When were the FRG and GDR created? What are the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic?

In 1949, four years after the end of World War II, two German states were formed: the German Democratic Republic, GDR, in the east, and the Federal Republic of Germany in the west. Although each had its own government, they were not completely independent. In the GDR, policy was dictated by the Soviet Union, and the Federal Republic of Germany was influenced by Great Britain, France and the United States.

In March 1952, the USSR proposed to the United States, Great Britain and France to peacefully resolve the German issue: the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany should again be united into one independent state and make it politically neutral. But members of the Western Union were against such a plan. They wanted Germany to belong to the West. They believed that a neutral Germany would fall under the influence of the Soviet Union. The then Liberal-Conservative government also strongly advocated an alliance with the West.

After 1952, differences between the two Germanys intensified. In 1956, countries acquired their own armies. The GDR became a member of the Warsaw Union, and the Federal Republic of Germany joined NATO.

While economic problems in the GDR grew like a snowball, business in Germany developed and prospered. The standard of living in the two countries was strikingly different. This was the first reason why thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany. Eventually, the GDR closed its borders and introduced armed control over them. In 1961, the last stone was laid in the wall dividing the two Germanys.

During the Cold War, from 1952 to 1969, the only contact between the two German states was through trade. In June 1953, East Berlin and other eastern German cities rebelled against the communist dictatorship and economy, but Soviet tanks calmed popular unrest. In Germany, the majority of citizens were satisfied with the government's policies. However, here too in the 60s there was a wave of protests and student demonstrations against capitalism and too close ties with the United States.

The first political negotiations between the two countries began in 1969. This was the so-called “Ostpolitik” of the then Chancellor Willy Brandt and his government of Social Democrats and Liberals. In 1972, the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany signed an agreement “On the Fundamentals of Relations.” The agreement improved political and economic contacts between the two countries. More and more West Germans were able to visit their relatives in the GDR, but not many East Germans were allowed to travel west.

In the fall of 1989, Hungary opened its Austrian borders, allowing GDR citizens the opportunity to flee to western Germany. Many people left their country this way. Others fled to the German embassy in Warsaw and Prague and remained there until they received permission to enter the Western republic.

Mass demonstrations soon broke out in Leipzig, Dresden and other eastern cities. At first, it was only about free travel to Western countries and especially Western Germany, free elections and a free economy. But soon calls for the unification of the two Germanys began to grow louder. Opposition groups emerged, and after a few weeks the SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) resigned.

The process of German unification, which lasted in 1989-90 in the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, is called die Wende by the Germans. It includes four main periods:

Peaceful Revolution, a time of mass protests and demonstrations (held on Mondays) directed against the political system of the GDR and for human rights. This period lasted throughout the autumn of 1989.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989 and the Politburo press conference, where Günter Schabowski announced the opening of checkpoints (border crossings)
The GDR's transition to democracy, which in March 1990 led to the first and only democratic elections to the People's Chamber.
The process of German reunification with the signing of the unification treaty in August 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany in September and, finally, the annexation of five German states to the Federal Republic of Germany.

Germany

The split of Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic

The geopolitical results of World War II were catastrophic for Germany. It lost its statehood for several years and its territorial integrity for many years. 24% of the territory Germany occupied in 1936 was torn off, including East Prussia, divided between Poland and the USSR. Poland and Czechoslovakia received the right to evict ethnic Germans from their territories, as a result of which a stream of refugees moved into Germany (by the end of 1946, their number was about 9 million people).

By decision of the Crimean Conference, German territory was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. Berlin was similarly divided into four sectors. At the Potsdam Conference, the basic principles of the occupation policy of the Allied states were agreed upon (demilitarization, denazification, decartelization, democratization of Germany). However, the lack of firm agreements on the German problem led to the fact that the administrations of the occupation zones applied the Potsdam principles at their own discretion.

The leadership of the Soviet military administration in Germany immediately took measures to form an obedient regime in its zone. Local committees spontaneously created by anti-fascists were dissolved. Central departments were created to resolve administrative and economic issues. The main role in them was played by communists and social democrats. In the summer of 1945, the activities of 4 political parties were allowed: the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDP). In theory, all permitted parties enjoyed equal rights, but in practice, the Soviet government openly preferred the KKE.

Based on the idea that Nazism was a product of capitalism and denazification implied a struggle against capitalist influence in German society, Soviet power seized the “commanding heights” of the economy in the first months of the occupation. Many large enterprises were nationalized on the grounds that they belonged to the Nazis or their supporters. These enterprises were either dismantled and sent to the Soviet Union to pay for reparations, or continued to operate as Soviet property. In September 1945, land reform was carried out, during which more than 7,100 estates with an area of more than 100 hectares were expropriated free of charge. From the created land fund, about 120 thousand landless peasants, agricultural workers and migrants received small plots. Reactionaries were dismissed from government service.

The Soviet administration forced the SPD and the KPD to merge into a new party called the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In subsequent years, communist control became increasingly harsh. In January 1949, the SED conference decided that the party should become a Leninist "party of a new type" on the model of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Thousands of socialists and communists who disagreed with this line were expelled from the party in a purge. In general, the same model was used in the Soviet zone of occupation as in other Eastern European countries. She meant the Stalinization of the Marxist party, the deprivation of the independence of the “middle class” parties, further nationalization, repressive measures and the virtual elimination of the competitive electoral system.

