history and purpose of creation, in embodiment in art.

Comparison of classicism and baroque

Classicism and Baroque clearly

Main features baroque and classicism luxury and discreet wealth. Both styles are reflected in expensive works of art and striking architectural structures. Let's look at the most famous objects of two different styles from the same time period.

Classicism is, of course, Vosstaniya Square and the Pantheon in Paris. St. Isaac's and Kazan Cathedrals in St. Petersburg. Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw. The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David "Napoleon's Crossing of the Alps" completely reflects the style of classicism in painting. "Psyche Awakened by Cupid's Kiss" is the most famous statue in classicism. "Apollo and the Nymphs" is an incredibly beautiful example of the classical style.

Whereas Baroque is known to us from the Smolny Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the Opera House in Odessa and, of course, the Catholic Church in the Vatican. Rubens and Caravaggio are the most recognizable Baroque painters. And the Italian reveals to us all the expressiveness of the Baroque in his stunning sculptures.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture

As we can see from the descriptions and comparisons of the two styles, the differences between Baroque and Classicism are obvious. In the latter, this is an appeal, first of all, to ancient architecture, in the Baroque - to the luxury of Catholic churches.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture, comparison using the example of two outstanding monuments

Basilica del Santa Croce, Italy - a typical example of Italian Baroque. Distinctive features are lush decor and many statues on the facade. Sculptures, balconies, columns, complex building shape. The center is crowned by a huge round window - already going beyond the standards of typical architecture. Caryatids and Atlases, bizarre forms - all these are distinctive features of the Baroque.

Classicism is the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. Using his example, we can see the characteristic features in the architecture of this style. Simplicity and conciseness. Monumentality and severity. Clear forms, columns. Small windows of standard shape. Discreet modeling pattern on the facade with typical patterns of the ancient world. Clear geometric shape of the building. Pleasant, discreet, uniform color throughout the building.

Baroque and classicist architecture are very different in comparison. At first glance, you can distinguish them from each other: the pretentiousness of the Baroque is striking, of course, these are complex architectural works. Whereas buildings in the classicist style have such clear proportions and a strict appearance that they involuntarily make you think about their greatness and monumentality.

Classicism and Baroque in painting

Coming from the same era, classicism and baroque, however, have distinctive features in art.

Michelangelo is one of the most famous Italian artists who set a new style in painting - Baroque. These are mainly religious subjects, vivid images, emotional scenes from the lives of ordinary people. Contrast of colors, light and darkness, many household items, realistic emotions. Followers of this style in art include Guido Reni.

Classicism is no less picturesque, but ancient Greece is taken as the basis. Raphael, Giulio Romano depict the ideal physical forms of divine characters in their canvases. Cold mythical plots fascinate with their brevity, nothing superfluous, carefully thought-out composition and space around the characters.

We can highlight the main elements in comparing the art movements of classicism and baroque. Firstly, this is the real emotionality of the Baroque, the strength of the plot and the colorfulness of the images, and secondly, the restrained beauty of ancient mythology, understandable and laconic in its manifestation.

Comparison of classicism and baroque in the interior

In addition to outstanding works of art and incredible architectural monuments, Baroque and classicism are reflected in the interior of houses and rooms. Next - from comparison of classicism and baroque in interior decoration.

These two styles brought their main features into the interior. First of all, it's expensive. In both cases it is luxury and wealth. And then we can talk about color solutions. Baroque is always bright, always gold, marble, lacquered surfaces. Many additional items, complex furniture shapes and fancy patterns of canopies and chair upholstery. Of course, this is the beauty that you want to immerse yourself in, every subject that you want to study. Admiration and pomp, what kings love so much.

Classicism in this regard plays in contrast with Baroque. Restrained pastel colors that harmonize with each other. The calm, but no less majestic interior is designed to calm rather than excite. Mainly light colors, clear lines, correctness of objects. The functionality of the interior attributes, however, is not without its charm.

Classicism and Baroque in Russia

These two styles came to Russia in the 18th century. Tsarist Russia was in close contact with European states and did not want to be left behind in the opportunity to demonstrate its greatness.

Baroque was embodied mainly by Rastrelli. It was he who was involved in the reconstruction and construction of the main buildings of St. Petersburg at that time. Naturally, the styles were Russified, adopting the basic principles of the two directions, and traditional Russian architecture was preserved. The Smolny Monastery is perhaps the most striking representative of the Baroque in St. Petersburg, while the “highlight” of classicism is, naturally, the Kazan Cathedral. The origins of this style in Russia were the architects V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, I. Starov; churches and houses built according to their designs can be seen in Moscow.

