The formation of Roman culture. Fine art of Ancient Rome

The culture of Ancient Rome existed since the 8th century. BC. and until 476 AD. Unlike ancient greek culture, which is traditionally awarded the highest words and praises, the ancient Roman one is assessed differently by everyone. Thus, famous culturologists O. Spengler and A. Toynbee do not perceive Ancient Rome as an independent and original culture and civilization, believing that it represented only the final, crisis stage of Antiquity. His contributions were limited mainly to the development of the state, law and technology. In everything else, especially in spiritual culture - religion, philosophy, science, art, literature - Rome did not contribute anything fundamentally new and original, did not go beyond borrowing and popularizing what was done by the Greeks, and never rose to the heights Hellenic culture.

At the same time, other scientists take the opposite point of view, believing that Roman culture and civilization will be no less distinctive and original than others. This view seems more reasonable.

The Romans were in many ways similar to the Hellenes, but at the same time they were significantly different from them. It's worth noting that they created this system of ideals and values, the main ones among which were patriotism, honor and dignity, loyalty to civic duty, reverence for the gods, the idea of ​​the special chosenness of the Roman people, of Rome as the highest value, etc.

The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of the free individual, who allowed violation of the established laws of society. Against. they in every possible way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. It is worth saying that for them public interests were higher than the interests of the individual. With all this, the Romans strengthened the antagonism between the freeborn citizen and the slave, considering not only unworthy for the former to engage in a craft, but also the activities of a sculptor, painter, actor and playwright. In the nai to a greater extent Politics, war, development of law, historiography, and agriculture were considered worthy occupations for a wealthy Roman. Therefore, the Romans more clearly defined the qualities of a free man, excluding from them such “slave vices” as lies, dishonesty and flattery. Rome reached the highest level of development of slavery.

Unlike the Hellenes, the Romans were much more warlike. Therefore, military valor was one of the highest virtues for them. Military spoils and conquests served as the main source of subsistence. Military valor, feats of arms and merit were the main means and basis for success in politics, for obtaining high positions and occupying a high position in society. Thanks to the wars of conquest, Rome grew from a small town into a world empire.

In general, the most significant achievements of Ancient Rome are associated with civilization and material culture. Here, the generally recognized achievements include such as the famous Roman law, beautiful roads, magnificent buildings, grandiose aqueducts, etc. Rome's contribution to the development of statehood and its forms such as the republic and empire will also be very significant.

Concerning spiritual culture, here the achievements of Rome look more modest, although they certainly exist. Compared to Greek and Roman religious and mythological ideas will be more complex and less homogeneous. Many Greek gods passed to the Romans, taking on new names: Zeus became Jupiter, Kronos - Saturn, Poseidon - Neptune, Aphrodite - Venus, Artemis - Diana, etc. The Romans also borrowed a lot from other religions. With all this, in their mythology a special place is occupied by the so-called “Roman myth”, or myths associated with Rome, acting as the “Roman idea” - possession and power over the whole world, “Rome is the center of the world”, “Rome is the eternal city” .

In philosophy and science, the Romans also largely followed the Greeks. They were interested not so much in theoretical research and the search for new knowledge, but in the generalization and systematization of already accumulated knowledge, the creation of multi-volume encyclopedias that served the cause of education and enlightenment.

Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

Approximately the same picture was observed in the field of artistic culture. Many Roman artists they not only imitated the Greek masters, but literally copied their works. At the same time, their certain merit lay in this, since many masterpieces of Greek art have come down to us in Roman copies. Along with this, Roman artists were able to make their own and very significant contribution to the development of art.

IN sculpture they were the first to give their works unique personality traits, fill them with deep psychologism and reveal the inner world of a person in them. Roman writers created in literature new genre- novel genre. Roman architects left behind beautiful architectural monuments.

Speaking of the most general outline and the peculiarities of Roman culture, it should be noted that, unlike Greek, it will be much more rational and grounded, aimed at practical benefit and feasibility. This feature was well demonstrated by Cicero using the example of mathematics: “The Greeks studied geometry in order to understand the world, while the Romans studied geometry in order to measure plots of land.”

In general, Greek and Roman cultures were in a state of strong interaction and mutual influence, which ultimately led to their synthesis, to the creation unified Greco-Roman culture, which subsequently formed the basis Byzantine culture and had a huge impact on cultures Slavic peoples and Western Europe.

According to existing legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. on the Tiber River by twin brothers Romulus and Remus. From this time begins the history of monarchical, or “royal” Rome, since it was headed by elected king acting simultaneously as a high priest, military leader, legislator and judge, and with him was Senate

The main socio-economic unit was the patriarchal family (surname). Do not forget that the most important public affairs, including the election of the king, were decided people's assembly. The basis of religious and mythological ideas was made up of many gods and cults, among which a special place was occupied by the creator of the world, the two-faced Janus, as well as Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, etc. Numerous religious rites, rituals and holidays, and the cult of ancestors also took shape.

During this period, the formation of Roman culture took place, in the formation of which neighboring Italian cities took an active part. Etruria and Greece. The Italian influence is felt primarily in certain customs and rituals, as well as in applied arts- ceramics and jewelry of Roman craftsmen. The influence of Etruscan culture was very significant. The Romans did not borrow from them many crafts, the practice of building cities and the architecture of temples, the secret sciences of fortune-telling by priests, and certain customs, including the custom of celebrating the victories of generals with triumph.

No less strong was the influence of Greek culture, from where the Romans adopted many gods, religious customs and rituals. In 510 BC, after an unrelenting confrontation between the kings and the Senate, the last king Tarquin was overthrown and an aristocratic republic was established in Rome. In the new society, classes of patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (common people) were formed, between which an endless struggle immediately arises.

As a result of the successes and victories of the plebs, Rome by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. turns into civil community, the main features of which are the equality of political and legal rights of citizens, the power of the people's assembly on all major issues, the combination of collective and private land ownership, etc.

During this period, Rome significantly expanded its possessions and, after the victory in the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), which ended with the destruction of Carthage, turned into a huge power. New sources of enrichment that have opened up stimulate acceleration economic development. The socio-political structure of Roman society is changing, in which it stands out nobility - circle of noble families, another privileged class arises - horsemen, to whom rich and noble people belonged.

It is important to know that great changes are also taking place in the culture of Roman society. There is an increase in the number educated people, the need for which is satisfied through the “import” of educated Greek slaves. It is worth saying that in order to raise the reputation of Rome in the conquered countries, the upper stratum begins to more and more actively master Hellenic culture. Rich people send their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities of Greece and Asia Minor to listen to lectures by famous speakers and philosophers. Some of the latter move to Rome, as, for example, did the historian. It is worth mentioning - Polybius, who wrote a multi-volume “History”, where the great mission of Rome is glorified.