Western states acted in Germany as authoritarianly as the Soviet administration in its zone. Anti-fascist committees were disbanded here too. Land governments were created (in the American zone during 1945, in the British and French - in 1946). Appointment to posts was carried out by a strong-willed decision of the occupation authorities. In the western occupation zones, the KPD and SPD also resumed their activities. The CDU was created, with which it established a “commonwealth” relationship; the Christian Social Union (CSU) was created in Bavaria; this party bloc began to be called the CDU / CSU. The liberal democracy camp was represented by the Free Democratic Party (FDP).

The US and UK soon became convinced that a revival of the German economy was vital to the recovery of Western Europe. The Americans and the British moved to coordinated actions. The first steps towards the unification of the western zones were taken at the end of 1946, when the American and British administrations agreed to unite the economic management of their zones from January 1, 1947. The so-called Bisonia was formed. The Bisonia administration received the status of parliament, i.e. purchased political rice. In 1948, the French also annexed their zone in Bisonia. The result was Trizonia.

In June 1948, the Reichsmark was replaced by the new "Deutsche Mark". The healthy tax base created by the new currency helped Germany join the Marshall Plan in 1949.

Currency reform led to the first clash between West and East as the Cold War began. In an effort to isolate their occupation zone from the influence of the Western economy, the Soviet leadership rejected both assistance under the Marshall Plan and the introduction of a new currency in its zone. It also relied on the introduction of the German mark in Berlin, but the Western Allies insisted that the new currency become legal tender in the western sectors of the city. To prevent the new brand from entering Berlin, the Soviet administration prevented cargo transportation from the west to Berlin by rail and highway. On June 23, 1948, the supply of Berlin by rail and road transport was completely blocked. The so-called Berlin crisis arose. The Western powers organized an intensive air supply (“air bridge”), which provided everything necessary not only to the military garrisons of Berlin, but also to its civilian population. On May 11, 1949, the Soviet side admitted defeat and ended the blockade. The Berlin crisis is over.

Increasing confrontation between the USSR and Western countries makes it impossible to create a unified German state. In August 1949, general parliamentary elections were held in West Germany, which brought victory to the CDU/CSU party, and on September 7 the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. In response, on October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in the east of the country. So, in the fall of 1949, the split in Germany received legal formalization.

1952 The USA, England and France signed an agreement with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany ended, but their troops remained on German territory. In 1955, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the GDR on the full sovereignty and independence of the GDR.

West German "economic miracle"

In the parliamentary elections (Bundestag) of 1949, two leading political forces were determined: the CDU/CSU (139 mandates), the SPD (131 mandates) and the “third force” - the FDP (52 mandates). The CDU/CSU and FDP formed a parliamentary coalition, which allowed them to create a joint government. This is how a “two-and-a-half” party model developed in Germany (in contrast to the two-party model in the USA and Great Britain). This model continued in the future.

The first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany was the Christian Democrat K. Adenauer (he held this position from 1949 to 1963). A characteristic feature of his political style was the desire for stability. An equally important circumstance was the implementation of an exceptionally effective economic course. Its ideologist was the permanent Minister of Economics of the Federal Republic of Germany L. Erhard.

The model of social market economy created as a result of Erhard's policies was based on the concept of ordoliberalism (from the German "Ordung" - order). Ordoliberals advocated the free market mechanism, not despite, but because of government intervention. They saw the basis of economic well-being in the strengthening of economic order. The state was given key functions. Its intervention was supposed to replace the action of market mechanisms, and create conditions for their effective functioning.

A difficult period of economic reform occurred in 1949-1950, when the liberalization of pricing caused an increase in prices with a relative decrease in the level of income of the population, and the restructuring of production was accompanied by a surge in unemployment. But already in 1951 there was a turning point, and in 1952 the rise in prices stopped and the unemployment rate began to decline. In subsequent years, unprecedented economic growth occurred: 9-10% per year, and in 1953-1956 - up to 10-15% per year. Germany came to second place among Western countries in terms of industrial production (and was only pushed aside by Japan in the late 60s). Large exports made it possible to create a significant gold reserve in the country. The German currency has become the strongest in Europe. In the second half of the 50s, unemployment practically disappeared, and real incomes tripled. Until 1964, the gross national product (GNP) of Germany increased 3 times, and it began to produce more products than the entire pre-war Germany. At that time they started talking about the German “economic miracle”.

The West German “economic miracle” was due to a number of factors. The economic system Erhard chose, where liberal market mechanisms were combined with targeted tax and credit policies of the state, proved its effectiveness. Erhard managed to achieve the adoption of strong anti-monopoly legislation. A significant role was played by revenues from the Marshall Plan, the lack of military spending (before Germany joined NATO), as well as the influx of foreign investment ($350 billion). In German industry, which was destroyed during the war, there was a massive renewal of fixed capital. The introduction of new technologies that accompanied this process, combined with the traditionally high efficiency and discipline of the German population, caused a rapid increase in labor productivity.

