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Grammatical meaning - part of the meaning (content) of a word or sentence that receives a mandatory formal expression as part of the word or sentence.

There are two types of meanings of linguistic units in a language: lexical and grammatical. The lexical meaning of a word is the subject of vocabulary, and the grammatical meaning is the subject of grammar. Lexical meaning is the specific, objective meaning of a word. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that this is a reflection of a fragment of the surrounding world in a word (see Lexical meaning of the word).

The difference between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning is to a greater extent the abstractness of the latter, in its obligatory and regular, fairly standard formal expression in language. The grammatical meaning is more abstract: it does not name objects, signs, actions, etc., but classifies words, combines them into groups according to certain characteristics, and connects words in syntactic constructions. Grammatical abstraction is an abstraction from a specific meaning, the isolation of grammatical features and relationships that characterize an entire class of words. Each part of speech is characterized by a specific set of grammatical meanings. For example, a noun has the meaning of gender, number and case, a verb has the meaning of tense, mood, etc.

Grammatical meanings are obligatory in a language: this means that they are expressed in a word or sentence without fail, regardless of the desire of the speaker. For example, when reporting an event, a Russian speaker must note whether the event is happening now, whether it happened earlier, or whether it can only happen in the future, i.e., indicate the tense of the verb. A noun must be masculine, feminine or neuter, has a number and case form, etc.

Grammatical meaning is always formally expressed in the composition of a word or sentence. The ways of expressing grammatical meaning can be different.

1. In Russian, grammatical meanings are most often expressed using endings (inflections): cat - cats (number), cat - cat (case), I go - you go (person), etc.

2. Sometimes grammatical meaning can be expressed by alternating sounds: call - call (category of aspect), run - run (category of mood).

3. Grammatical meanings can also be expressed using stress: cut - cut (meaning type).

4. Grammatical meanings can be expressed by combining forms from different bases: person - people (number category), I - me (case category).

5. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by repeating the word: kind-kind ( superlative adjective).

6. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by functional words: I will read (the meaning of the future tense), I would read (the meaning of the subjunctive mood).

7. Grammatical meaning can be expressed using the order of words in a sentence: a mother loves her daughter, a chair scratches the table (subject-object relationships are formalized by subject and object).

8. Grammatical meaning can be expressed using intonation: He came. He came?

Grammatical meaning has standard and regular means of expression, that is, in most cases, homogeneous grammatical meanings are expressed by the same (standard) morphemes. For example, instrumental case nouns of the 1st declension are represented by the -th ending(s): girl, bird, dad, young man, etc., and the instrumental case of nouns of the 2nd declension is represented by the -th ending(s): boy, hammer, field and etc. Grammatical meaning is expressed, as a rule, regularly, that is, it forms paradigms - patterns of inflection into which you can substitute any word of the same grammatical characteristic and get the correct form (see Paradigm). That's why grammatical system is easily structured and can be presented in the form of tables (for example, tables of noun declension or verb conjugation).

Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.

For example, the word "iceberg" means " large cluster ice or a large block of ice that has come off a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” ( girl's braid), and also - “a bank near a river of a special shape” (went for a swim on a spit) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (sharpen a scythe well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.

If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.

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At morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of a given part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

  • - table of forms of participles.

Instructions

Try putting the full participle into a short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles short form Dont Have. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, "breakable", "readable", etc. In similar cases a short form exists, but belongs rather to the archaic style.

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note

Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or condition is a permanent feature of this subject. These can be either active or passive participles - walking excavator, canned peas etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.

Helpful advice

Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.

The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. In the first line write “Signs”, “Active participle”, “Passive participle”. The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, presence or absence of a short form.

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  • what is the type of participles in 2019

A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.

Instructions

The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendships and inclinations should be. romantic relationship. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.

According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.

Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.

It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.

You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.

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  • how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun ending dependent word(for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, past tense). In words Slavic origin and borrowed ones have to be guided by completely different criteria.

You will need

  • - Internet access;
  • - manuals on the Russian language.

Instructions

Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). The neuter gender ends in “o”, “e”, but there is a group of differently inflected neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.

Lexical meaning, that is inner meaning, not all words possess, but only those that can express concepts. Such words are called full-meaning or independent. From a grammatical point of view, these include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns.

Functional words, modal words and interjections do not designate concepts, and they are not related to objects of reality. These words special meanings: they express attitudes and feelings towards something: unconditionally, fortunately, etc. The basis of the lexical meaning, which only full-valued words have, is a concept, but there is no equality between the lexical meaning and the concept. A concept is a copy of the object of reality in our thinking. There is always one concept in a word, but there can be several meanings. For example, the concept green can have the following meanings:

Green pencil (color characteristic);
Green fruit (degree of ripening, compare: ripe fruit);
Green face (characteristic of ill health, degree of fatigue);
Green age (degree of social maturity).

Only if the word is a term does the concept coincide with the meaning. For example: suffix, root, phoneme, etc. The main difference between concept and meaning is that concept is a copy, an exact designation, and meaning always includes emotional and expressive coloring (modality). For example: the word sun - there is a diminutive connotation here; The word grandma has a disparaging connotation. There cannot be these shades in the concept (compare: the use of the words morpheme, phoneme is illiterate).