Baroque and classicism play a big role in Russian architecture. Both in the historical manifestation - the founding of St. Petersburg, the new Moscow, and in the struggle for equality of Russian classic writers.

Now it is impossible to imagine our cities without the Hermitage, the Academy of Sciences and the Tauride Palace.

Classicism and Baroque in our time

In the modern world, architects often turn to Baroque and Classicism, comparing and mixing these styles. The times of kings and emperors have passed, but the love of luxury and grandeur remains. Now you can see modern castles in the Baroque style somewhere on Rublevka or the dacha of another oligarch in the classicist style in the village of Nirvana near St. Petersburg.

At the Trezzini Hotel you can immerse yourself in the luxury of kings, and at the Empire Restaurant you can taste the dishes of modern kings. But this is today’s luxury, although it is still not available to everyone.

In previous articles the words are often found "Baroque", "classicism", applicable to the architecture of buildings in the city of Tver .

The Baroque style is characterized by new complex types of architectural forms, splendor of details, complexity of curvilinear forms, now new effects, elements of pretentiousness and luxury are used.

This artistic style originated in Italy, Rome and spread throughout Europe in the early 17th century. Baroque (bizarre, irregular, corrupted), possessing pomp, was the style of monarchies that reached their highest development at the beginning of the 17th century. Russia borrowed this first European style from the West and it has taken root well on Russian soil.

The first representative baroque In architecture and sculpture, the Italian architect Lorenzo Bernini is considered to be the great classic of this style.

The “Eternal City” of Rome owes its appearance to him; its design of streets and squares and sculptural compositions still fascinate the viewer. The Baroque architect completely abandoned the strict rules and forms of Renaissance architecture.

Now simple regular shapes, square, circle, cross are being replaced by oval, other curvilinear shapes, their combination with trapezoid rectangles, etc. In general, many architectural details of the exterior and interior are changing.

Baroque architects widely used the play of light; its contrasts and shadows were used in decorative painting of interiors. The ceiling and walls were decorated with frescoes, and portraits and landscapes were used in interiors instead of icons.

Light is becoming an important component in interior design. On paintings, the light seems to highlight important details especially brightly; the play of light and shadow gives the painting a special look. The great masters Rubens and Rembrandt achieved perfection in the application of these effects.

In Russia, Baroque became widespread in the 17th century. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Baroque very quickly reached the peak of its heyday. One of the representatives of the masters baroque in Russia is rightfully Bartholomew Varfolomeevich Rastrelli.

His great creation, the building of the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, is an iconic representative of the Baroque. He is Italian by origin and worked in Russia since 1716. For almost half a century, stunning palaces, mansions and various religious buildings have been created in Russia. All of Rastrelli's buildings are distinguished by their spatial scope, clarity of volume, and rich sculptural decorations.

All his creations are works of art, as if made from a block of stone by a sculptor. Baroque architectural examples have been best preserved to this day. The general features of Baroque are the desire for movement, architects use all sorts of tricks - painting walls to resemble a landscape, mirrors, gilding, contrast of light and shadow. It is not without reason that the name baroque comes from the Portuguese word for an irregularly shaped pearl.

Classicism in architecture

A new style that originated in the depths of the Baroque is classicism. Classicism (exemplary) is a new artistic style in art, literature of the 17th and 18th centuries and architecture.

The architecture of classicism contains monumentality, geometric shapes, clarity of layout, logic, clarity, and restraint of color. Classical architecture is the architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome. The greatest work of ancient Greek classical architecture is the Acropolis of Athens.

Many rules of classicism originate from the ancient arts. These are appeals to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity and severity of forms. The heyday of classicism architecture in Russia occurred at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. The building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg is an architectural masterpiece of Russian classicism.

The architectural image of St. Petersburg and Moscow was created by a galaxy of great masters I.V. Starov, V.V. Bazhenov, . M.F. Kozakov. Classicism architecture reached an unprecedented rise during the reign of Catherine II.

In 1763, a government order was issued on the regular planning of provincial and district cities, as a result of which 400 cities were rebuilt. Magnificent buildings in Tver in the classicism and baroque style decorate the modern streets of our city.