Agriculture developed successfully. As a result of the agrarian reform of 1948-1949, carried out with the assistance of the occupation authorities, a redistribution of land property was carried out. As a result, most of the land fund passed from large owners to medium and small ones. In subsequent years, the share of people employed in agriculture steadily decreased, but widespread mechanization and electrification of peasant labor made it possible to ensure an overall increase in output in this sector.

The social policy that encouraged direct relationships between entrepreneurs and workers turned out to be very successful. The government acted under the motto: “Neither capital without labor, nor labor without capital can exist.” Pension funds, housing construction, a system of free and preferential education, and vocational training were expanded. The rights of labor collectives in the field of production management were expanded, but their political activities were prohibited. The remuneration system was differentiated depending on the length of service at a particular enterprise. In 1960, the “Law for the Protection of the Rights of Youth at Work” was passed, and since 1963, minimum leave for all workers was introduced. Tax policy encouraged the transfer of part of the wage fund into special “people's shares”, which were distributed among the enterprise’s employees. All these government measures made it possible to ensure adequate growth in the purchasing power of the population in conditions of economic recovery. Germany was in the midst of a consumer boom.

In 1950, Germany became a member of the Council of Europe and began to take an active part in negotiations on European integration projects. In 1954, Germany became a member of the Western European Union, and in 1955 joined NATO. In 1957, Germany became one of the founders of the European Economic Community (EEC).

In the 60s, a regrouping of political forces took place in Germany. The FDP supported the SPD, and, having formed a new coalition, these two parties formed a government in 1969. This coalition lasted until the early 80s. During this period, the chancellors were the Social Democrats W. Brandt (1969-1974) and G. Schmidt (1974-1982).

A new political regrouping occurred in the early 80s. The FDP supported the CDU/CSU and left the coalition with the SPD. In 1982, Christian Democrat G. Kohl became chancellor (he held this post until 1998). He was destined to become chancellor of a united Germany.

German reunification

For forty post-war years, Germany was divided into two states by the Cold War front. The GDR was increasingly losing to West Germany in terms of economic growth and living standards. The symbol of the Cold War and the division of the German nation was the Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to prevent the citizens of the GDR from fleeing to the West.

In 1989, a revolution began in the GDR. The main demand of the participants in the revolutionary uprisings was the unification of Germany. In October 1989, the leader of the East German communists, E. Honecker, resigned, and on November 9, the Berlin Wall fell. The unification of Germany became a practically feasible task.

It was no longer possible to contain the process of German unification. But in the West and East of the country, different approaches to the future unification have been formed. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany provided for the reunification of Germany as the process of the annexation of the lands of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany and assumed the liquidation of the GDR as a state. The leadership of the GDR sought to achieve unification through a confederal union.

However, in the elections in March 1990, the GDR won the non-communist opposition led by the Christian Democrats. From the very beginning they advocated the speedy reunification of Germany on the basis of the Federal Republic of Germany. On June 1, the German mark was introduced into the GDR. On August 31, an agreement was signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the establishment of state unity.

All that remained was to agree on the unification of Germany with 4 states - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. For this purpose, negotiations were held according to the “2 + 4” formula, that is, between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, on the one hand, and the victorious powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain and France), on the other. The Soviet Union made a fundamentally important concession - it agreed to the continued membership of a united Germany in NATO and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from East Germany. On September 12, 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany was signed.

On October 3, 1990, 5 lands restored on the territory of East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the GDR ceased to exist. On December 20, 1990, the first Spilnonym government was formed, headed by Chancellor G. Kohl.

Economic and social achievements, problems of the 90s

Contrary to optimistic forecasts, the socio-economic consequences of German unification turned out to be ambiguous. The East Germans' hopes for the miraculous economic effect of unification were not justified. The main problem was the transfer of the command-administrative economy of the 5 eastern lands to the principles of a market economy. This process was carried out without strategic planning, through trial and error. The most “shocking” option for transforming the economy of East Germany was chosen. Its features include the introduction of private property, the decisive denationalization of state-owned enterprises, the short period of transition to a market economy, etc. Moreover, East Germany received socio-economic and political forms of organizing society immediately and in a ready-made form.

Adaptation of the economy of the eastern lands to new conditions was quite painful and led to a reduction in industrial production in them to 1/3 of the previous level. The German economy emerged from the state of crisis caused by the unification of the country and negative trends in the world economy only in 1994. However, the structural restructuring of industry and adaptation to the new conditions of a market economy caused a sharp increase in unemployment. In the mid-90s, it covered more than 12% of the workforce (more than 4 million people). The most difficult employment situation was in East Germany, where the unemployment rate exceeded 15% and average wages lagged significantly behind those in the “old lands.” All this, as well as the influx of foreign workers, caused growing social tension in German society. In the summer of 1996, mass protests organized by trade unions broke out.

G. Kohl called for comprehensive savings. The government had to make an unprecedented increase in taxes, which amounted to more than half of total earnings, and a drastic reduction in government spending, including economic support for the eastern lands. All this, as well as G. Kohl’s policy of further reducing social programs, ultimately led to the defeat of the ruling conservative-liberal coalition in the next parliamentary elections.

