Analysis of the work The Noble Nest of Turgenev. Course work Typological and individual features in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “The Noble Nest”

The Slavic group of languages is a major branch of the Indo-European languages, since the Slavs are the largest group of people in Europe united by similar speech and culture. More than 400 million people use them.

General information

The Slavic group of languages is a branch of the Indo-European languages used in most of the Balkans, some Central Europe and northern Asia. It is most closely related to the Baltic languages (Lithuanian, Latvian and the extinct Old Prussian). Languages belonging to the Slavic group originated from the Central and of Eastern Europe(Poland, Ukraine) and spread to the rest of the above territories.

Classification

There are three groups: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic branches.

In contrast to the clearly divergent literary, linguistic boundaries are not always obvious. There are transitional dialects connecting different languages, except in the area where the South Slavs are separated from other Slavs by Romanians, Hungarians and German-speaking Austrians. But even in these isolated areas there are some remnants of the old dialectal continuity (for example, the similarity between Russian and Bulgarian).

It should therefore be noted that the traditional classification into three separate branches should not be considered as a true model of historical development. It is more correct to imagine it as a process in which differentiation and reintegration of dialects constantly took place, as a result of which the Slavic group of languages has a striking homogeneity throughout the territory of its distribution. Centuries of journey different nations intersected, and their cultures mixed.

Differences

But it would still be an exaggeration to assume that communication between any two speakers of different Slavic languages is possible without any linguistic difficulties. Many differences in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary can cause misunderstandings even in a simple conversation, not to mention difficulties in journalistic, technical and artistic speech. Thus, the Russian word “green” is recognizable to all Slavs, but “red” means “beautiful” in other languages. Suknja is “skirt” in Serbo-Croatian, “coat” in Slovenian, a similar expression “suknya” is “dress” in Ukrainian.

Eastern group of Slavic languages

It includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Russian is the native language of nearly 160 million people, including many residents of countries that were part of the former Soviet Union. Its main dialects are northern, southern and transitional central group. It also includes the Moscow dialect, on which the literary language is based. In total, about 260 million people speak Russian in the world.

In addition to the “great and mighty”, the Eastern Slavic group of languages includes two more large languages.

Ukrainian, which is divided into northern, southwestern, southeastern and Carpathian dialects. Literary form based on the Kiev-Poltava dialect. More than 37 million people speak Ukrainian in Ukraine and neighboring countries, and more than 350,000 people speak the language in Canada and the United States. This is explained by the presence of a large ethnic community of migrants who left the country at the end of the 19th century. The Carpathian dialect, which is also called Carpatho-Rusyn, is sometimes considered a separate language.
Belarusian is spoken by about seven million people in Belarus. Its main dialects are: southwestern, some features of which can be explained by its proximity to Polish lands, and northern. The Minsk dialect, which serves as the basis for the literary language, lies on the border of these two groups.

West Slavic branch

It includes Polish and other Lechitic (Kashubian and its extinct variant Slovinian), Lusatian and Czechoslovak dialects. This Slavic group is also quite common. More than 40 million people speak Polish not only in Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe (particularly Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Belarus), but also in France, the USA and Canada. It is also divided into several subgroups.

Polish dialects

The main ones are northwestern, southeastern, Silesian and Masovian. The Kashubian dialect is considered part of the Pomeranian languages, which, like Polish, are classified as Lechitic. Its speakers live west of Gdansk and on the Baltic Sea coast.

The extinct Slovinian dialect belonged to the northern group of Kashubian dialects, which differs from the southern one. Another unused Lechitic language is Polabian, which was spoken in the 17th and 18th centuries. Slavs who lived in the Elbe River area.

Its name is Serbian, which is still spoken by the people of Lusatia in East Germany. It has two literary (used in Bautzen and the surrounding area) and Lower Sorbian (common in Cottbus).

Czechoslovakian group of languages

It includes:

Czech, spoken by approximately 12 million people in the Czech Republic. His dialects are Bohemian, Moravian and Silesian. The literary language was formed in the 16th century in Central Bohemia on the basis of the Prague dialect.
Slovak, it is used by about 6 million people, the majority are residents of Slovakia. Literary speech was formed on the basis of the dialect of Central Slovakia in mid-19th century. Western Slovak dialects are similar to Moravian and differ from central and eastern ones, which share features with Polish and Ukrainian.

South Slavic group of languages

Among the three main ones, it is the smallest in terms of the number of native speakers. But this is an interesting group of Slavic languages, the list of which, as well as their dialects, is very extensive.

They are classified as follows:

1. Eastern subgroup. These include:

2. Western subgroup:

Serbo-Croatian language - about 20 million people use it. The basis for the literary version was the Shtokavian dialect, which is widespread in most of the Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian and Montenegrin territories.
Slovene is a language spoken by more than 2.2 million people in Slovenia and surrounding areas of Italy and Austria. It shares some common features with the dialects of Croatia and includes many dialects with large differences between them. In Slovenian (in particular its western and northwestern dialects) traces of old connections with the West Slavic languages (Czech and Slovak) can be found.

Slavic languages – related languages Indo-European family. More than 400 million people speak Slavic languages.

Slavic languages are distinguished by the similarity of word structure, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics (meaning), phonetics, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and their contacts with each other.
Based on the degree of proximity to each other, Slavic languages are divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic.
Each Slavic language has its own literary language (the processed part of the general vernacular with written standards; the language of all manifestations of culture) and its territorial dialects, which are not the same within each Slavic language.