Also developing under Greek influence literature, There will be a whole galaxy of playwrights and plays, among whom we should name Plautus and Terence, whose comedies have survived to this day. Of the first Roman tragedians, we know the name of Livy Andronicus, who translated Homer’s “It is important to note that the Odyssey” into Latin. Among this time, the most famous will be Lucilius. who narrated poems on everyday topics and ridiculed the passion for luxury.

There is also a strong Greek influence art. Roman sculptors and painters depict scenes from Greek myths in their works. Copies of Greek sculptures are becoming extremely popular and in great demand.

It should be noted that the expansion of Greek culture did not take place without resistance from some influential Romans, who saw in it a danger to morality. However, such external opposition was not very effective. Greek culture continued its victorious march across the Roman expanses, as evidenced primarily by the change in the status of the Greek language, which became not only literary, but also colloquial.

By the middle of the 1st century. BC. The Roman Republic found itself in a state of crisis. In all areas, and especially in politics, renewal was required, since the vast territory of the state had outgrown republican forms of government.

In 27 BC. Rome, while formally remaining a republic, actually turned into empire with an authoritarian form of government. The first emperor, or princeps (hence the entire empire was called Principate), became Octavian, to whom the Senate attached the title of Augustus - “exalted by the deity,” which gave his power a sacred character.

The Roman Empire lasted five centuries - until 476 AD. Of these, the first century turned out to be the most prosperous and fruitful. and the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 BC) is considered golden age Roman culture.

During the period of the Empire, the main currents of the Roman movement gained great influence and widespread dissemination. philosophy- Epicureanism, Stoicism and Neoplatonism. All of them, to one degree or another, continue Greek trends, but do not remain entirely secondary, but acquire completely independent significance.

The main figures of the Roman Epicureanism- Lucretius and Cicero - lived and worked in the 1st century. BC, under the Republic, but Epicureanism, especially in the form of simplified and crude hedonism, became widespread during the Empire. In his famous poem “On the Nature of Things,” Lucretius develops ideas about the natural origin and existence of the world and man, and glorifies the human mind.

Without rejecting the existence of gods, he believes that they reside in distant spaces in a state of blissful peace and do not interfere in the affairs of people. Recognizing pleasure as the highest good of man, the philosopher clarifies that it should be sought in the absence of suffering. Epicureanism called for rejoicing and enjoying life, since the main source of pleasure would be the fact of life itself. After death there will be no pleasures, since there will be no life itself.

Cicero made a huge contribution to the development of Roman culture. It is worth noting that he was a great orator, philosopher, rhetorical theorist, writer, and politician. In their works, Cicero sought to popularize all schools and movements of Greek philosophy. In his own concept, he combined mainly Epicureanism and Stoicism, giving preference to the first.

Roman Stoicism represented by Seneca, Epictetus and Emperor Marcus Aurelius. All three viewed philosophy primarily as a teaching about achieving a moral ideal, inner spiritual freedom and happiness. They saw the path to this through reconciliation with external circumstances, through the pursuit of virtue and the rejection of such worldly temptations as wealth, honors and nobility. Stoicism, especially the views of Seneca, had a strong influence on early Christianity.

Roman Neoplatonism, the founder and main figure of which was Plato, is a synthesis of the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, cleared of scientific and rational content, with the ideas of neo-Pythagoras and Eastern mysticism. Its meaning is the doctrine of ascension human soul to merge with the One in a kind of mystical ecstasy. The influence of Neoplatonism grew as the crisis of Roman society intensified.

In the era of the Empire it develops very successfully the science. The most outstanding scientists were Pliny the Elder. Ptolemy and Galen. The first of them, being also a writer, narrated the multi-volume “Natural History” (37 volumes), which became a real encyclopedia in all areas of contemporary science. In addition to knowledge about nature, it contains extensive information on the history of ancient art, the history and life of Rome.

Ptolemy created the world famous geocentric system of the world, which made it possible to determine the position of the planets in the sky. His work “Almagest” was an encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge of Antiquity. He also owns works on optics, mathematics and geography.

The doctor Galen summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient medicine and presented them in the form of a single doctrine, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of natural science. In his fundamental work “On the Parts of the Human Body,” he was the first to give an anatomical and physiological description of the human body as a single whole. Galen conducted experiments on animals and came close to discovering the decisive role of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation.

IN humanities special mention deserves activity historians Titus Livy and Tacitus. The first will be the author of the grandiose “Roman History from the Founding of the City” (142 volumes), which reveals the meaning of the “Roman myth” and traces the history of the transformation of Rome from a small town on the Tiber into a world power. Tacitus, in his main works - “Annals” and “Histories” (14 volumes) - sets out the history of Rome and the Roman Empire, and also gives rich information about the life of the ancient Germans.

Artistic culture experienced the greatest rise in the era of the Empire. Among the arts, the leading position is occupied by architecture, in the development of which the architect and engineer Vitruvius played a special role. In his treatise “Ten Books on Architecture,” he summarized the experience of Greek and Roman architecture and developed the concept of a city with a central forum (square), as well as methods for constructing various building mechanisms.

It should be noted that forum became a very common type of Roman construction. Six such forums were built. The first - Forum Romanum - was built in the 6th century. BC, and then five more forums were added to it - Caesar's. Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. The most grandiose was the Forum of Trajan. built by Apollodorus of Damascus and consisting of several structures: a courtyard surrounded by columns, a triumphal arch, and a basilica temple.

Roman architecture reached its true flowering under Augustus. According to the historian Suetonius, Augustus declared that, having found Rome in brick, he would leave it in marble. He largely coped with this task. Under him, old temples were restored and new ones were erected, among which the temples of Apollo and Vesta, which were part of his palace complex, became famous. It is worth noting that he builds the ϲʙᴏth forum - the Forum of Augustus, which continued the forum of Caesar and became one of the most magnificent. Under Augustus, his associate Agrippa built the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods, which is a gigantic cylindrical building with a diameter of 43 m, covered with a large spherical dome. The temple has become one of the true masterpieces of architecture.

After Augustus, the development of architecture continued. From the created monuments special attention deserves famous Coliseum, or the Flavian amphitheater, which accommodated more than 50 thousand spectators and was intended for gladiatorial fights and other spectacles.

Villa Adriana in Tivoli is also very noteworthy. Located in a picturesque park, it is a magnificent ensemble reproducing individual buildings and corners of Athens and Alexandria, in particular the Athens Academy and Lyceum. This circumstance will make the villa extremely popular today - in connection with the advent of postmodernism architecture, since it is considered the first historical monument of such architecture.

IN Everyday life Empires are coming into fashion baths - public baths, which become like centers of culture and recreation, since they include not only baths and steam rooms, but also libraries, reading rooms, meeting rooms, sports and games. The most grandiose and famous were the Baths of Caracalla.

In the era of the Empire take shape favorable conditions and for the development of literature, especially poetry. The most prominent poets - Virgil, Horace and Ovid - were again associated with the reign of Emperor Augustus.