Social Democrats coming to power

The 1998 elections brought victory to the new coalition, which was formed by the SPD (received 40.9% of the vote) and the Green Party (6.7%). Before officially joining the coalition, both parties developed a large, well-executed government program. It included measures to reduce unemployment, revise the tax system, close 19 nuclear power plants, the remaining ones, etc. The government of the “pink-green” coalition was headed by Social Democrat G. Schröder. In the context of the economic recovery that began, the policies of the new government turned out to be very effective. The new government did not abandon savings in government spending. But these savings were achieved not by curtailing state social programs, but mainly through land budgets.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Germany, with its 80 million population, became the largest state in Western Europe. In terms of industrial production and level of economic development, it ranks third in the world, second only to the USA and Japan.

Education of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic

The beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947 and the growing confrontation between the USSR and the Western powers made it impossible to recreate a unified German state. The differences in the approach of the USSR and the USA to solving the German problem turned out to be insurmountable. The USSR advocated the reunification of Germany, its demilitarization and neutral status. The United States opposed the neutral status of a united Germany. They sought to see Germany as a dependent ally. As a result of the USSR's victory in the war, the countries of Eastern Europe came under its control. Power in them gradually passed to local communists loyal to the USSR. The United States and Western states, in opposition to the USSR, sought to maintain West Germany in their sphere of influence. This predetermined the state split in Germany.

Western states decided to create a special West German state in those territories that were under their occupation control. For this purpose, an Economic Council was established in Frankfurt from representatives of the Landtags of the states. He resolved financial and economic issues. The Economic Council had a majority of the CDU, CSU and FDP parties, which advocated a social market economy. In 1948, by decision of the Economic Council, monetary reform took place in the three western occupation zones. A stable German mark was introduced into circulation, and price controls were abolished. West Germany embarked on the path of creating a social market economy, and its economic revival began.

In 1948, to develop and adopt a draft constitution for the West German state, a special Parliamentary Council was convened - the Constituent Assembly, elected by the Landtags of the West German states. The draft constitution was developed in committees of the Parliamentary Council with the participation of German jurists and approved by military governors. In May 1949, the Parliamentary Council adopted the Basic Law. It received ratification and approval from the Landtags of the West German states, except for Bavaria, but is also valid for it, and came into force. This is how the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) came into being. It covered half of the former territory of the country and two-thirds of the Germans lived there. Western states adopted an occupation statute in 1949. He limited the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany in the field of foreign policy, defense, and foreign trade until 1955. Germany is still occupied by American troops.

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany is officially called the Basic Law, since when adopted, this act was considered temporary until the unification of the German lands into a single state, after which it was planned to develop a constitution for a united Germany. According to the Basic Law, Germany was open to the annexation of the remaining German states. After German unity is achieved, the Basic Law applies to the entire German people and ceases to be valid on the day when a new constitution comes into force, which will be adopted by the free decision of the German people. The Constitution of 1949 was also called Bonn - after the name of the new capital of the Federal Republic of Germany - Bonn.

In the Soviet zone of occupation, that is, in the eastern part of Germany, in October 1949, its own constitution was adopted, created on the Soviet model, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed. As a result, a long forty-year period of existence of two independent German states began. They did not remain neutral, but entered military-political alliances opposing each other. In 1955, Germany joined NATO, and the GDR joined the Warsaw Pact.

The German Democratic Republic, or GDR for short, is a country located in the Center of Europe and has been marked on maps for exactly 41 years. This is the westernmost country of the socialist camp that existed at that time, formed in 1949 and became part of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.

German Democratic Republic

In the north, the border of the GDR ran along the Baltic Sea; on land it bordered the Federal Republic of Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Its area was 108 thousand square kilometers. The population was 17 million people. The capital of the country was East Berlin. The entire territory of the GDR was divided into 15 districts. In the center of the country was the territory of West Berlin.

Location of the GDR

The small territory of the GDR had sea, mountains and plains. The north was washed by the Baltic Sea, which forms several bays and shallow lagoons. They are connected to the sea through straits. She owned the islands, the largest of which were Rügen, Usedom and Pel. There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Oder, Elbe, their tributaries Havel, Spree, Saale, as well as the Main, a tributary of the Rhine. Of the many lakes, the largest are Müritz, Schweriner See, and Plauer See.

In the south, the country was framed by low mountains, significantly indented by rivers: from the west the Harz, from the south-west the Thuringian Forest, from the south the Ore Mountains with the highest peak Fichtelberg (1212 meters). The north of the territory of the GDR was located on the Central European Plain, to the south lay the plain of the Macklenburg Lake District. To the south of Berlin lies a strip of sandy plains.

East Berlin

It was practically restored from scratch. The city was divided into occupation zones. After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, its eastern part became part of the GDR, and the western part was an enclave, surrounded on all sides by the territory of East Germany. According to the constitution of Berlin (West), the land on which it was located belonged to the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital of the GDR was a major center of science and culture in the country.