Origin and history of Slavic languages

Slavic languages are closest to the Baltic languages. Both are part of the Indo-European family of languages. From the Indo-European proto-language, the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. But not all scientists agree with this. They explain the special closeness of these proto-languages by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.
But what is clear is that from one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic) the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages.
The history of the Proto-Slavic language was long. For a long time the Proto-Slavic language developed as a single dialect. Dialectal variants arose later.
In the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Early Slavic states began to form in Southeast and Eastern Europe. Then the process of dividing the Proto-Slavic language into independent Slavic languages began.

Slavic languages have retained significant similarities with each other, but at the same time, each of them has unique features.

Eastern group of Slavic languages

Russian (250 million people)
Ukrainian (45 million people)
Belarusian (6.4 million people).
The writing of all East Slavic languages is based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

Differences between East Slavic languages and other Slavic languages:

reduction of vowels (akanye);
the presence of Church Slavonicisms in the vocabulary;
free dynamic stress.

Western group of Slavic languages

Polish (40 million people)
Slovak (5.2 million people)
Czech (9.5 million people)
The writing of all West Slavic languages is based on the Latin alphabet.

Differences between West Slavic languages and other Slavic languages:

In Polish - the presence of nasal vowels and two rows of sibilant consonants; fixed stress on the penultimate syllable. In Czech, the stress is fixed on the first syllable; presence of long and short vowels. The Slovak language has the same features as the Czech language.

Southern group of Slavic languages

Serbo-Croatian (21 million people)
Bulgarian (8.5 million people)
Macedonian (2 million people)
Slovenian (2.2 million people)
Written language: Bulgarian and Macedonian - Cyrillic, Serbo-Croatian - Cyrillic/Latin, Slovenian - Latin.

Differences between South Slavic languages and other Slavic languages:

Serbo-Croatian has free musical stress. In the Bulgarian language there are no cases, a variety of verb forms and the absence of an infinitive (undefined form of the verb), free dynamic stress. Macedonian language - the same as in the Bulgarian language + fixed stress (no further than the third syllable from the end of the word). The Slovenian language has many dialects, the presence of a dual number, and free musical stress.

Writing of Slavic languages

The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia.

Prayer for Old Slavonic language
Great Moravia is a Slavic state that existed in 822-907. on the Middle Danube. In its best period it included the territories of modern Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Lesser Poland, part of Ukraine and historical region Silesia.
Great Moravia had a great influence on the cultural development of the entire Slavic world.

Great Moravia

The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. A rich original and translated literature was created in this language (Old Church Slavonic) in Moravia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic.

The most ancient Old Church Slavonic texts date back to the 10th century. Since the 11th century. More Slavic monuments have survived.
Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. Glagolitic script is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and several coastal areas in Croatia. In Bosnia, for some time, in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet, the Arabic alphabet was also used (in 1463, Bosnia completely lost its independence and became part of the Ottoman Empire as an administrative unit).

Slavic literary languages

Slavic literary languages did not always have strict norms. Sometimes the literary language in Slavic countries was a foreign language (in Rus' - Old Church Slavonic, in the Czech Republic and Poland - Latin).
The Russian literary language had a complex evolution. It absorbed folk elements, elements of the Old Church Slavonic language, and was influenced by many European languages.
In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. German was dominant. During national revival In the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from the national language.
The Slovak literary language developed on the basis of the folk language. In Serbia until the 19th century. The Church Slavonic language was dominant. In the 18th century the process of bringing this language closer to the folk one began. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the mid-19th century, a new literary language was created.
The Macedonian literary language was finally formed only in the middle of the 20th century.
But there are also a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which function along with national literary languages in small ethnic groups. This is, for example, the Polesie microlanguage, Podlyashian in Belarus; Rusyn - in Ukraine; Wichsky - in Poland; Banat-Bulgarian microlanguage - in Bulgaria, etc.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher education

"CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAURIDE ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

in the discipline: “Introduction to Slavic philology”

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific supervisor: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbian Sorbian language

2.5 Polabian language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

SlaviclanguageAnd--a group of related languages of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Total number speakers over 290 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, the use of grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, a system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained both by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and by their long and intensive contacts at the level of literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with related and unrelated ethnic groups.

Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Western Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Sorbians). Small local groups of Slavs with their own literary languages are also known. Not all Slavic languages have reached us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The Polabian language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Sorbian languages (Upper and Lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Cieszyn Silesia and Orava). The Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula current, mainly in the Morskaya and Kartuzy regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. The closely related Czech and Slovak languages are represented on the territory of Czechoslovakia: In the western regions there are about 10 million. people use Czech; in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serbian Sorbian language is widespread in western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; The lower Lusatians live in Brandeburg. Lusatians are a national minority former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

In the territory of eastern Germany, West Slavic languages underwent German assimilation in the 12th-16th centuries and disappeared. Data from modern toponymy indicate an ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century. Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of live speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies it is called the “Polabian language”.

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian languages. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. From Eastern Slavs the southern ones are distant from the territory of Romania, from the western ones - Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenians live outside Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovenian to Serbo-Croatian.

The Serbo-Croatian language is spoken by over 18 million people, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosnians. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. The Serbo-Croatian language is separated from the Bulgarian language by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vranje, all the way to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by populations south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east - the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it is unlikely to exceed 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary treatment only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred people live outside of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of South Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages are used as the main languages throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and Caucasian ridge, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. The Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million), has become especially widespread.

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. Diacritics are used to convey some sounds. Latin letters and combinations of letters.

There are eight vowel sounds in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same way; in some positions the nasal sound is lost.

The area of distribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Masovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by the dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsosha.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenization, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsoshia, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is widespread to the west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scholars believe that the Kashubian dialect should be perceived as an independent language and classified as a West Slavic subgroup.

Features of the dialect:

1. Place of stress different from Polish. In the southern part of the Kashubian region the stress falls on the initial syllable, in the north the stress is free and widespread.