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In the era of classicism, which followed the Baroque, the role of counterpoint decreased (although the development of the art of counterpoint did not stop) and the homophonic structure of musical works came to the fore. There is less ornamentation in the music. Works began to lean towards a clearer structure, especially those written in sonata form. Modulations (changes in key) have become a structuring element; the works began to be listened to as a journey full of drama through a sequence of tonalities, a series of departures and arrivals to the tonic. Modulations were also present in Baroque music, but did not carry a structuring function. In the works of the classical era, many emotions were often revealed within one part of the work, while in Baroque music one part carried one, clearly drawn feeling. Finally, classical works usually reached an emotional climax that was resolved by the end of the work. In baroque works, after reaching this climax, a slight feeling of the underlying emotion remained until the very last note. A variety of Baroque forms served as a starting point for the development of sonata form, developing many variations of the main cadenzas.

Baroque genres

Composers of the Baroque era worked in various musical genres. Opera, which appeared during the late Renaissance, became one of the main baroque musical forms. One can recall the works of such masters of the genre as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), Handel, Claudio Monteverdi and others. The oratorio genre reached its peak in the works of J. S. Bach and Handel; operas and oratorios often used similar musical forms.

Forms of sacred music such as the mass and motet became less popular, but the cantata form was given attention by many Protestant composers, including Johann Bach. Such virtuoso forms of composition as toccatas and fugues developed. Instrumental sonatas and suites were written both for individual instruments and for chamber orchestras. The concerto genre appeared in both its forms: for one instrument with an orchestra and as a concerto grosso, in which a small group of solo instruments contrasts with a full ensemble. Works in the form of the French overture, with their contrasting fast and slow parts, added pomp and splendor to many royal courts.

Works for keyboards were quite often written by composers for their own amusement or as educational material. Such works are the mature works of J. S. Bach, the generally recognized intellectual masterpieces of the Baroque era: “The Well-Tempered Clavier”, “Goldberg Variations” and “The Art of Fugue”.

Baroque music was divided into three periods: Early Baroque Music (1600-1654), Mature Baroque Music (1654-1707) and Late Baroque Music (1707-1760).

Early Baroque music

The creation by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) of his recitative style and the consistent development of Italian opera can be considered the conventional point of transition between the Baroque and Renaissance eras. The beginning of opera performances in Rome and especially in Venice already meant the recognition and spread of the new genre throughout the country. All this was only part of a larger process that captured all the arts, and was especially clearly manifested in architecture and painting. Renaissance composers paid attention to the elaboration of each part of a musical work, paying virtually no attention to the comparison of these parts. Separately, each part could sound excellent, but the harmonious result of the addition was more a matter of chance than of regularity. The appearance of the general bass indicated a significant change in musical thinking - namely, that harmony, which is "the putting together of parts into one whole", is as important as the melodic parts (polyphony) themselves. Harmonic thinking also existed among some composers of the previous era, for example, Carlo Gesualdo, but in the Baroque era it became generally accepted. It is necessary to add that the term “harmony” is used here in the meaning of “combining sounds into consonances and their natural sequence,” that is, hierarchical, chordal, tonal harmony. A significant figure of the early Baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, opposing the growing ideological, cultural and social influence of Protestantism, was Giovanni Gabrieli. His works belong to the “High Renaissance” style (the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (assigning his own, specific tasks to a certain instrument) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.

Music of the mature Baroque

The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism. Absolutism reached its apogee under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, Louis's court was a role model. Including music performed at court. The increased availability of musical instruments (especially keyboards) gave impetus to the development of chamber music. Mature baroque differs from the early baroque in the widespread dissemination of the new style and the increased separation of musical forms, especially in opera. In music theory, the mature Baroque is defined by composers' focus on harmony and attempts to create coherent systems of musical instruction. In subsequent years, this led to the appearance of many theoretical works.

An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lulli (1632-1687). Already at the age of 21, he received the title of “court composer of instrumental music.” Lully's creative work was closely connected with the theater from the very beginning. Following the organization of court chamber music and the composition of “airs de cour”, he began to write ballet music. But the main thing in Lully’s work was still writing operas.

Composer and violinist Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) is famous for his work on the development of the concerto grosso genre. Corelli was one of the first composers to have his works published and performed throughout Europe.

Late Baroque music

The precise line between mature and late baroque is a matter of debate; it lies somewhere between 1680 and 1720. To a large extent the complexity of its definition is due to the fact that in different countries styles changed asynchronously; innovations already accepted as the rule in one place were new discoveries in another. Italy, thanks to Arcangelo Corelli and his students Francesco Geminiani and Pietro Locatelli, becomes the first country in which Baroque moves from the mature to the late period. An important milestone can be considered the almost absolute primacy of tonality as the structuring principle of composing music. This is especially noticeable in the theoretical works of Jean Philippe Rameau, who took Lully's place as the main French composer. The forms discovered by the previous period reached maturity and great variability; concert, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had clearly defined national characteristics.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) - Italian composer, born in Venice. Vivaldi's fame came not from concert performances or connections at court, but from the publication of his works, which included his trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concertos. They were published in Amsterdam and distributed widely throughout Europe. It was to these, at that time still developing instrumental genres (baroque sonata and baroque concerto) that Vivaldi made his most significant contribution.

Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. During his life, he composed more than 1,000 works in various genres, except opera. But during his lifetime he did not achieve any significant success. In the last years of his life and after Bach's death, his fame as a composer began to decline: his style was considered old-fashioned in comparison with the burgeoning classicism. He was better known and remembered as a performer, teacher and father of the younger Bachs, especially Carl Philipp Emmanuel, whose music was more famous.

Only the performance of the St. Matthew Passion by Mendelssohn, 79 years after the death of J. S. Bach, revived interest in his work. Now J. S. Bach is one of the most popular composers of all time.

Baroque and classicism

palace of versailles culture artistic

In the 17th century, in the context of the active development of the economy and the arts, France acquired the status of an exemplary country of absolutist forms of government and practical economic policies. Thanks to the Counter-Reformation movement, Rome acquired new significance in the cultural space of territorially fragmented Italy. As a result, the construction of religious buildings received a strong impetus. The new stage of construction that began under these conditions at the end of the 17th century contributed to the fact that the German princes were guided in their needs by foreign models. They were largely influenced by the French absolutism of Louis XIV. Each feudal lord - no matter how small the territory that belonged to him - copied his residence from Versailles, this pearl of the royal possessions.

Despite the fact that European architecture of the 17th - 18th centuries is not characterized by uniformity and integrity, it is customary to unite it with the general concept of “Baroque”. Princely castles and religious buildings became priority objects during construction and personified resistance to the Reformation. In the 1730s, the influence of the Enlightenment began to be noticeably felt, which was immediately reflected in the increased intimacy of the buildings. Small elegant castles surrounded by parks became the princes' favorite places to stay. This is one of the most striking distinctive features of the Baroque.

The new style called on beauty to help in urban planning activities environment, or more simply put - landscape. The landscape has become one of the main components of the urban ensemble. The square, having lost its functional and democratic content, became the front part of the city, its decoration. Baroque architecture is distinguished by grandeur, pomp and dynamics, entertainment and a strong contrast of scales and rhythms.

Thanks to the bizarre plasticity of the facades, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, Baroque palaces and churches acquired some picturesqueness and dynamism. They seemed to grow into the space around them. Baroque interiors were decorated with multicolor sculpture, stucco, and carvings; mirrors and paintings were necessary for the illusory expansion of space, and the painting of lampshades created the illusion of vaults opening up above the viewer.

In Baroque painting and sculpture, the dominant position belonged to decorative multifaceted compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical nature, as well as ceremonial portraits. When depicting a person, states of tension, exaltation and heightened drama were preferred. In painting, the emotional, rhythmic and coloristic unity of the whole, often the unconstrained freedom of brushstrokes, have acquired great importance; in sculpture there is a picturesque fluidity of form, a richness of aspects and impressions.

The characteristic features of Baroque are the complexity of plans, rich interior design with unexpected and spectacular spatial and lighting solutions, many curves, plastically bending lines and surfaces, contrast, tension and dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for luxury and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, to the fusion of arts. The Baroque style contrasted the simplicity of classical forms with sophistication in shaping. Elements of painting and sculpture and painted wall surfaces were widely used in architecture.

The ideological foundations of the Baroque were formed under the conditions of the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The idea of ​​the world as a rational and constant unity, characteristic of the philosophy of antiquity and the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the crown of creation, has changed. Man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing”, as Pascal put it, “one who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

The emergence of Baroque was to some extent facilitated by the lack of funds for the construction of palazzos among members of the nobility. In search of a way out of this situation, they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. Partly thanks to this, Baroque arose in Italy in the 16th century.

The architectural forms of the Baroque were based on the Italian Renaissance, but surpassed it in complexity, diversity and picturesqueness. Facades with profiled cornices, with colossal columns, half-columns and pilasters for several floors, luxurious sculptural details, often fluctuating from convex to concave, give the structure itself movement and rhythm. Not a single detail of such a structure was independent, unlike the Renaissance period. All parts of the ensemble are subordinated to the general architectural concept, which is complemented by the design and decoration of the interiors, as well as the landscape gardening and urban architectural environment.