Any word also has a grammatical meaning. Grammatical meanings complement lexical meanings and reflect the belonging of a word to a certain grammatical category. Grammatical categories are the meanings of gender, number, case, declension, voice, aspect, etc. Grammatical meanings help classify Russian vocabulary. For example, the words airplane, school, walking have nothing in common in terms of lexical meaning, that is, content, but their grammatical meanings are the same and allow them to be classified as nouns in the form singular, nominative case.

Not a single word in the Russian language remains without a grammatical meaning. Lexical meanings in all languages ​​are formed in exactly the same way (subject -> concept -> sound shell -> name). Grammatical meanings are formed differently in different languages. That's why there are 6 cases in Russian, in German- 4 cases, and in French and English languages they don't exist at all. The carrier of lexical meaning is the stem of the word. For example: tall, height. The grammatical meaning is expressed using endings, suffixes, prefixes, stress, and auxiliary words. For example, in the word side the ending -a shows that it is a noun female, singular, nominative case, 1st declension. When the lexical meaning changes, the grammatical meaning of the word also changes. This is especially noticeable when transitioning from one part of speech to another (on horseback, around, dining room - these words now have different grammatical meanings than before).

Thus, a word that represents the unity of form and content, that is, the unity of the sound shell and meaning, thereby represents the unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. Each word, naming this or that object or phenomenon, always communicates. For example: Pluck this flower for me. The word flower performs two functions in this sentence: it denotes a specific object that I need at this moment, and it denotes an object in general, that is, an object with some specific characteristics, thanks to which a person recognizes it among other objects. Thus, each word performs two functions in the language.

Grammatical meaning.

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.

Grammatical categories of words

      Grammar as a science.

Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, a morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of a language. Grammar is the science that studies regular and common features devices of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of changing words and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing a statement. According to the duality of the object, traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form refers to morphology. All phenomena related to the syntagmatics of a word, as well as the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and intertwining, so that the attribution of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the categories of case, voice).

The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of a language, therefore grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of a language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.

Vladimir Aleksandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: just fragments

in reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying glass

glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive

“deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.

Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field

magnifying glass vision; this is the most important for the user

given linguistic system of meaning.

2.Grammatical meaning.

The focus of grammar is on grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a series of words or syntactic structures, which finds its regular and typified 3) expression in the language. For example, in the sentence Petrov - student The following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:

    the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)

    the meaning of the fact being related to the present tense (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)

    singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a series of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),

as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of a fact, male).

The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:

    information about the part of speech to which the word belongs

    information about the syntagmatic connections of the word

    information about the paradigmatic connections of the word.

Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glokka kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curls the bokrenka. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the entire complex of grammatical meanings. For example, it is clear to the listener which parts of speech all the words of this phrase belong to, what between budlanula And bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, and the other actually continues in the present.

The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:

    generality

    obligatory: if nouns, for example, have the meaning of number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.

    Prevalence over a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in the Russian language express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.

    Closedness of the list: if the lexical system of each language is open in nature and is constantly replenished with new units and new meanings, then grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, for Russian nouns these are the meanings of gender, number and case.

    Typical expression: grammatical meanings are conveyed in languages ​​in strictly defined ways - using specially assigned means: affixes, function words, etc.

Languages ​​differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings. Thus, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but ungrammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages ​​a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of definiteness/indeterminacy is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages ​​and ungrammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.

3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning

The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of particular varieties.

The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:

    affixation (use of various types of affixes: going - going);

    reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - white in the Hausa language in Africa);

    internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feet in English);

    suppletivism (combining words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (Idu - Shel)

The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically unchangeable lexical units and service elements (function words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let him go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a auxiliary element.

Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages ​​are distinguished: a synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and an analytical type (in which the tendency towards analytism predominates). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance of a tendency towards analyticism or synthetism in a language. In synthetic languages, a word retains its grammatical characteristics outside of a sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires grammatical characteristics only in a sentence.

Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of contrasting one linguistic unit with another. Thus, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical oppositions or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, function words, intonation, etc.) In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for meanings to be contrasted on some basis, they must also have some common feature. Thus, the present tense can be contrasted with the past and future, since they all relate to the sequence of events being described. In this regard, we can give another definition of a grammatical category: it is a unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in a language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), particular grammatical meanings (for example, present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammemes, and means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)

Classification of grammatical categories

      by the number of opposing members. There are two-term categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-term (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammemes there are in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationships between them, the more features there are in the content of each grammeme.

      Formative and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong various forms the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot be changed according to the classifying criterion. For example, the category of gender for nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine gender; but bed, beds, bed is feminine. However, the gender of a noun is important from a grammatical point of view, since the forms of agreeing adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: the big table, this table, the table stood; but: there was a bed, a large bed.

      By the nature of the transmitted values

    Objective (reflect real connections and relations that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)

    Subjective-objective (reflect the angle from which reality is viewed, for example, the voice of a verb: workers are building a house - a house is being built by workers)

    Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate the connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or inanimate nouns)

5. Grammatical categories of words

It is necessary to distinguish grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. In the lexico-grammatical category such a system of forms is not traced. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.

    A semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and influence the grammatical features of words in this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within parts of speech, smaller groups are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.

    Formal categories differ in the way the grammatical forms of the words included in them are formed. These are groupings of words by type of conjugation (conjugative classes), by type of declension (declination classes). In principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition between formal categories: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.

Grammatical meaning

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses different relationships(relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the speaker’s relationship to what is being reported, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);

c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values ​​of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).


Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

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