2. Pronunciation of hard words s,dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and like е.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in length and shortness.

2.2 Czech

Czech graphics use the Latin alphabet. To convey Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made based on the use of superscripts.

Czech writing is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical writings.

Distribution area Czech language characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Bohemia and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Polish (Silesia and north-eastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the noted dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Bohemian dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in eastern regions Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it shares common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc. are identical).

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Central Slovak - the dialectal basis of the modern literary language, Eastern Slovak, some dialects of which indicate Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 Serbolous Sorbian languagesTo

The Lusatian Serbs are descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and underwent Germanization. They speak rather sharply different dialects: Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, which is why there are two corresponding literary languages. In addition, it should be noted the presence of the East Lusatian (Muzhakovsky) dialect.

Writing in both Lusatian languages arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polabian language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information has been preserved about the language of the Drevlyan tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Luneburg (Hannovrer). The last speakers of the Polabian language died out in late XVIII century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German lovers of folk art.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Veletian, Obodritian and Drevlyanian dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

The Serbo-Croatian language is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosniaks, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these options differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet, and Croats use the Latin alphabet. The Serbo-Croatian language is characterized by significant dialect diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. They received these names based on the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula, etc. The Kajkavian dialect is located in the northwestern part of the Serbo-Croatian territory in Croatia (the center of Croatia is Zagreb is located in the territory of this adverb).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovenian language is distinguished by extreme dialect diversity. This is explained by the fragmentation of the people and partly by the nature of the terrain. Up to six dialect groups are distinguished: 1) Khorutan (extreme north-west); 2) seaside (west of Slovenia); 3) Vekhnekrainskaya (northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava River); 4) Nizhnekrainskaya (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with a Zamurian (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet. The Bulgarian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s And uh.

A characteristic feature that allows Bulgarian dialects to be grouped is the pronunciation of replacements for the old ? . In this regard, pan-Bulgarian dialects are divided into Western and Eastern. The border separating these two dialects comes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessaloniki. Northeastern dialects are also distinguished.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, during the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to transform Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages was relatively weaker. In 1945, a unified spelling was adopted, which was brought closer to graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. A northern dialect extending north from Skopje and Kumanovo, as well as occupying Dolni Polog, characterized by features similar to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics that go back to the Cyrillic alphabet. At the direction of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called “civil” alphabet. The letters were given a more rounded and simpler shape, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters have been eliminated. The civil alphabet, with some modifications, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian, between which Central Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the southeast, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features common to all its dialects: okanye, vowel distinction A And O not only under stress but also in unstressed positions, by the presence G explosive and - T(hard) at the end of the 3rd person present tense of verbs. There are also clicking and clinking sounds (not distinguishing ts And h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akanye, the presence of r fricative and -t" (soft) in the 3rd person verbs. Yakanye is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in the Russian language. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission e in Ukrainian the combination is used yo And yo. In the meaning of a separating solid ъ an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (north of the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - White church- Zhitormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvira through Uman, Ananyev to the lower reaches of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the following features: vowel th always indicated by the letter i; letter ъ is absent and the dividing meaning is conveyed by an apostrophe; to convey non-syllabic y, a superscript is used; missing letter sch, since in Belarusian there is no such sound, but there is a combination shch. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the line Vilnos - Minsk - Rogachev - Gomel. The principle of division is the character of Akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative akan and yakan. It should be noted that on the border with the Ukrainian language there is a wide band of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

The emergence of Slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very advanced graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on translating some parts of the Bible and creating other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic became the common language due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism. Therefore, the further use of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated primarily with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has gone through a long history. It was during the period of the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristic features of the Slavic languages took shape. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Textbook. A manual for students of philology. specialist, ped, inst. - 3rd edition, revised. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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Indo-Europeans
Indo-European languages
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Albanians · Armenians · Balts Veneti · Germans · Greeks Illyrians · Iranians · Indo-Aryans Italics (Romans) · Celts Cimmerians · Slavs · Tocharians Thracians · Hittites in italics indicate now defunct communities
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Classification

Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch
- Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: bel)
- Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv)
  - Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
- Russian (ISO 639-1: ru; ISO 639-3: rus)
- Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: uk; ISO 639-3: ukr)
  - Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch
- Lehitic subgroup
  - Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages
    - Kashubian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb)
      - Slovinian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Polabian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: pox)
  - Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol)
    - Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl)
- Lusatian subgroup
  - Upper Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb)
  - Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb)
- Czech-Slovak subgroup
  - Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk)
  - Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces)
    - knaanite† (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch
- Eastern group
  - Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul)
  - Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd)
  - Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
  - Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
- Western group
  - Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs):
    - Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: bos)
    - Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp)
      - Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
    - Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv)
      - Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv)
    - Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
  - Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

Origin

Family tree of modern Slavic languages according to Gray and Atkinson

Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarities between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the “Balto-Slavic proto-language”, according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in what territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European/Balto-Slavic occurred. It can be assumed that it occurred to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. over a long period of time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialectal variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were developed, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the oldest - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic linguistic contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Modern research

In 2003, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson, scientists from the University of Oklad, published their study of modern languages of the Indo-European family in the scientific journal Nature. The data obtained indicate that the Slavic linguistic unity disintegrated 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. And the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity collapsed 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

History of development

Main article: History of Slavic languages Bascan slab, 11th century, Krk, Croatia

In the early period of development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was significantly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is part of the satem group (sрьдьce, pisati, prositi, Wed. Lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zьrno, znati, zima, Wed. Lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent to the name.