Virgil, who is the main figure of Roman poetry, created a collection of shepherd's songs "Bucolics" and a didactic poem "Georgics", which gives advice to farmers and glorifies nature. The pinnacle of Virgil's work was the unfinished epic poem "Aeneid", which echoes the Homeric epic. It is worth noting that it is dedicated to the wanderings of Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome.

Horace's work is surprisingly multifaceted in theme, genre, style and metrics. It is worth noting that he narrated lyrical poems, philosophical poems, angry satires, in which he ridiculed the vices of Roman society. His works combine Epicureanism with Stoicism. It is worth noting that he influenced the poetry of the New Age. His treatise “The Science of Poetry” is one hundred! theoretical basis of classicism.

Ovid achieved great success primarily with her love lyrics, as well as the mythological poem “Metamorphoses,” which tells about the transformation of people and gods into animals, plants and stars. His poem "Fasti" talks about Roman religious holidays.

Ovid's cheerful and ironic poem "The Science of Love", containing instructions on how to find a mistress and deceive a husband, irritated Augustus, who saw in it a mockery of his law on marriage. It is appropriate to note that the disgraced poet was exiled to the city of Tomy on the Black Sea coast.
It is interesting to note that there he wrote “Mournful Elegies”, in which he bitterly lamented his loneliness, hoped for forgiveness - but was never forgiven.

In general, during the era of the Empire, Roman society as a civilization continued to develop. At the same time, in spiritual terms, already in the 1st century. AD symptoms of a serious crisis appeared. The fact is that by that time the “Roman idea”, as power over the whole world, had been realized. Having reached it. Rome seemed to have exhausted itself; it had lost the source of internal self-development. It is no coincidence that already under Augustus the the idea of ​​"eternal Rome" which is focused exclusively on preserving the achieved greatness and power. But without a great inspiring goal, society is doomed to collapse. Anyway. the fate of Rome convinces us of this.

Since the 1st century. AD Rome increasingly appears as the first historical form consumer society. Famous slogan "bread and circuses" was a way of life not only for the landless plebs, but for all classes of society. Even among the elite of society, the professed hedonism increasingly turned into a cult of crude pleasures and entertainment. Emperors Caligula and Nero became symbols of cruelty and moral decay. It was the spiritual emptiness, the spiritual crisis that appeared main reason the general crisis of Roman society and its death. It is appropriate to note that, again, it is no coincidence that already in the 1st century. AD Christianity arose in the Roman Empire as a counteraction to the spiritual decay of Roman society.

Christianity has become one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), addressed to all people, regardless of ethnicity, language or other affiliation. At its core is the belief in Jesus Christ as the God-man, who through her death atoned for the sins of people, bringing salvation to the world and man. Rejecting the values ​​of Roman society, among which power, strength, power, physical pleasures and pleasures increasingly came to the fore, Christianity contrasted them with high spiritual and moral values.

God himself appears in him as a spiritual entity. The main Christian value is love of God- will be spiritual, it is opposed to physical, carnal love, which is declared sinful. Christianity proclaimed the equality of all people before God. It is worth noting that it acted as a defender of the oppressed, humiliated and disadvantaged, promising them in the future deliverance from slavery and poverty. Everything was in tune with the aspirations ordinary people, made them supporters of the new religion.

Despite severe persecution by the Roman authorities, the growth in the number of Christians continued steadily, and in the 4th century. AD Christianity seeks official recognition. Wherein new religion could no longer save Roman society, the crisis of which had become too deep and irreversible. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western, and in 476, after another defeat of the Romans by German troops, the last emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed and the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Concerning Roman culture, then in their best achievements it still exists today. These include Roman law, Roman architecture and literature, Latin, which for centuries was the language of European scientists. At the same time, the main contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture After all, Christianity came into existence, although it did not save Rome from destruction.

Features of the culture and art of ancient Rome.

Features of the culture of Ancient Rome: principles of periodization, chronological framework. Neolithic archaic - Etruscan culture. Features of the culture of ancient Rome. Mythological and ritual unity of culture, ideas about higher powers and the place of man in the universe. Absolutization of the volitional principle in culture. The ideal of consent, Roman statehood and law. Cultural background of the Roman conquests. Secondary nature and synthetism of cultural forms and art. Greek cultural borrowings and the fate of Roman ideals. State and people. Law in Roman culture. Imperial cultural project. Artistic features of Roman culture, art monuments, their cultural meaning.

Culture of Ancient Rome

The states that arose in the late, Hellenistic stage of the history of Ancient Greece did not last long. In the II-I centuries. BC e. most of them were conquered Rome. Since then the center ancient culture becomes the Apennine Peninsula (where modern Italy is located). The overall extent of the Roman state was beyond imagination. During the era of the empire, it included North Africa (including Egypt and modern Tunisia), the islands of the Mediterranean, and in the East - the territories of modern Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Turkey, partly Iraq, Syria, Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia. To the north and west of Italy, Rome belonged to modern France, Spain (lat. - remote), England (Albion). It is also known that Greek settlements (passed to Rome) were located on the territory of our Kuban (Gorgippia) and Crimea (Chersonese, Pontikapaeus). They sailed to the shores of Colchis (present-day Georgia) for golden fleece legendary Argonauts. These lands, divided into 50 provinces, “the estates of the Roman people,” were governed by the emperor’s governors, paying taxes set for a 15-year period.

Having inherited (more precisely, captured) and expanded the territory of Ancient Greece, Rome also inherited its culture, at the same time significantly transforming it.

The first people to experience Greek influence in the Apennines were Etruscans, a people whose origins are still not very clear. Their language has not been deciphered either. Blonde-haired, blue-eyed, slightly hook-nosed, not similar to either the Italians or the Northern Europeans, the descendants of the Etruscans are still occasionally found in Italy, as if they had stepped out of ancient vases. In the 1st millennium BC. e. The Etruscans had already created a federation of city-states. Their cities, with stone buildings and walls, were also distinguished by a clear layout of streets, perpendicular to each other and oriented to the cardinal points. The Etruscans were the first to build domed vaults supported by wedge-shaped beams. It was the Etruscans who became famous portrait which is known today as Roman. The Etruscans gave the Romans numbers, again known as Roman numbers. Having adopted many features of Greek culture, including mythology and religion, the Etruscans passed it on to the Italian cities.

Story Rome, the largest of them, dates back to 753 BC. e. According to legend, the founders of the city Romulus And Rema fed Capitoline wolf, especially revered among other animals. Tradition also says that Rome arose thanks to fugitives from Troy destroyed by the Achaeans, who “burned their ships” to settle on seven hills next to the Etruscans, Latins and Sabines. Information has been preserved that of the seven kings who ruled in Rome, the last three were of Etruscan origin. Under them, the city was surrounded by a stone wall, sewerage, first built gladiator circus.