The Academies of Sciences and Arts and many higher educational institutions were located here. Concert halls and theaters have hosted outstanding musicians and artists from all over the world. Many parks and alleys served as decoration for the capital of the GDR. Sports facilities were built in the city: stadiums, swimming pools, courts, and competition grounds. The most famous park for residents of the USSR was Treptow Park, in which a monument to the liberating soldier was erected.

Big cities

The majority of the country's population were urban residents. In a small country, there were several cities whose population exceeded half a million people. Large cities of the former German Democratic Republic, as a rule, had a fairly ancient history. These are the cultural and economic centers of the country. The largest cities include Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig. East German cities were heavily damaged. But Berlin suffered the most, where fighting took place literally for every house.

The largest cities were located in the south of the country: Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen), Dresden and Leipzig. Every city in the GDR was famous for something. Rostock, located in northern Germany, is a modern port city. World-famous porcelain was produced in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen). In Jena there was the famous Carl Zeiss plant, which produced lenses, including for telescopes, and famous binoculars and microscopes were produced here. This city was also famous for its universities and scientific institutions. This is a city of students. Schiller and Goette once lived in Weimar.

Karl-Marx-Stadt (1953-1990)

This city, founded in the 12th century in the state of Saxony, now bears its original name - Chemnitz. It is the center of textile engineering and textile industry, machine tool manufacturing and mechanical engineering. The city was completely destroyed by British and American bombers and rebuilt after the war. Small islands of ancient buildings remain.

Leipzig

The city of Leipzig, located in the state of Saxony, was one of the largest cities in the German Democratic Republic before the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany. Another large city in Germany is located 32 kilometers from it - Halle, which is located in the state of Saxony-Anhalt. Together, the two cities form an urban agglomeration with a population of 1,100 thousand people.

The city has long been the cultural and scientific center of Central Germany. It is famous for its universities as well as fairs. Leipzig is one of the most developed industrial areas in East Germany. Since the late Middle Ages, Leipzig has been a recognized center of printing and bookselling in Germany.

The greatest composer Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as the famous Felix Mendelssohn, lived and worked in this city. The city is still famous today for its musical traditions. Since ancient times, Leipzig has been a major trading center; until the last war, famous fur trades took place here.

Dresden

A pearl among German cities is Dresden. The Germans themselves call it Florence on the Elbe, as there are many Baroque architectural monuments here. The first mention of it was recorded in 1206. Dresden has always been the capital: since 1485 - of the Margraviate of Meissen, since 1547 - of the Electorate of Saxony.

It is located on the Elbe River. The border with the Czech Republic runs 40 kilometers from it. It is the administrative center of Saxony. Its population numbers about 600,000 inhabitants.

The city suffered greatly from US and British air raids. Up to 30 thousand residents and refugees, most of them old people, women and children, died. During the bombing, the residence castle, the Zwinger complex, and the Semper Opera were severely destroyed. Almost the entire historical center lay in ruins.

To restore architectural monuments, after the war, all surviving parts of the buildings were dismantled, rewritten, numbered and taken out of the city. Everything that could not be restored was cleared away.

The old city was a flat area on which most of the monuments were gradually restored. The GDR government came up with a proposal to revive the old city, which lasted almost forty years. New neighborhoods and avenues were built for residents around the old city.

Coat of arms of the GDR

Like any country, the GDR had its own coat of arms, described in Chapter 1 of the constitution. The coat of arms of the German Democratic Republic was a superimposed golden hammer, representing the working class, and a compass, representing the intelligentsia. They were surrounded by a golden wreath of wheat, representing the peasantry, intertwined with the ribbons of the national flag.

Flag of the GDR

The flag of the German Democratic Republic was an elongated panel consisting of four stripes of equal width, painted in the national colors of Germany: black, red and gold. In the middle of the flag was the coat of arms of the GDR, which distinguished it from the flag of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Prerequisites for the formation of the GDR

The history of the GDR covers a very short period of time, but it is still studied with great attention by scientists in Germany. The country was severely isolated by Germany and the entire Western world. After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, there were occupation zones, there were four of them, since the former state ceased to exist. All power in the country, with all management functions, was formally transferred to the military administrations.

The transition period was complicated by the fact that Germany, especially its eastern part, where German resistance was desperate, lay in ruins. The barbaric bombings of British and US aircraft were aimed at intimidating the civilian population of cities that were liberated by the Soviet army and turning them into a pile of ruins.

In addition, there was no agreement between the former allies regarding the vision of the future of the country, which is what subsequently led to the creation of two countries - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Basic principles of German reconstruction

Even at the Yalta Conference, the basic principles of the restoration of Germany were considered, which were later fully agreed upon and approved at the conference in Potsdam by the victorious countries: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. They were also approved by the countries participating in the war against Germany, in particular France, and contained the following provisions:

Complete destruction of the totalitarian state.
Complete ban on the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it.
Complete liquidation of the punitive organizations of the Reich, such as the SA, SS, and SD services, since they were recognized as criminal.
The army was completely liquidated.
Racial and political legislation was repealed.
Gradual and consistent implementation of denazification, demilitarization and democratization.