Novgorod birch bark charter of the 14th century

Most of the suffixes were already formed on Proto-Slavic soil. During the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. In most cases, keeping the old one Indo-European vocabulary, at the same time he lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words were lost due to various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, from which the Latin quercus. In the Slavic language, the taboo dǫbъ was established, from where “oak”, Polish. dąb, Bulgarian dab, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term “Arctic” (cf. Greek ἄρκτος). The Indo-European word in Proto-Slavic was replaced by the taboo combination of words *medvědь (originally “honey eater”, from honey and *ěd-).

Zograph Codex, X-XI centuries.

During the period of the Balto-Slavic community, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthong combinations arose in the position before consonants and the sequence “vowel sonant before vowels” (sъmрti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and the softening of consonants before the iota. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthong combinations turned into monophthongs, smooth syllabic, nasal vowels arose, a shift in the syllable division occurred, which, in turn, caused a simplification of consonant groups and the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. “reap - reap”; “take - I’ll take”, “name - names”, Czech. ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - we reap, uzeti - we will know, name - names. The softening of consonants before the yot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure and the system of inflections. Due to the softening of consonants before the iota, the so-called process was experienced. first palatalization of the posterior palatal: k > h, g > g, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: ch, g: zh, x: sh were formed, which had a great influence on nominal and verbal word formation.

Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palatal developed, as a result of which the alternations arose: c, g: dz (z), x: s (x). The name changed according to cases and numbers. Except the only one plural There was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages, except Slovenian and Lusatian, while the rudiments of dualism are preserved in almost all Slavic languages.

There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. In the late Proto-Slavic period, pronominal adjectives arose. The verb had the bases of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supine, aorist, imperfect, participles in -л, active past participles in -в and participles were formed passive voice on -n. From the bases of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, and the active participle of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, an imperfect began to form from this stem.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. From them the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. The West Slavic group had 3 subgroups: Lechitic, Serbo-Sorbian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was the most differentiated in terms of dialect.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when tribal social order. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. XII-XIII centuries further differentiation of the Slavic languages took place, and the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь, characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language, were lost. in some cases they disappeared, in others they became vowels complete education. As a result, significant changes occurred in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the long/short vowel opposition has been lost, at the same time in the Czech and Slovak languages (excluding the North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in the Slovenian language these differences persist. Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the corresponding languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of hard/soft consonants in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n' is preserved, in Slovak - t - t', d - d' , n - n', l - l', while in the Western Slovak dialect, due to the assimilation of t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as the hardening of l', as a rule, only one pair n - n' is presented, in a number of Western Slovak dialects ( Považski, Trnava, Zagorje) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness/softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - of the old paired soft consonants, only n’ (< *nj), l’ (< *lj) не подверглись отвердению (в первую очередь в сербохорватском ареале).

Stress is implemented differently in Slavic languages. In most Slavic languages (except for Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the stress was also mobile in the extinct Polabian language). Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the Northern Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. A number of languages, primarily Western Slavic, have developed a fixed stress assigned to a specific syllable of a word or beat group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the literary Polish language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern dialect of the Kashubian language, as well as in the Lemko dialect. The stress falls on the first syllable in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Sorbian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, as well as in some Gural dialects of the Lesser Poland dialect. In the Macedonian language, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, varied; the tonic characteristics and stress distribution in word forms are different among dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress varies, but is assigned to a specific morpheme.

Writing

The Slavic languages received their first literary treatment in the 60s. 9th century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) a wealth of original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the 9th century no Slavic texts have survived. The most ancient ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuel of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Since the 11th century. More Slavic monuments have survived.

Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. Glagolitic script is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and several coastal areas in Croatia. For some time in Bosnia, in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet, the Arabic alphabet was also used.

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Church Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has experienced centuries-long and complex evolution. It absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Church Slavonic language, and was influenced by many European languages.

In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, has almost disappeared. German was the dominant language in the cities. The period of national revival in the Czech Republic artificially revived the language of the 16th century, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and conversational. The Slovak literary language had a different history; it developed on the basis of the folk language. Serbia until the 19th century. The Church Slavonic language was dominant. XVIII century the process of bringing this language closer to the folk one began. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the mid-19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to the “large” Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which usually function alongside the national literary languages and serve relatively small ethnic groups, or even separate literary genres.

Notes

Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009
http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the Encarta encyclopedia. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
Omniglot
1 2 Sometimes separated into a separate language
see Meillet's Law.
Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 10. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Lifanov K.V. Dialectology Slovak language: Tutorial. - M.: Infra-M, 2012. - P. 34. - ISBN 978-5-16-005518-3.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - P. 16. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - pp. 14-15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)

Literature

Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
Bernshtein S. B. Essay on the comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Alternations. Name bases. M., 1974.
Birnbaum H. Proto-Slavic language. Achievements and problems of its reconstruction, trans. from English, M., 1987.
Boshkovich R. Fundamentals of comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Phonetics and word formation. M., 1984.
Hilferding A.F. Common Slavic alphabet with the application of samples of Slavic dialects. - St. Petersburg: Type. Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1871.
Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.
Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.
Nachtigal R. Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenia, M., 1963.
National revival and formation of Slavic literary languages. M., 1978.
Entering the historical tradition of Slovenian languages. Per ed. O. S. Melnichuk. Kiev, 1966.
Vaillant A. Grammaire comparee des langues slaves, t. 1-5. Lyon - P., 1950-77.
Russell D. Gray & Quentin D. Atkinson. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin. Nature, 426: 435-439 (27 November 2003).