The end of the Etruscan history of Rome dates back to 510 BC. e., when the last of its kings was overthrown by a popular uprising, Tarquin the Proud(534/533-510/509). After this, Rome became a republic with a very strict form of slavery, beginning wide expansion into neighboring regions.

Soon followed the capture of the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and then the complete transformation of Greece and Macedonia into Roman provinces. The protracted war between Rome and Carthage also ended with victory. Having subjugated the Greeks, the Romans submitted to their culture, which was much higher. True, the Roman gods, having retained everything from the Greek ones, received new names. Zeus became Jupiter, Poseidon - Neptune, Hades - Pluto, Ares - Mars, Hera - Juno, Athena - Minerva, Hephaestus - Vulcan, Hermes - Mercury, Artemis - Diana. There was no successor to Apollo, whose cult was adopted much earlier, in the 5th century. BC e. But a new deity, highly revered in Rome, appeared - the two-faced Janus, one face of which was benevolent and open, the second - menacing and dark, one turned to the past, the other to the future. Janus was the deity of entrances and exits, depicted holding the keys of the New Year, which he unlocked with a hand with 365 fingers. Many gods with narrow functions also appeared: Veruactor(in charge of plowing), Repairer- updater, Apporciator- creating furrows, etc. There was also the god of the first child’s cry, the first spoken word, the weaning of a baby...

The Romans built temples Victory (Victoria), Luck (Fortune), Fear (Pavor), goddesses of strength (Valentia), Justice (Justitia), Loyalty (Fides), Consents (Concordia) . He played an unusual role in the Roman pantheon of gods. Genius, symbolizing inspiration and aspirations.

Roman culture also developed under the strong influence of Greece. literature. The first books on Latin turned out to be translations from Greek, the first Roman poet was a freed Greek slave Livy Andronicus, who created poetic translations of the Odyssey, Greek tragedies and comedies. He also wrote music and directed the choir. In Rome, choral singing gradually gave way to solo singing.

Can be considered a truly Roman writer Plautus(mid-III century - 184 BC), author of 130 comedies in rich Latin and with rich, rustic Roman humor. In them, heroes with Greek names transfer Roman realities to cities with Greek names. Comedies were also very popular Terence(c. 195-159).

By the 1st century BC e. refers to the emergence of Roman poetry. The master of lyric poetry was Catullus (c. 87-c. 54). A special place belongs to the philosophical work presented in poetic form “ About the nature of things", wherein Titus Lucretius Carus(1st half of the 1st century BC) expounds the teachings of Epicurus and gives new justifications for the atomistic theory. “Only in a ray of sunlight do numerous tiny specks of dust become visible to us, just as the light of reason illuminates atoms,” says the poem of Lucretius.

Poets brought glory to Roman literature Virgil(70-19 BC) - the poem “Aeneid”, Horace(65 BC - 8 AD), Ovid Nazon(43 BC - 18 AD), author of " Metamorphosis», Apuleius(b. 124 AD), author of The Golden Ass, Petronius(?-66 AD), Lucian(120-190).

The first prose work in Latin - labor Cato the Elder(243-149) "Oh agriculture" He then wrote the History of Rome. "The history of Rome from the founding of the city" traced Titus Livy(59 BC - 17 AD). Here, in particular, it is described how the first Romans, to replenish the female population of the city, captured Sabine women, who, as it turned out, were not too opposed to this. 30 curiae (tribal political associations of Rome) were named after them, and their sons began to be called patricians, that is, having fathers. Those born later were already plebeians- fatherlessness. In Rome the concept arose proletariat(from proles- having only offspring). The struggle between patricians and plebeians determined the history of Rome for a long time.

Significant works in the field historiography also created Pliny the Elder, Josephus, Tacitus(approx. 58 - approx. 117). Equally considered a Greek and Roman historian Plutarch(born in the 40s of the 1st century AD - died between 140-150), author " Comparative biographies“Alexander and Caesar, Demosthenes and Cicero, “Instructions” - “In State Affairs”, “To Spouses”, “On Talkativeness”, “On the Love of Money”, “On Curiosity”. The author of a unique historical-geographical-religious encyclopedia, “Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs” was Varro(116-27 BC).

Roman philosophy inherited to the greatest extent epicureanism And stoicism. The main representatives of the latter were Seneca(c. 4 BC - 65 AD), author of Moral Letters to Lucilius and Natural Scientific Questions, and philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius(121-180), author of the famous "Reflections". Those who lived before them can be fully classified as philosophers. Cicero(106-43), an outstanding statesman, lawyer, writer, famous speaker.

It should be noted that Roman philosophy, even in its most outstanding examples, at best followed the ancient Greek one, to some extent continued or revived some of its ideas (atomism, humanism), without, however, creating anything truly new. The explanation for this should be sought first of all in the clearly practical orientation Roman culture, emphatically dissociating itself from Greek contemplation, the abstract sophistication of Greek thinking. In this sense, the metamorphosis that the “Seven Liberal Arts” underwent in Rome is quite typical. If in the 1st century. All seven were preserved, with the addition of architecture and medicine, then the fine arts, “encouraging us to dream rather than act,” began to be mercilessly excluded. The motto of education became “benefit”, and rather in a narrowly practical sense - ensuring a military and political career. By the 5th century, even medicine and architecture were excluded from the list of major disciplines. Rhetorical debates, while outwardly retaining the Greek form, could make the theme the glorification of... flies. The main training became military, carried out in the legions. The profession of a teacher began to be considered even humiliating.

Rome came to this already in an era of inevitable crisis; during the heyday of the empire, great importance was attached to the state education system, and the idea of ​​higher education was substantiated.

An outstanding achievement of Roman culture was right. The oldest written code of Roman law, the “Laws of the 12 Tables,” arose already in the 5th century. BC e. (451-450). The slab with their text was destroyed during the Gauls' attack on Rome in 387 BC. e. Nevertheless, already in the 2nd century. BC e. Serious research in the field of jurisprudence appeared in the 1st century. BC e. There was a significant amount of legal literature. In the VI century. AD Roman law finally took shape in the form of " Code of Civil Law"(Corpus juris civilis), created under the Byzantine emperor JustiniansI. This universal and carefully developed code still underlies the most developed legal systems.

Practicality Roman culture found expression in the intensive development Sciences And technology. The centers of science were Rome, Athens, Alexandria, and Carthage. Serious research treatises appeared in the field of geography ( Strabo, Ptolemy), the body of knowledge in geography, botany, zoology, mineralography was “ Natural history» Pliny the Elder(23/24-79). He was a famous doctor Galen(130-200), who carried out experiments to study breathing, the activity of the brain and spinal cord. The geocentric system acquired unquestioned authority for centuries. Ptolemy.