In France, the Baroque style is expressed somewhat more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was generally accepted that the Baroque style did not develop here at all, and Baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes it is appropriate to use the term “Baroque classicism” in relation to the French and English versions of the Baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles along with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works of architecture are considered French Baroque. They do have some classicist features. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening art, the clearest example of which is the Park of Versailles, the pinnacle of creativity of the talented master Andre Le Nôtre.

The German art critic and historian of ancient art Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in 1755: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” With this slogan, he called on his contemporaries to renew art, using as a basis the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, and found active support in European society. He perceived ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The progressive public perceived classicism as a necessary contrast to court baroque. The emergence of classicism coincided with the period of bourgeois revolutions - the English one in 1688 and the French one 101 years later. Thus, turning to ancient art as the highest model and relying on the traditions of the High Renaissance became one of the most important features of classicism.

The fine art of classicism sought to embody the idea of ​​a harmonious structure of society. The complexity of the fine arts of classicism is clearly evidenced by the conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, simplicity and harmony of images.

The desire to embody the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art in construction led the masters of the era to the desire to completely copy an ancient building. Thus, what the German architect Gilly had left at the design stage of the monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Valhalla - “Chamber of the Dead”.

In Germany, the centers of construction in the classical style were the princely palaces and residences, among them the Marktplatz (market square) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam also preferred classicism during construction. However, by this time the palaces had already lost their status as the main construction projects; villas and country houses looked no less impressive and impressive. The scope of public construction included social buildings - hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. Soon they were supplemented by public buildings such as theatres, museums, universities and libraries. The picture was completed by the country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages. The construction of churches was no longer a primary task, but remarkable buildings appeared in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate as to whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for Christian monastery.

In painting, the dominant role belonged to the logical development of the plot, clear balance of composition, clear transfer of volume and light and shadow modeling of form, and the use of local colors.

A clear delineation of plans in landscape painting was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be painted in brown, the second in green, and the third in blue.

Classicism architecture is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of the classical style was an order close in proportions and form to antiquity. Classicism is distinguished by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration and a regular system of urban planning.

The great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi formulated the architectural language of classicism at the end of the Renaissance. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they found application for them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones transported Palladianism to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By this time, satiety with the luxury of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. This Baroque and Rococo aesthetics was decidedly unsuitable for solving major urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV, urban ensembles were erected in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, including the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI, such “noble laconicism” became the main architectural direction.

With the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, the French architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé, were able to move even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was not in demand.

The architects of Napoleonic France sought inspiration from images of military glory that survived from the days of imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of the emperor, they were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, it is customary to use the term “imperial style” - Empire style. In Russia, outstanding masters of the Empire style were such masters as Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

The most significant interiors in the classical style were completed by the Scottish architect Robert Adam after returning to his homeland from Rome in 1758. The archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi made a huge impression on him. In Adam's interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior in sophistication to Rococo interiors. This earned him fame both among democratically minded circles of society and among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preferred a complete rejection of parts that lacked a constructive function. The aesthetics of classicism contributed to large-scale urban planning projects and, to a certain extent, contributed to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities.

In Russia, most provincial and almost all district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and some others have become genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, was established throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism existed simultaneously with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with a revival of interest in the Middle Ages and a fashion for neo-Gothic architecture. In connection with the discovery of the Rosetta Plate by Champollion, Egyptian themes gained popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture was gradually replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek, which manifested itself especially clearly in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism was diluted by free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

Conclusions on chapter 1

Baroque and classicism styles developed in the artistic culture of Western Europe during the period of the 17th-18th centuries. These two trends in art successfully coexisted for two centuries, developing in parallel and alternately occupying a leading position or fading into the background.

The classicist style in artistic culture called for the use of the art of the ancient world as a standard. The origin of classicism took place at the stage of bourgeois revolutions - English and French - which affected the nature of its formation and was reflected in the characteristics of the national style.

In the fine arts, classicism pursued the goal of embodying the idea of ​​a harmonious structure of the social side of existence. The artistic forms of classicism are marked by the features of strict organization, balance, simplicity and harmony of images.

The characteristic features of the Baroque style were the complexity of plans, lush interior decoration with spectacular spatial and lighting solutions, many curves, plastically bending lines and surfaces, contrast and bright dynamics of images, the desire for luxury, the combination of illusion and reality, and the fusion of the arts. In defiance of classical forms, the Baroque style promoted sophistication in shaping. In architecture, the use of elements of painting and sculpture and painted wall surfaces was common.

Man in Baroque ideology appeared as “something in between everything and nothing”, as Pascal put it, “those who capture only the appearance of phenomena, but are unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”