Proto-Slavic language † (proto-language)
Eastern	Old Novgorod † (Old Pskovsky †) Old Russian † Western Russian † Belarusian (dialects) Russian (dialects) Ukrainian (Rusyn dialects)
Western
Southern
Other	literary microlanguages pan-Slavic languages
† - dead, split or changed languages

Slavic microlanguages
Eastern	Galshansky \| Carpatho-Rusyn \| Podlaski \| Western Polesie
Western	Wichich \| Eastern Slovak \| Polish \| Pannonian-Rusyn
Southwestern	Venetian-Slovenian \| Gradiscan-Croatian \| kaykavian \| Molese-Slavic \| Prekmurje-Slovenian \| rezyanskiy \| Chakavian
Southeast	Banat-Bulgarian \| Pomak \| Aegean-Macedonian
see also

Slavic languages, Slavic languages of India, Slavic languages of Spain, Slavic languages of Kazakhstan, Slavic languages of cats, Slavic languages of love, Slavic languages of the world, Slavic languages of flame, Slavic programming languages, Slavic markup languages

Slavic languages Information About

The long-term independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences of a material, functional and typological nature.

Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups according to the degree of their proximity to each other:

East Slavic,
South Slavic
West Slavic.

The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialectal division and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch
- Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: bel)
- Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv)
  - Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: — ;ISO 639-3: —)
- Russian (ISO 639-1: ru; ISO 639-3: rus)
- Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: uk; ISO 639-3: ukr)
  - Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch
- Lehitic subgroup
  - Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages
    - Kashubian(ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb)
      - Slovinsky† (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Polabian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: pox)
  - Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol)
    - Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl)
- Lusatian subgroup
  - Upper Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb)
  - Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb)
- Czech-Slovak subgroup
  - Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk)
  - Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces)
    - knaanite † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch
- Eastern group
  - Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul)
  - Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd)
  - Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
  - Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
- Western group
  - Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs):
    - Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: bos)
    - Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp)
      - Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
    - Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv)
      - Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv)
    - Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
  - Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

In addition to these languages, languages are polyvalent, i.e., speaking (like all modern national literary languages) both in the function of written, artistic, business speech, and in the function of oral, everyday, colloquial and stage speech, the Slavs also have “small” literary languages, almost always with brightly dialectal colors. These languages, with limited use, usually function alongside national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups, or even individual literary genres. There are such languages in Western Europe: in Spain, Italy, France and German-speaking countries. The Slavs know the Rusyn language (in Yugoslavia), the Kajkavian and Chakavian languages (in Yugoslavia and Austria), the Kashubian language (in Poland), the Lyash language (in Czechoslovakia), etc.

In the Middle Ages, the Polabian Slavs, who spoke the Polabian language, lived on a fairly vast territory in the Elbe River basin, called Laby in Slavic. This language is a severed branch from the Slavic language “tree” as a result of the forced Germanization of the population that spoke it. He disappeared in the 18th century. Still they reached us individual entries Polabian words, texts, translations of prayers, etc., from which it is possible to reconstruct not only the language, but also the life of the disappeared Polabians. And at the International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1968, the famous West German Slavist R. Olesh read a report in the Polish language, thus creating not only literary written (he read from typescript) and oral forms, but also scientific linguistic terminology. This indicates that almost every Slavic dialect (dialect) can, in principle, be the basis of a literary language. However, not only Slavic, but also another family of languages, as shown by numerous examples of newly written languages in our country.

Methods for classifying Slavic languages

The first printed information about Slavic languages was usually presented in a list, i.e. transfer. This is what the Czech J. Blagoslav did in his grammatical work on the Czech language in 1571 (published only in 1857), in which he notes Czech, then “Slovene” (probably Slovak), where he also included the language of the Croats, then follows Polish language; He also mentions the southern (possibly Church Slavonic), “Mazowieckian” (actually a Polish dialect), and “Moscow” (i.e. Russian). Y. Krizhanich, comparing in the 17th century. some Slavic languages, spoke about the closeness of some of them to each other, but did not dare to classify them. “List classifications” of Slavic languages, i.e. an attempt to distinguish them by enumeration and thereby distinguish them from other Indo-European languages is also characteristic of the 18th century, although they are occasionally found in the 19th century. So, in 1787-1789. By decree of Empress Catherine, a two-volume book was published in St. Petersburg Comparative dictionaries of all languages and dialects” is an attempt to collect information about all the languages of the world known at that time and provide parallel lists of words for them. It is important for us that among “all languages and dialects” there were 13 listed here as a list of Slavic languages (“adverbs”): the words there are given “1 - in Slavic, 2 - Slavic-Hungarian, 3 - Illyrian, 4 - Bohemian, 5 - Serbian, 6 - Vendian, 7 - Sorabski, 8 - Polabski, 9 - Kashubian, 10 - Polish, 11 - Little Russian, 12 - Suzdal" + 13 "in Russian"; “Slavic-Hungarian” is Slovak, “Wendski” is one of the Serbian Sorbian languages, “Suzdal” is social jargon! F. Miklosic in “Morphology of Slavic Languages” (1852) presents the languages in this order: a) Old Church Slavonic, b) New Slavonic (Slovenian), c) Bulgarian, d) Serbian (and Croatian), e) Little Russian, or Ukrainian (and Belarusian ), f) Great Russian, g) Czech (and Slovak), h) Polish, i) Upper Sorbian, j) Lower Sorbian; but without Polabian and Kashubian.

Classification by J. Dobrovsky.