Exceptional successes have been achieved in urban planning. Roman architects developed new design principles, widely using pillars, arches and vaults, already in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. began to be used concrete. Roman bridges and roads have survived to this day in many countries around the world. The poet was not exaggerating when he wrote that “the aqueduct built by the slaves of Rome has entered our days.” According to a technically advanced system aqueducts The purest water flowed by gravity to Rome. Rome today is one of the few cities in the world where you can drink water (cold and tasty) directly from the fountains installed everywhere in the city. The bottom of the Trevi Fountain is constantly littered with coins from tourists who want to believe that they will bring them to this amazing city again. There were public baths in Rome - baths.

Amazing and architecture The Eternal City. Rome is nothing like the others Italian cities- most of all because its architecture was originally designed to suppress man, to emphasize his insignificance. Even now it becomes uneasy in the arena and stands of the collapsed and dragged over the stones Colosseum. One can imagine what the slaves experienced who fought to the death in his arena, and what wild passions boiled in his stands. " Meal'n'Real“- that’s what the plebs needed, as Cicero noted. The Colosseum, meanwhile, accommodated 50 thousand spectators, much less than the 185 thousand that did not survive at all. Circus Maximus(Circus Maximus). Gladiator fights began to be practiced in Rome from 264 BC. e. as an imitation of Etruscan funeral rites with obligatory sacrifices, and only later turned into wild entertainment.

Simultaneously with the Colosseum (I-II centuries AD), a grandiose Pantheon, Temple of All Gods, the dome of which has a diameter of 43.5 m. Construction has reached a large scale triumphal arches And columns, impressive even with its ruins. Their construction pursued primarily political goals, emphasizing the power of Rome. Thus, the 30-meter column of Emperor Trajan was complemented by a spiral-shaped frieze 200 (!) meters long depicting his exploits. It is characteristic that he tried to revive architecture in a similar spirit in the twentieth century. leader of the Italian fascists B. Mussolini.

The winners of military campaigns were appointed by the Senate " triumph"(if more than 5 thousand enemy soldiers were destroyed). Emperor Titus Flavius ​​Vespassian(39-81), the conqueror of Judea and the destroyer of Jerusalem, was met by a crowd of 100 thousand enthusiastic Romans, and was awarded a triumph Julius Caesar. Triumphal processions headed towards Capitol- the cult center of Rome standing on a hill with the temple of the three gods. Following the senators were the military trophies triumphant, and after them the hero himself, dressed in purple and gold, with a laurel wreath on his head, followed on a chariot. Less impressive victories were noted " small triumph» - ovation.

Even sculpture And portrait, where Roman art reached true artistic heights, were most aimed at glorifying Rome and its outstanding citizens - generals, rulers, philosophers. The busts of Caesar and Cicero, the sculptural portraits “Brutus” and “Orator” are excellent in this way. The heritage of world culture are examples of Roman painting and mosaics, preserved under a multi-meter layer of ash in cities Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabia, who died in the eruption of Vesuvius in 76 AD. e.

A state that emphasizes conquest is doomed to destruction. At the end of the 2nd century AD. e. in Rome begins an all-encompassing and irresistible a crisis. Rapid technological growth was accompanied by an equally rapid moral decline. Furious orgies were a way of life not only for perverted despot rulers - Caligula, Nero, Sulla, but also the majority of patricians. Both the military and political power of Rome were shaken. After the death of Emperor Theodosius in 395, Rome disintegrated into Western(who fell already in 476) and Eastern, Byzantine empire that existed until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The heir to the first of them was proclaimed, already in 962, by the so-called Holy Roman Empire, led by the German king Otho I. To a greater extent, the successor of the ancient cultural tradition was Byzantium, which managed to instill her to Christian religion.

On the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, it is considered Etruscan, which preceded the Roman and had a great influence on it. In the 1st millennium BC. e. On the territory of Central and Northern Italy, the Etruscans created a federation of city-states. Stone walls and buildings, a clear layout of streets intersecting at right angles and oriented according to the cardinal points are characteristic features of their cities. The Etruscans were the first to build buildings with a domed vault, constructed from wedge-shaped beams.

Archaeological excavations have revealed numerous monuments of Etruscan culture: tombs with wall paintings, sarcophagi, funeral urns, weapons, jewelry, household utensils, terracotta and bronze sculpture. Ceramics also reached a high level - these were vessels “blackened” during firing and varnished, imitating metal products. Etruscan fine art is characterized by realism - the desire to convey the most essential features of a person. This is especially noticeable in the sculptural portraits of this era, completely alien to idealization. It was thanks to the Etruscan influence that the Roman portrait subsequently achieved such perfection.

During the excavations, about 10 thousand inscriptions were also found, but the Etruscan language, with the exception of only some words, has not yet been deciphered.

In the Etruscan religion, it was of great importance divination by the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, the interpretation of various signs - unusual phenomena nature. Pantheon of Gods mostly consistent with the Greek, but the Etruscans also worshiped a variety of good and evil demons.

In turn, the Etruscans influenced the neighboring Italic peoples, and in particular the Romans: Etruscan influence can be traced in the architecture, sculpture, and religion of Ancient Rome.

Culture of Rome during the royal period

The beginning of Roman history is traditionally dated to 753 BC. - the time of the founding of the city. First, tsarist period history covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC, by the end of it Rome had emerged as a city-state of the Greek type. According to legend, seven kings ruled in Rome, the last three of which were of Etruscan origin. Under them, the city was surrounded by a stone wall, sewerage was installed, and the first circus for gladiatorial games was built. From the Etruscans, the Romans inherited craft and construction equipment, writing, so-called Roman numerals, and fortune telling by the flight of birds and the entrails of animals. The attire of the Romans - the toga, the architecture of the house with an atrium - were also borrowed.

patio, etc.

Early Roman religion was animistic, i.e. recognized the existence of all kinds of spirits, it also had elements of totemism, which were reflected, in particular, in the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who nursed the brothers Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city. However, gradually, under the influence of the Etruscans, who, like the Greeks, represented gods in human form, the Romans switched to anthropomorphism. The first temple in Rome - the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill - was built by Etruscan craftsmen.

Culture of Rome during the Republic

According to legend, Etruscan rule in Rome ended in 510 BC. - the rebel people overthrew the last king Tarquinia the Proud(534/533 - 510/509 BC). Rome becomes an aristocratic slave-owning republic. Early Republic period covers VI-III centuries. BC e., at this time Rome managed to subjugate the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula.

The conquest of the Greek cities of Southern Italy played a major role in the development of early Roman culture, which accelerated the introduction of the Romans to a higher Greek culture. In the 4th century. BC, mainly among the upper strata of Roman society, begin to spread Greek language, some Greek customs, in particular, shaving the beard and short haircut hair. At the same time, the old Etruscan alphabet was replaced by Greek, more suitable to the sounds of the Latin language. At the same time, a copper coin based on the Greek model was introduced.

The formation of a civil community and a republican system is associated with the emergence oratory. Speeches by senators in the Senate officials in comitia (people's assemblies) they required knowledge and the art of convincing listeners.