The solution to the German question, which included the peace treaty, was entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the victorious countries. On June 5, 1945, the victorious states promulgated the Declaration of the Defeat of Germany, according to which the country was divided into four occupation zones governed by the administrations of Great Britain (the largest zone), the USSR, the USA and France. The capital of Germany, Berlin, was also divided into zones. The resolution of all issues was entrusted to the Control Council, which included representatives of the victorious countries.

Parties of Germany

In Germany, to restore statehood, the formation of new political parties that would be democratic in nature was allowed. In the eastern sector, the emphasis was on the revival of the Communist and Social Democratic Parties of Germany, which soon merged into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (1946). Its goal was to build a socialist state. It was the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic.

In the western sectors, the main political force was the CDU (Christian Democratic Union) party formed in June 1945. In 1946, the CSU (Christian Social Union) was formed in Bavaria on this principle. Their main principle is a democratic republic based on market economics with private property rights.

Political confrontations on the issue of the post-war structure of Germany between the USSR and the rest of the coalition countries were so serious that their further aggravation would have led either to a split in the state or to a new war.

Formation of the German Democratic Republic

In December 1946, Great Britain and the USA, ignoring numerous proposals from the USSR, announced the unification of their two zones. They began to call it “Bisonia” for short. This was preceded by the refusal of the Soviet administration to supply agricultural products to the western zones. In response to this, transit transportation of equipment exported from factories and factories in East Germany and located in the Ruhr region to the USSR zone was stopped.

At the beginning of April 1949, France also joined “Bizonia”, resulting in the formation of “Trisonia”, from which the Federal Republic of Germany was subsequently formed. So the Western powers, conspiring with the big German bourgeoisie, created a new state. In response to this, the German Democratic Republic was created at the end of 1949. Berlin, or rather its Soviet zone, became its center and capital.

The People's Council was temporarily reorganized into the People's Chamber, which adopted the Constitution of the GDR, which was subject to popular discussion. On September 11, 1949, the first president of the GDR was elected. It was the legendary Wilhelm Pieck. At the same time, the government of the GDR was temporarily created, headed by O. Grotewohl. The military administration of the USSR transferred all functions for governing the country to the government of the GDR.

The Soviet Union did not want the division of Germany. They were repeatedly made proposals for the unification and development of the country in accordance with the Potsdam decisions, but they were regularly rejected by Great Britain and the United States. Even after the division of Germany into two countries, Stalin made proposals for the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, provided that the decisions of the Potsdam Conference were respected and Germany was not drawn into any political or military blocs. But Western states refused this, ignoring the decisions of Potsdam.

Political system of the GDR

The form of government of the country was based on the principle of people's democracy, in which a bicameral parliament operated. The country's political system was considered to be bourgeois-democratic, in which socialist transformations took place. The German Democratic Republic included the former German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The lower (people's) house was elected by universal secret ballot. The upper house was called the Land Chamber, the executive body was the government, which was made up of the prime minister and ministers. It was formed through an appointment made by the largest faction of the People's Chamber.

The administrative-territorial division consisted of lands consisting of districts divided into communities. The functions of the legislative bodies were performed by the Landtags, the executive bodies were the state governments.

The People's Chamber - the highest body of the state - consisted of 500 deputies, who were elected by secret ballot by the people for a period of 4 years. It was represented by all parties and public organizations. The People's Chamber, acting on the basis of laws, made the most important decisions on the development of the country, dealt with relations between organizations, compliance with the rules of cooperation between citizens, government organizations and associations; adopted the main law - the Constitution and other laws of the country.

Economy of the GDR

After the division of Germany, the economic situation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was very difficult. This part of Germany was very much destroyed. The equipment of plants and factories was exported to the western sectors of Germany. The GDR was simply cut off from its historical raw material bases, most of which were located in the Federal Republic of Germany. There was a shortage of natural resources such as ore and coal. There were few specialists: engineers, executives who left for Germany, frightened by propaganda about the brutal reprisals of the Russians.

With the help of the Union and other commonwealth countries, the economy of the GDR gradually began to gain momentum. Enterprises were restored. It was believed that centralized leadership and a planned economy served as a restraining factor for economic development. It should be taken into account that the restoration of the country took place in isolation from the western part of Germany, in an atmosphere of fierce confrontation between the two countries and open provocations.

Historically, the eastern regions of Germany were mostly agricultural, and in the western part, rich in coal and metal ore deposits, heavy industry, metallurgy and mechanical engineering were concentrated.

Without financial and material assistance from the Soviet Union, it would have been impossible to achieve a rapid restoration of industry. For the losses that the USSR suffered during the war, the GDR paid it reparation payments. Since 1950, their volume has been halved, and in 1954 the USSR refused to receive them.

Foreign policy situation

The construction of the Berlin Wall by the German Democratic Republic became a symbol of the intransigence of the two blocs. The Eastern and Western blocs of Germany increased their military forces, and provocations from the Western bloc became more frequent. It came down to open sabotage and arson. The propaganda machine was working at full capacity, taking advantage of economic and political difficulties. The Federal Republic of Germany, like many Western European countries, did not recognize the GDR. The aggravation of relations peaked in the early 1960s.