Attempts to classify Slavic languages on a scientific basis date back to the beginning of the 19th century. and are associated with the name of the founder of Slavic philology J. Dobrovsky. For the first time, Dobrovsky gave a list of Slavic languages and dialects in 1791-1792. in the book “History of the Czech Language and Literature”, published in German. There has been no classification yet. He singled out the “full” Slavic language and listed its dialects, including Russian, “Polish with Silesian”, “Illyrian” with Bulgarian, “Rac-Serbian”, Bosnian, “Slavonian” (dialects of the historical region of Slavonia in Croatia), “Dalmatian and Dubrovnik”, Croatian with Kajkavian, with “Vindian” (Slovenian), “Czech with Moravian, Silesian and Slovakian”, Lusatian. In the second edition of this book (1818) and especially in his main work on the Old Church Slavonic language according to its dialects (“Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veteris”, 1822) Dobrovsky first presents scientific classification Slavic languages, dividing them into two groups (each with 5 languages):

A (eastern): Russian, Church Slavonic (Slavica vetus), “Illyrian”, or Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, or “Vindic” (“in Carniola, Styria and Carinthia”);
B (Western): Slovak, Czech, “Vendic Upper Sorbian” (= Upper Sorbian) and “Vendic Lower Sorbian” (= Lower Sorbian), Polish.

J. Dobrovsky relied on 10 signs of phonetic, word-formation and lexical properties, cf.:

In the future, features 3 (l-epentheticum), 4 (combinations , ) and 6 (combinations , ) will be regularly used by researchers, right up to the present day, when comparing the three subgroups of Slavic languages. Other features will remain unclaimed, for example, the prefix roz-, which is also characteristic of East Slavic languages, in particular Ukrainian (rozum ‘um’). In addition, the classification lacks several languages - Ukrainian, Kashubian, Bulgarian.

Views on classification after J. Dobrovsky.

Soon after Dobrovsky, the largest Slavist of the 19th century began to classify Slavic languages. P. Y. Safarik. In the book “History of Slavic Languages and Literatures” (1826) and especially in the famous “Slavic Antiquities” (1837) and “Slavic Ethnography” (1842), he, following Dobrovsky, presented a two-component classification of “Slavic dialects”:

1) southeastern group: Russian, Bulgarian, “Illyrian” (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian);
2) north- western group: “Lechitic” (Polish, Kashubian), Czech (Czech, Moravian, Slovak), Polabian (+ Upper and Lower Sorbian).

Of Dobrovsky's 10 signs, Safarik used only two phonetic ones - No. 3 and No. 4, and considered the rest unimportant. But he added the following feature: the loss of [d] and [t] before [n] in the south-eastern and preservation - in the western ones, such as ϖ ν?τι - vadnouti ‘wither’. It is significant that the creator of the “family tree” hypothesis, A. Schleicher, applied it to the Slavic languages. Thus, outlining the development of the northeastern branch of the Indo-European languages (1865), he proposed the following scheme for the differentiation of Slavic languages:

Here the western group is contrasted with the combined southern and eastern ones. Slovak, Kashubian, Belarusian language and, on the other hand, Ukrainian was reflected along with Great Russian. Two-component classifications suffered from large generalizations, omission of certain languages and, in addition, were based on a minimal number of linguistic distinctive features. Let us present a summary table of the most important two-component classifications of Slavic languages of the 19th century to see how far the three-component classification that replaced them has gone:

Reading the table above horizontally and vertically, it is not difficult to establish which languages are reflected in a particular classification and how; A dash (- sign) may indicate that the author did not know about the existence of a particular language or considered it an adverb (dialect) more large tongue and under.

Three-component classification model and its disadvantages.

The two-component classification is being replaced by a three-component one. Doubts about the two-component classification proposed by J. Dobrovsky were expressed by A. Kh. Vostokov, pointing out that the Russian language, according to a number of its characteristics, occupies an independent position between the southern and western languages. We can say that the idea of a three-component division of Slavic languages, later supported by M. A. Maksimovich (works of 1836, 1838, 1845), N. Nadezhdin (1836), the Czech F. Palatsky (1836), and others, goes back to Vostokov. Maksimovich developed Vostokov's thought, highlighting the western, southern (or Transdanubian) and eastern branches. Palatsky, focusing on the geographical principle, divided the Slavic languages into southwestern (= south Slavic), northwestern (= West Slavic) and eastern Slavic. This classification model was strengthened throughout much of the 19th century. In her statement special role played I. I. Sreznevsky (1843).

Based on historical-ethnographic (common historical destinies of individual groups of Slavic peoples, common material and spiritual culture, etc.) and linguistic criteria, he proposed to distribute the Slavic “adverbs” as follows:

1) eastern dialects: Great Russian, Ukrainian;
2) southwestern dialects (= South Slavic): Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Serbian and Croatian, “Khorutanian” (= Slovenian);
3) northwestern dialects (= West Slavic): Polish, Polabian, Lusatian, Czech and Slovak.

Classification by I. I. Sreznevsky is still in use today. True, some changes have been made to it, for example, in terms: instead of “adverbs” - languages; in the names of the subgroups - East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic, respectively; The East Slavic language includes the Belarusian language, and the West Slavic language includes Kashubian.

However, this classification is also subject to criticism. The fact is that the material of each Slavic language or dialect is quite diverse and does not always fit into the framework of classifications, which, as a rule, are based on taking into account only a few - usually phonetic - features, according to which languages are included in one or another subgroup. Numerous linguistic features that bring together languages traditionally classified as different subgroups remain outside the classification principles. Such signs are often simply not taken into account.

The isogloss method and its role in the classification of dialects and languages.