By the 4th century. BC. refers to the origin of theater in Rome - following the example of the Etruscans, stage games were introduced, performed by professional artists (it was in Rome that the word actor appeared).

Roman culture of the late Republican era was a combination of many principles (Etruscan, primordially Roman, Italic, Greek), which determined its eclecticism.

Since the 3rd century. BC, the Greek religion began to have a particularly great influence on the Roman religion. Roman gods are identified with the Greek: Jupiter - with Zeus, Neptune - with Poseidon, Pluto - with Hades, Mars - with Ares, Juno - with Hera, Minerva - with Athena, Ceres - with Demeter, Venus - with Aphrodite, Vulcan - with Hephaestus , Mercury - with Hermes, Diana - with Artemis, etc. The cult of Apollo was borrowed back in the 5th century. BC, there was no analogue to it in the Roman religion. One of the revered purely Italian deities was Janus, depicted with two faces as the deity of entry and exit, of all beginnings. The household gods were of ancient Italian origin - Lara, Genii, Penatya. It should be noted that the Roman pantheon was never closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. It was believed that the new gods strengthened the power of the Romans.

The first Roman poet was a Greek Livy Andronicus, who translated Greek tragedies and comedies, Homer's Odyssey into Latin. His translations were very free, they allowed for the inclusion of new passages, changes in names, etc. The largest Roman writer of the late 3rd - early 2nd centuries. BC - Plautus (mid 3rd century - 184 BC). His comedies reflect Roman realities, although the heroes wear greek names, and the action takes place in Greek cities. Somewhat later he wrote his comedies Terence(c. 125-159 BC), who, unlike Plautus, tried not to use Roman stories and limited himself to retelling Greek authors, especially Menander.

Roman poetry rose to a new, higher level in the 1st century. BC e. Among the many poets of that time, Lucretius and Catullus should be noted. Lucretius (1st half of the 1st century BC) belongs to philosophical poem"On the Nature of Things", expounding the teachings of Epicurus. Catullus (c. 87-54 BC) was a master of lyric poetry; he wrote short poems that describe various human feelings.

First prose work in Latin there was labor Katana Elder(234-149 BC) "On Agriculture." The most outstanding late republican writers and masters of prose were Varro And Cicero. The main work of Varro (116-27 BC) “Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs” is a kind of historical, geographical and religious encyclopedia. He also wrote numerous grammatical, historical and literary works, biographies of the most notable citizens, philosophical works. Cicero (106-43 BC) was outstanding statesman, an excellent speaker, lawyer, expert in philosophy, and a wonderful writer.

Roman architecture was strongly influenced by Etruscan and especially Greek. In their buildings, the Romans sought to emphasize strength, power, greatness, overwhelming man; they were characterized by monumentality, lush decoration of buildings, a lot of decorations, the desire for strict symmetry, interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation primarily not of temple complexes, but of buildings and structures for practical needs.

Roman architects developed new design principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns they used pillars and pilasters. In the II-I centuries. BC. Concrete and vaulted structures are beginning to be widely used. New types of buildings are emerging, e.g. basilicas, where trade transactions were carried out and justice was held, amphitheaters, where gladiator fights and circuses were held, where chariot competitions took place, baths- a complex complex of bathhouses, libraries, places for games, for walks, surrounded by a park. Arises new type monumental structure - Triumphal Arch, which was erected to commemorate another successful military campaign and the commander who led it. Most

famous commanders began to be called emperors.

The conquest of Greece and the Hellenistic states was accompanied by the plunder of cities. A large influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying slowed down the flowering of Roman sculpture itself. Only in the field of realistic portrait did the Romans, using Etruscan traditions, make their contribution to the development of sculpture; it was portrait statues that gained dominant importance, and it was in them that the originality of Roman art was manifested. The Romans created the “togatus” type of statue, depicting an orator in a toga, and busts, distinguished by their stern simplicity and refined truthfulness of images. In the II-I centuries. BC e. such excellent works as “Brutus”, “Orator”, busts of Cicero and Caesar were created.

Characteristic feature the thinking of the Romans was practicality, love for applied sciences. For example, it reached a high level in Rome agronomy(agricultural treatises by Cato and Varro are known), the Roman architect Vitruvius (2nd half of the 1st century BC) wrote a treatise “On Architecture”. Guides for rhetoric, which laid out the ground rules

In the 4th century. AD Christian churches - basilicas - begin to be built. Their shape and name were borrowed from earlier ancient basilicas, which were administrative and judicial buildings. Along with basilicas, in early Christian times religious buildings of a centric type were built, in which they found their further development ancient traditions of the round temple.

New artistic features appear most clearly in Christian painting. In the paintings of the catacombs, the clarity of the scene and understanding of the content become more important than the proportional development of figures and respect for scale.

The Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as Byzantine Empire, whose culture became a continuation of the Greek, but in a Christian version. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476 when the last emperor was deposed. This year is traditionally considered the end of the Ancient World, antiquity, and the beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins of the Western Roman Empire, the so-called barbarian kingdoms arose, the population of which was, to one degree or another, introduced to the Greco-Roman culture, which had a great influence on the development of these states.

Roman culture largely continued the Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.

Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.

The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as it was disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, and idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then stopped performing them altogether, leaving only the pantheon we are familiar with. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion acquired more harmonious outlines, and the gods have long become mythology. The religions of Ancient Rome originated in totemism (the legend about the founders of Rome - Romulus and Remus). The Pantheon of the Gods of Rome, as well as rituals for the most part borrowed from the Greeks. Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Demeter - Ceres, etc. Cult of Jupiter (temple on Capitol Hill). The Romans revered such deities as Peace, Hope, Valor, Justice, which did not possess the traits of living individuals. In honor of such gods, temples were built and sacrifices were made. Mythology did not develop.

The Romans are also famous for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. Just look at the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the work of these scientists, the first philosophical problems, many of which are still unresolved.

In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved particular success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livy; in literature - Livy Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valerius Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Naso, Plutarch. It is also necessary to remember about Roman law, which is used throughout Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.

A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for ordinary people was the circus, where gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with thrilling battle scenes, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.

A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome cannot even describe half of what was being built in the then city-state.

The Etruscans and Hellenes left their rich heritage to the Romans, from which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the structures were for public purposes - aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.

But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, we can add to this the rapid flourishing of portraits depicted in stone - the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.

The culture of Ancient Rome existed since the 8th century. BC e. and until 476 AD. e. Unlike the ancient Greek culture, which, as a rule, is awarded the highest words and assessments, the ancient Roman culture is assessed differently by everyone. Some famous cultural scientists (O. Spengler, A. Toynbee) believed that Rome did not go beyond borrowing and popularizing what was done by the Greeks, and never rose to the heights of Hellenic culture. More justified, however, is the view that Roman culture and civilization are no less original and original than others.