The so-called “German crisis” also arose thanks to West Berlin, which, legally being the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, was located in the very center of the GDR. The border between the two zones was conditional. As a result of the confrontation between the NATO blocs and the countries belonging to the Warsaw bloc, the SED Politburo decided to build a border around West Berlin, which consisted of a reinforced concrete wall 106 km long and 3.6 m high and a metal mesh fence 66 km long. It stood from August 1961 until November 1989.

After the merger of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, the wall was demolished, leaving only a small section that became the Berlin Wall memorial. In October 1990, the GDR became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. The history of the German Democratic Republic, which existed for 41 years, is intensively studied and researched by scientists of modern Germany.

Despite the propaganda discrediting of this country, scientists are well aware that it gave Western Germany a lot. In a number of parameters, it has surpassed its Western brother. Yes, the joy of reunification was genuine for the Germans, but there is no point in belittling the importance of the GDR, one of the most developed countries in Europe, and many in modern Germany understand this very well.

Federal Republic of Germany.

After the defeat of Germany in the Second World War and the surrender of Hitler's army, the territory of the country was occupied by the troops of the allied states: the USSR, the USA, England and France. In accordance with the decision of the Potsdam Conference (July 17 - August 2, 1945), Germany was divided into 4 occupation zones. General management was concentrated in the Union Control Council.

At the end of 1946, separate administration of the three western zones was created. The logical consequence of this was the division of Germany and the formation of two independent states. The decision on this was made in 1948 at the London Conference of six Western powers: the USA, England, France, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg. Based on the decisions of the conference, the military governors of the United States, Great Britain and France in the occupied zones authorized the prime ministers of the governments of the German states to begin developing a draft constitution for the future state - the Federal Republic of Germany. The project was prepared and discussed in the Parliamentary Council. This council consisted of 65 deputies elected by the state parliaments and 5 representatives with an advisory vote from West Berlin.

On May 8, 1949, the Parliamentary Council meeting in Bonn adopted the draft fundamental law and submitted it to the Landtags for ratification. Between 18 and 21 May 1949, the parliaments of all states except Bavaria approved the draft constitution.

The new constitution, which came into force on May 23, 1949, restored democratic institutions of government and governance and was in many ways similar to the Weimar Constitution of 1919.

The new German state is built on the principles of federalism. It was formed from 10 lands (currently - 14), independent in their budget and independent of each other. Each of the states has its own Landtag and its own government, which has significant autonomy.

Legislative power belongs to a bicameral parliament: the upper house is the Bundesrat (Union Council), the lower house is the Bundestag.

Bundesrat - consists of 41 members and expresses the interests of the constituent entities of the federation. The government of each state appoints its representatives to the Bundesrat. The number of votes that a given “land” has in the chamber is determined by the size of its population. Lands with a population of up to 2 million people have 3 votes, from 2 to 6 million - 4 votes, and over 6 million - five.

The Bundestag was elected by the entire people of Germany and consists of 496 members. Half of the deputies are elected in the districts using a majority system of relative majority through direct voting. The other half is based on party lists nominated in each land according to a proportional system. Each voter in Germany is given two votes. The first is for the election of a deputy in an electoral district, the second is for elections according to land lists. The party that received less than 5% of the second votes shared representation in parliament.

The system of central government bodies is based on the principle of separation of powers.

According to the Constitution, the head of the Federal Republic of Germany is the President, who is elected for a term of 5 years by a specially assembled Federal Assembly. The President can participate in government meetings, promulgate laws, and can, in some cases, dissolve the Bundestag. However, most presidential acts require mandatory countersignature from the Federal Chancellor or the relevant minister.

Real executive power is concentrated in the government and especially in the hands of its chairman, the chancellor. The candidacy of the chancellor is proposed by the president. He is then elected by a majority vote of the Bundestag. The Chancellor appoints and dismisses ministers, determines the domestic and foreign policy of the state. He is the only minister constitutionally responsible to the Bundestag.

The federal government has the power to issue regulations to implement federal laws, as well as issue general administrative regulations. The government is actively involved in the legislative process.

In the system of central government bodies of Germany, a special place is occupied by the Federal Constitutional Court, consisting of two senates of 8 judges each. The members of the court are elected in equal numbers by the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. The Constitutional Court has broad competence - interpreting the Constitution, checking the compliance of federal and state law with the basic law, resolving disputes between the federation and the states, etc. The court can also overturn parliamentary laws if they do not comply with the “spirit and letter” of the constitution.

In general, Germany did not know either a deep confrontation of forces with a real prospect of leftist participation in the government, or acute conflicts between the executive and legislative branches, which allows us to conclude that the West German political system was particularly strong.

German Democratic Republic.

In accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, the USSR occupied the eastern part of Germany: the lands of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Thuringia, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt. A special body of the Soviet military administration in Germany was created - SVAG. Soon the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) was involved in government activities. It was formed in April 1946 as a result of the merger of the communist and social democratic party organizations. In September-October 1946, elections to local governments and state parliaments were held throughout East Germany. The SED received more than 50% of the votes in the municipal elections and 47% in the Landtag elections.