Only in the twentieth century. the procedure for identifying linguistic parallels using the isogloss method began to take shape. This method is formulated as establishing on a linguistic (dialectological) map the distribution lines of a particular linguistic phenomenon in order to determine the degree of proximity between dialects and dialects within individual languages and between languages - within individual linguistic subgroups or groups. The isogloss method, applied to linguistic material at all levels (i.e. phonetic, grammatical, lexical), allows one to more clearly determine the place and relationship of related languages to each other, which can lead to a revision of some provisions of the traditional classification. O. N. Trubachev (1974) rightly wrote about this at one time, pointing out the insufficiency of the three-component classification, which poorly takes into account the original dialectal fragmentation of the Proto-Slavic language:

“1) The West Slavic, East Slavic and South Slavic language groups were secondarily consolidated from components of very different linguistic origins,
2) the original Slavia was not a linguistic monolith, but its opposite, i.e.<…>a complex set of isoglosses"

According to some experts, within the East Slavic subgroup, Russian and Ukrainian are more distant from each other, while Belarusian occupies an intermediate position between them (there is, however, also an opinion about the great proximity of the Belarusian and Russian languages). Be that as it may, some features bring Belarusian closer to the Russian language (for example, akanye), others - with Ukrainian (for example, the presence of a long-past tense in both languages). It has long been noted that the Ukrainian language has a number of features that unite it with the South Slavic languages (especially their western part), for example, inflection of verbs of the 1st line. pl. part of the present tense -mo: write-mo ‘we are writing’, pratsuie-mo ‘we are working’, etc. - Wed South Slavic Serbian-Croatian write-mo, for the sake of-mo, sloven. piše-mo, dela-mo, etc.

Methods based on phonetic and word-formation material

Attempts to establish, on the basis of certain signs, in which direction the development of the speech array took place after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language, have not stopped to this day. The newest hypothesis on this issue belongs to the Belarusian Slavist F. D. Klimchuk (2007). He analyzes the phonetic development in modern Slavic languages and dialects of a number of elements in ancient words selected specifically for these purposes - ten, black grouse, wild, quiet and smoke. Here's what these words look like phonetically:

In accordance with this, the Slavic dialect continuum is divided into two zones - northern and southern. To prove this, it is necessary to formulate the conditions and trace the form in which the identified phonetic elements were implemented in specific Slavic languages and dialects. This is about

a) implementation of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before the etymological [e], [i];
b) about the distinction between vowels [i] and y [ы] or their merging into one sound.

In the northern zone, the consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] in the indicated position are soft, in the southern zone they are hard (that is, velarized or non-velarized, often called semi-soft). The vowels [i] and y [ы] in the northern zone retained their quality; in the southern zone they merged into one sound. In the languages of Proto-Slavic, Old Church Slavonic and book Old Russian early period the vowels [i] and y [ы] differed from each other, representing two independent sounds. The consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before the etymological [e], [i] in these languages were pronounced “semi-softly”. In other words, they were hard, but not velarized. The Proto-Slavic model of the implementation of consonants [d], [t], [z], [s], [n] before [e], [i] was preserved only in some regions and microregions of Slavia - in many dialects of the Carpathians and the upper reaches of the river. San, sometimes in Polesie, as well as in the northern and southern parts of Russia. In a significant part of the dialects of the Slavic languages of the northern zone, the soft consonants [d], [t] changed into , respectively. This phenomenon is called tsekany-dzekanya.

Studying the distribution of more than 70 suffixes of nouns across the Slavic territory, as well as conducting a group analysis of geographical and ichthyological (names of fish and everything connected with them) vocabulary, A. S. Gerd and V. M. Mokienko (1974) identified on this basis four Slavic areas, opposed to each other:

1) Western-Eastern Slavic - South Slavic;
2) West-East Slavic + Slovenian - South Slavic (except Slovenian);
3) East Slavic - Western South Slavic;
4) North Slavic and Western South Slavic - East South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian).

Quantitative method based on phonetic-morphological features.

In the 20th century another approach is being taken to studying the ways of the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and establishing the degree of proximity of the Slavic languages in relation to each other. This approach is called quantitative or statistical. The first to apply it to Slavic material was the Pole J. Chekanovsky in 1929. Based on the list provided to him by T. Ler-Splavinsky of several dozen phonetic and morphological features characteristic of various regions of Slavia, Chekanovsky compiled a special table indicating the presence/absence of such features in a particular language, after which, using special statistical techniques, it establishes an index of proximity between languages.

The Serbian Sorbian languages occupy a central place in the area of the West Slavic languages. The Polabian language is closer to Czech and Slovak than to Polish. Chekanovsky also comes to the conclusion that there were deep connections between the Lechitic languages and Northern Great Russian dialects. Moreover, the author believes that the future East Slavic massif, under the influence of Avar raids, broke away from the northern one, which united both Western and Eastern Slavs.

Before the arrival of the Hungarians in the Pannonian Lowland (late 9th century), the Western and Southern Slavs formed a wide belt stretching from north to south (to the Balkans). The expansion of the Hungarians separated the Western and Southern Slavs. Traces of past connections in the form common features are noted in the language of Czechs and Slovaks, on the one hand, and in Slovenian dialects, on the other. And in the South Slavic massif itself, a division occurred into a western branch (Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian) and an eastern branch (Old Slavic, Bulgarian, and later Macedonian). Chekanovsky believed that his conclusions should shake the existing opinion about the straightforwardness of the division of the Proto-Slavic into three massifs.

Method of lexical-statistical modeling.

A qualitatively new turn was marked by the appearance in 1994 of A.F. Zhuravlev’s monograph “Lexico-statistical modeling of the system of Slavic linguistic kinship” (based on a doctoral dissertation defended in 1992). The author for the first time turns to Proto-Slavic lexical material, which is hundreds of times larger in quantity than the phonetic-morphological features traditionally used to determine linguistic kinship. There is a significant difference between these two categories of features: if phonetic-morphological features evolve primarily by replacing some elements with others, then the development of the dictionary occurs mainly through the accumulation (cumulation) of more and more new words. In addition, the author rightly considers vocabulary to be more stable over time than phonetics and morphology, and this refers to the vocabulary of its most ancient layer. Zhuravlev makes a complete selection from the first 15 issues " Etymological dictionary Slavic languages" edited by O. N. Trubachev (up to the word *lokaсь ‘puddle, pothole on the road’) - a total of 7557 positions (headwords), while he avoids post-Proto-Slavic, book and some other categories of words that were absent in Proto-Slavic times. Interesting statistics of Proto-Slavic vocabulary preserved in the analyzed Slavic languages and dialects were revealed:

It should be noted that the presented data was to a certain extent influenced by such factors as the completeness or incompleteness of the collected vocabulary for a particular language (as, for example, for Polabian - a disappeared language and known only from records and written monuments).