Roman civilization became the last page in the history of ancient culture. Geographically, it arose on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, receiving the name Italy from the Greeks. Subsequently, Rome gathered into an immense empire those countries that arose as a result of the collapse of the power of Alexander the Great, subjugating almost the entire Mediterranean. The consequence of this was centuries-long wars with neighbors, in which several generations of Roman citizens participated in a row.

Late Roman legends linked the founding of Rome with Trojan War. They reported that after the destruction of Troy (Asia Minor, the territory of modern Turkey), some Trojans, led by King Aeneas, fled to Italy. Aeneas founded a city there. Another legend says that the king was overthrown by his brother. The new king, fearing revenge from the children and grandchildren of Aeneas, forced his daughter Silvia to become a vestal (priestess of the goddess Vesta), who took a vow of celibacy. But Sylvia had twin sons from the god Mars - Romulus and Remus. Their uncle ordered the boys to be thrown into the river. Tiber However, a wave threw the twins ashore, where they were suckled by a she-wolf. Then they were raised by a shepherd, and when they grew up and learned about their origins, they killed their treacherous uncle, returned royal power to their grandfather and founded a city on the Palatine Hill on the banks of the Tiber. By lot, the city received its name from Romulus. Later, a quarrel arose between the brothers, as a result of which Romulus killed Remus. Romulus became the first Roman king, divided the citizens into patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (common people), and created an army. The Romans considered the founding day of Rome to be April 21, 753 BC. e., it was from him that the Romans based their chronology.

In fact, the name "Romulus" was derived from the name of the city, and not vice versa. The territory of the Apennine Peninsula from 2 thousand BC. e. was inhabited by Indo-European tribes who came from Central Europe(Italics, Sabines, Latins, etc.), later the Etruscans (Rasens, Tusci) came to the area of ​​​​modern Italian Tuscany - a tribe of non-European origin, disputes about the origin of which are still ongoing. It was the Etruscans (from the north) and the Greeks (who settled the southern part of Italy and Sicily) who had the most powerful influence on the development of Roman culture. The Etruscans were both experienced farmers and skilled artisans. It was from them that the Romans inherited craft and construction equipment, writing, “Roman” numerals, toga clothing, and much more. etc. (it is typical that even “ Capitoline wolf", which, according to legend, nurtured Romulus and Remus and was a symbol of Rome, was a work of Etruscan craftsmen, exported as a war trophy).

There are 2 periods in the culture of Rome:

• 1) culture of tsarist and republican times (from the founding of Rome in the 8th century BC to 30 BC);
• 2) the culture of imperial Rome (from 30 BC to 476 AD).

Unlike the ancient Greeks, mythology did not become the basis for the development and flourishing of Roman culture. The ancient Romans had a custom of luring the gods of hostile tribes with the help of a certain formula and establishing a cult for them. Thus, many gods of the Italian and Etruscan cities moved to Rome, and later - the anthropomorphic gods of the ancient Greeks, whom the Romans renamed, preserving their functions: thus Zeus became Jupiter, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Poseidon - Neptune, Hermes - Mercury, Hera - Juno, Athena - Minerva, Dionysus - Bacchus, etc. The original Roman gods indicated in the priestly books were the deities of sowing, seed growth, flowering, ripening, harvest, marriage, the first cry of a child, etc. The Romans also believed in souls the dead who patronize their family (manas), into unburied souls that cannot find peace for themselves (larvas or lemurs), into deities guarding home and family (lares), into guardians of the hearth (penates). The guardian of a person, shaping his character and accompanying him throughout his life, was the Genius, to whom the birthday of a Roman citizen was dedicated. Cities, communities, and families had their own patron Genius. The most ancient Italian god, who hosted the overthrown Saturn, the father of Jupiter, the god of farmers and the harvest, was considered Janus. He was portrayed as two-faced.

The Romans treated their gods with disinterestedness. But the main thing for every Roman was not the gods, but historical legends and legends that were formed during the formation of Roman statehood.

WITH early years Roman citizens were instilled with the ideas of concor - consent, internal unity, legality developed during the development of Roman law, and its patroness - the goddess of Justice, loyalty to the morals of their ancestors, valor. Real historical figures early Rome became role models. Thus history became myth, and myth became history.

In the first period of Roman history and culture - the era of the reign of seven kings (Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Gastilius, Ancus Marcius, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud) there was a transition from a primitive communal system to an early class society. In 510 BC. e., after the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, Rome became a city-state (civitas), ruled by a Senate of 300 people, a popular assembly (comitia), led by two consuls elected for a term of 1 year.

Formed in 510 BC. e. The aristocratic slave-owning Roman Republic lasted until the 30s. n. e. Then came the period of empire, ending with the fall of the “eternal city” in 476 AD. e.

The Romans were in many ways similar to the Hellenes, but at the same time they were significantly different from them. They created their own system of ideals and values, the main ones among which were patriotism, honor and dignity, loyalty to civic duty, veneration of the gods, the idea of ​​​​the special chosenness of the Roman people by God, of Rome as the highest value, etc. The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of the free individual, allowing violation of established laws of society. On the contrary, they in every possible way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. For them, public interests were higher than the interests of the individual. At the same time, the Romans strengthened the antagonism between the freeborn citizen and the slave, considering not only the practice of a craft unworthy of the former, but also the activity of a sculptor, painter, actor or playwright. The most worthy occupations of a free Roman were considered politics, war, development of law, historiography, and agriculture. The Romans, in their own way and more clearly defined the qualities of a free person, excluding from them such “slave vices” as lies, dishonesty and flattery. Rome reached the highest level of development of slavery.

One of the highest virtues of the Romans was military valor. Military spoils and conquests served as the main source of subsistence. Military valor, feats of arms and merit were the main means and basis for success in politics, for obtaining high positions and occupying a high position in society.

Thanks to the wars of conquest, Rome grew from a small town into a world empire.

A real revolution in the cultural life of the Roman Empire occurred by the 1st century BC. e. after the conquest of Hellenistic Greece. The Romans begin to study Greek, philosophy and literature; they invite famous Greek orators and philosophers, and they themselves go to the Greek city-states to join the culture that they secretly worshiped. It should be noted, however, that unlike Greek, Roman culture is much more rational, pragmatic, aimed at practical benefit and expediency. This feature was well demonstrated by Cicero using the example of mathematics: “The Greeks studied geometry in order to understand the world, while the Romans studied geometry in order to measure plots of land.”

Greek and Roman cultures were in a state of strong interaction and mutual influence, which ultimately led to their synthesis, to the creation of a single Greco-Roman culture, which later formed the basis of Byzantine culture and had a huge influence on the cultures of the Slavic peoples and Western Europe.

In Roman art during its heyday, architecture played a leading role, the monuments of which, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The basic principles of Roman architecture were used during the Renaissance and remain relevant today. Its significant difference from the Greek was its focus not on the order system, but on the widespread use of arches, domed and vaulted ceilings in construction, as well as the creation of structures that were round in plan. On the basis of arched structures, viaducts were built for the movement of pedestrians, carts and troops, and aqueducts that supplied cities with water from sources sometimes located tens of kilometers away.