At the same time, socialist reforms followed. The property of the monopolies was confiscated, and agrarian reform was carried out. The focus was on the collectivization of agriculture.

In September 1947, the 2nd congress of the SKPG took place. He proposed convening a German People's Congress to determine the future of the state. The East German People's Congress (March 1948) elected the so-called German People's Council and tasked it with drafting a constitution for the future GDR.

In 1949, the People's Council announced the introduction of a new Constitution establishing the German Democratic Republic as an independent state.

The Constitution of the GDR of 1949 determined that the highest body of power was the People's Chamber (400 deputies), elected for 4 years by universal, direct and equal elections. By secret ballot, the People's Chamber elects its Presidium, in which each faction is represented, numbering at least 40 deputies. Representation of the Länder is carried out by the Chamber of Länder, which is elected by local Landtags. The Chamber of Lands received limited rights: it can protest against a law adopted by the People's Chamber within 14 days, but the final decision belongs to the latter.

Both chambers have jurisdiction over the election of the President. He is elected for 4 years, represents the republic in international relations, receives diplomatic representatives, exercises the right to pardon, etc. The government is formed by a representative of the faction that is the strongest in the People's Chamber. The People's Chamber approves the composition of the government and its program. The government is responsible to the House.

In 1952, the historical division of the country into lands was eliminated and a new administrative-territorial division of the GDR was established into 14 districts and 217 districts. The Chamber of Lands and Landtags were abolished. Local power began to be exercised by district and regional assemblies, which elected their own councils (executive authorities).

In 1952, the SED conference decided to build socialism in the GDR. 16 years after this, the new constitution of the GDR in 1968 declared the victory of socialist production relations.

Meanwhile, West Germany was increasingly ahead of East Germany in terms of living standards and the degree of industrial and democratic development. Socialism has discredited itself.

At the end of the 80s, the situation in the world changed. The Cold War, the confrontation between capitalist and socialist systems, has ended. Under these conditions, the unification of the Federal Republic of Germany and the GDR became possible, and it took place in 1989.

Thus, after the First World War, Germany became a victim of the confrontation between world systems and again lost its integrity. However, this time the unification of the state was accomplished not by force, as in the time of Bismarck, but through a peace agreement.

Revealing development of law In Germany, it is important to note the Civil Code of 1896, which became the first in the history of Germany to codify civil law unified for the entire country. The German civil code is largely based on Roman law. The norms of the code are contained in the general part (the first book). In addition, the code contains 4 more books: the second is devoted to obligations, the third – to property law, the fourth – to family law and the fifth – to inheritance law.

Distinctive features of the German Civil Code are: the absence of general legal definitions; the paragraphs of the code are very detailed and descriptive in nature.

During the period of imperialism (the first half of the 20th century), the top of monopoly capital merged with the state apparatus. In this regard, one of the features of civil law of this period is state intervention in the sphere of economic activity. The principles of administrative law penetrate into civil law; Mandatory norms often take the place of the dispositive norms usual for bourgeois civil law. The principles of freedom of contract, sanctity of contract, and free competition are violated. The principle of the sanctity of the contract and its binding force on the parties has also been shaken.

After Hitler seized power in Germany and the establishment of the fascist regime in the country, the German Civil Code was not abolished. However, since 1933, a number of laws have been issued changing the norms of the GGU, aimed at the direct abolition of equality, built on the idea of racism and fascist eugenics. Laws were also passed aimed at securing the economic position of monopolies.

After the defeat of fascism in World War II, fascist legislation was repealed and the German Civil Code was restored throughout Germany, which remained in effect only in the Federal Republic of Germany, while a new civil code was adopted in the GDR.

With the creation of a unified Germany in 1871, the Criminal Code of the North German Confederation of 1870 was put into effect throughout its entire territory. It consisted of three parts. The first contained provisions on the differentiation of criminal acts into crimes, misdemeanors and police violations; on the liability of German citizens in the event of offenses committed abroad and some other introductory regulations. The second part outlined general issues of criminal law: the stages of the crime, complicity, mitigating and aggravating circumstances. The third part included rules relating to certain types of crimes, i.e. was a special part of the code.

Among the crimes, state crimes came first: insulting the emperor and local sovereigns, counterfeiting, calls for disobedience to state authorities, etc.

The German criminal code provided for quite severe punishments: death penalty, imprisonment in a workhouse, imprisonment, placement in a fortress, arrest, restriction of rights, and a fine. The main purpose of punishment was deterrence, especially when it came to serious crimes. Those who committed state crimes against religion and property were punished most severely. At the same time, in the Code there is a desire to build a punitive system taking into account the personality of the criminal and the gravity of the crime he committed.

The Weimar Republic retained the Criminal Code of 1871. However, the code was re-edited, the remnants of Prussian feudalism were removed from it, and the scope of application of capital intrigue was reduced.

After the end of World War II, on the basis of the Potsdam Agreements, fascist criminal legislation was abolished. The validity of the Criminal Code of 1871 was restored with editorial corrections until 1933.

With the adoption of the 1949 Constitution, there was a movement towards democratization and criminal law. The death penalty was abolished.

Thus, the development of German law is based on the continental system. The main source of law in Germany is the law.