Taking into account the derived indices of genetic proximity, the Russian language, for example, is characterized by the following connections:

a) within the East Slavic subgroup: northern and southern Great Russian dialects are lexically closer to Belarusian than to Ukrainian;
b) outside the East Slavic subgroup, the statistical similarity of the Proto-Slavic lexical heritage of the Northern Great Russian dialect is closer to the Serbo-Croatian language,
c) while the South Great Russian dialect is addressed to Polish,
d) the Russian language as a whole at the level of Proto-Slavic vocabulary is closer to Polish
e) and to Serbo-Croatian.

The difference between the results obtained by phonostatistical and lexical-statistical methods is found, for example, in the qualification of languages with highest degree proximity: in the first case, at the language level, these are Czech and Slovak, and in the second, Serbo-Sorbian. Zhuravlev is inclined to believe that such a discrepancy is caused primarily by the difference in the supporting material - phonetics and vocabulary, and by the inconsistency and unequal pace of their historical development. At the same time, both approaches allow us to conclude that the West Slavic group as a whole demonstrates its inhomogeneity, i.e. heterogeneous character. In this regard, the idea is expressed that the practice of the initial division of Proto-Slavic into the western and eastern massifs and further into the eastern and southern or western and southern should give way to other, more complex and multidimensional relationships.

Traditional classification with some new data

As we see, the totality of some features divides the Slavic linguistic array in one direction, and the totality of others - in another. Moreover, within the designated zones themselves, linguistic and dialect isoglosses can be distributed in different directions, depriving the subgroups (western, southern and eastern) of the known genetic classification of more or less clear boundaries, - on the contrary, delineating them either as intersecting with each other, or as included in each other, or as isolated situations that turned out to be cut off from the main body, and so on. All this suggests that both the Proto-Slavic speech array and the arrays formed after its collapse were characterized by a constant quality - initial dialect fragmentation, the absence of clear boundaries between local speech arrays, their mobility, etc.

Taking into account the achievements of the isogloss method, quantitative analysis of the proximity of languages and dialects, as well as taking into account situations of linguistic continuity, etc., the traditional three-component classification of Slavic languages can currently be schematically represented as follows:

East Slavic:

South Slavic:

West Slavic:

Thus, the problem of classifying Slavic languages has not been completely resolved. It is believed that its solution will depend on the compilation of the Common Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA), the issue of which was raised at the First International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1929. Since 1961, a Commission on OLA has been working under the International Committee of Slavists, which includes specialists on linguistic geography and dialectology of all Slavic and a number of non-Slavic countries. The material is collected in 850 Slavic (usually rural) locations, including some resettlement territories. For this purpose, a questionnaire was compiled, including 3,454 questions - on phonetics, grammar, vocabulary and word formation. The distribution of features is studied and they are plotted on a map (the principle applies: one feature - one map), while paying attention to isoglosses and their bundles, i.e. clusters.

Since 1965, Institute of Russian Language named after. V.V. Vinogradov RAS in Moscow regularly publishes collections of research and materials under common name“Common Slavic linguistic atlas. Materials and Research,” and in 1988 the first issue of the atlas appeared, dedicated to the reflexes of Yat (* e) on modern Slavic territory. Words with reflexes of the indicated vowel are given in transcription. For the first time, it is possible to see, for example, a word and its transmission in transcription in all its phonetic subtleties on the vast territory inhabited by the modern Slavs.

As an example, let's take the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ 'person' and see in what pronunciation forms it actually appears in different Slavic areas (the prime " means that the syllable following it is stressed): clovjek - clouk - clajk - c'lo"vek - c'lo"vik - šlo"vik - co"vek - c'ojek - cojak - cvek - coek - clov'ek - cala"v'ek - colo"v'ik - c'ila"v'ek - cuek - c'elo"v'ek - c'olo"v'ek - š'ila"v'ek - cu?ov'ek, etc., etc.

What does such a linguogeographical distribution of this word show? And the fact is that in reality the word undergoes serious phonetic changes in the process of historical development. What remains of the phonetic elements that made up the Proto-Slavic word *celovekъ? Only one element turned out to be stable - the final one - k, while the first element appears either in a hard or soft form, or generally turns into a whistling ([с], ) or a hissing ([ š ], [ š']) ; [e] is preserved somewhere, but somewhere it turns into [i], [o], [a] or disappears altogether. The fate of subsequent vowels and consonants is also tortuous. This method shows us how the same word really lives in different Slavic areas. From this we can conclude how complex phonetic and other processes occur and how difficult it is for scientists to follow them and classify them with specific goals their results. Nevertheless, the now classic three-member genetic classification of Slavic languages is still actively used by researchers.

Analysis of the work The Noble Nest of Turgenev. Course work Typological and individual features in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “The Noble Nest”

General information

Classification

Differences

Eastern group of Slavic languages

West Slavic branch

Polish dialects

Czechoslovakian group of languages

South Slavic group of languages

Origin and history of Slavic languages

Eastern group of Slavic languages

Western group of Slavic languages

Southern group of Slavic languages

Writing of Slavic languages

Slavic literary languages

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Origin

Modern research

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Literary languages

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