The Romans started new era world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings designed for huge quantities of people. In everything ancient world Roman architecture is unparalleled in height engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into the urban and rural landscape. This happened thanks to the discovery of a completely new building material- concrete. First, 2 parallel brick walls were erected, the space between which was filled with alternating layers of gravel and sand. When the mass of concrete hardened, it formed a solid monolith with the walls. The Romans used stone block or marble slab cladding rather than building with these materials like the Greeks. The most gigantic spectacular building of Ancient Rome is the Colosseum (75-80 AD), in its amphitheater (it differed from the theater in that it had a closed oval plan with rows of seats around the arena, gradually rising and surrounded on the outside by a powerful ring wall ) could simultaneously accommodate 50 thousand spectators. Until 405, gladiator fights were held in the Colosseum.

Spectacles were very important in the life of the Romans. great place. Roman architects turned to those types of public buildings that most fully embodied the ideas of the power of the state and imperial power: forums (from the Latin “fora” - city center), triumphal arches, basilicas, circuses, baths, amphitheaters. During the imperial period, each of the emperors, following the example of Julius Caesar, built his own forum, decorated with triumphal arches, memorial columns and monuments glorifying the deeds of the emperor. The ensemble of the forum also included churches and libraries, and areas for public meetings. New types of housing were also created: villas (country houses for patricians), domus (city houses for rich Romans), insula (multi-story houses for the Roman poor).

One of the most visited places in Rome, especially during the Roman Empire, were the baths. This is a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens, stadiums, walking alleys, libraries; Works of art were exhibited in the baths, and rhetoricians and poets performed. Of the 11 baths of imperial Rome, the baths of the emperors Titus and Caracalla became famous for their luxury, wall paintings and mosaics.

The achievements of the Roman artistic genius were great in the field of sculptural portrait, originating from the Etruscans, who had an image of the head of the deceased covering an urn with ashes (canopus), as well as from wax masks of the dead Romans. Unlike the Greeks, who strived for typification, Roman sculptors try not to flatter their models even when they create perfect image, accurately conveying the most remarkable features appearance. It was the Roman portrait that laid the foundation for European sculptural portraiture.

Roman science was of an applied nature. The greatest scientists of the era of the Roman Empire were the Greeks Ptolemy, Menelaus of Alexandria, Galen, Diophantus. A unique encyclopedia that summarized natural scientific knowledge about the world and man was the huge work of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) “Natural History” in 37 books.

One of the most striking and significant pages of world history and culture is Roman law. On the one hand, it placed the interests of the individual owner at the center of legal relations, and on the other, it developed a value basis for the legal order, the content of which was:

• - justice, equality;
• - expediency;
• - conscientiousness;
• - good morals.

Roman law was characterized exact wording, it reaches perfect legal forms, its decisions are justified, and terms and concepts form the basis of modern jurisprudence. The analysis of cases from ancient Roman legal practice today contributes to the development of legal thinking, sharpens the arguments for and against, and systematizes logical generalizations.

In the 1st century. BC e. in Rome, rhetoric, or the art of political and judicial eloquence, is developing powerfully, which was a consequence of reflecting the stormy social life transitional era from Republic to Empire. Achieving authority in society and a successful political career were impossible without mastery of the living word.

Rhetoric becomes a stepping stone towards entry into the Roman elite. The most brilliant orator of Rome was Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC). Being also a subtle connoisseur philosophy, he did a lot to introduce the Romans to the classical Greek philosophy of Plato and the Stoics.

The population of the empire was characterized by a high level of literacy. The school education and upbringing system included 3 levels - primary, secondary and higher. Graduates of the highest level were prepared for state, practical and cultural activities. Higher education began to emerge.

The development of Roman literature went through several stages. During the Tsarist and partly Republican periods literary creativity existed in the form of cult chants, tribal epics, primitive drama, and legal texts. The first known Roman writer whose name has come down to us was Appius Claudius Caecus (c. 300 BC). Livy Andronicus, a Greek slave and freedman (late 3rd century BC), translated the Odyssey and thereby laid the foundation for the creation of Roman literature based on the Greek model. Dramaturgy later achieved noticeable development (the comedies of Plautus and Terence). Cato the Elder is considered the first Roman prose writer, who wrote in Latin the history of Rome and the Italic tribes. Cicero, with his writing and oratory, opened the era that is commonly called the era of “Golden Latin.” During the time of the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus (1st century BC), the flowering of literature, called the “golden age of Roman poetry,” was associated with the names of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, and Petronius. Virgil's famous poem "Aeneid" about the mythical divine ancestor of the Roman aristocracy and Augustus himself (King Aeneas) exalted the special historical mission of Rome, glorified the Roman spirit and Roman art. Compared to Greek samples the works of Roman authors were distinguished by greater drama and a more sober analysis of reality.

At the end of the 2nd century. n. e. a crisis began in the Roman Empire: frequent changes of emperors, separation of provinces, the emergence of various parts empires of independent rulers. From the 1st century n. e. In the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (in Palestine), the spread of Christian ideas began, proclaiming the equality of all before God, which was essential for the consolidation of a society torn apart by contradictions. The emergence of a new myth about the possibility of universal achievement of the kingdom of God on earth and the idea of ​​rewarding the suffering and disadvantaged with happiness in the kingdom of heaven became very attractive, especially for the lower social strata of Rome. Christianity adopted many elements of Eastern cults and religions, and also included achievements in its ideology Hellenistic philosophy. Christianity, cruelly persecuted and persecuted at first, gradually captured the Roman aristocracy and intelligentsia with its ideas, and in the 4th century. AD became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

From 410 to 476 Rome was destroyed by barbarians - Goths, Vandals, Franks, Huns, Germans, etc. The eastern part of the Roman Empire (Byzantium) existed for another thousand years, and the western part, having died, became the foundation for the culture of the emerging Western European states.

Greco-Roman antiquity (9th century BC - 5th century AD) left the following achievements as a legacy to world culture:

the richest myth-making;

experience of a democratic structure of society;

Roman legal system;

timeless works of art;

laws of truth, goodness and beauty;

variety of philosophical ideas;

acquiring the Christian faith.

Personalities: Herodotus, Aesop, Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, A. Macedonian, J. Caesar.

Test tasks

• 1. Consider the differences between Greek and Roman architecture.
• 2. Why is Greek culture called the “culture of philosophers” and Roman culture “the culture of rhetoricians”?
• 3. List the 7 wonders of the world as imagined by ancient society.
• 4. Name outstanding figures of literature and science of ancient Greek culture, accompany your story with characteristics of their works.
• 5. Name the outstanding figures of literature and science of Roman civilization, accompany the story with characteristics of their creations.
• 6. Prepare a presentation on any aspect of the topic.
• 7. What made the “Greek miracle” possible? State your version.