What topics were raised in ancient Russian literature. Old Russian literature - what is it? Works of ancient Russian literature

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic. There is an obvious trend in Russian society to “return to basics.” Interest in culture, art, literature, spiritual values of the past, including the culture and art of Ancient Rus', has increased. Works of the 11th-17th centuries are published, multi-volume series appear (“Literary Monuments of Ancient Rus'”, “Art and Literature of Ancient Rus'”), dictionaries on Old Russian art, albums dedicated to architectural ensembles of the past, Old Russian icon painting. Part of this general movement is the introduction of students in high schools, lyceums, and gymnasiums to the literature of Ancient Rus'.

Works of literature from Ancient Rus' contribute to the development of students’ aesthetic culture, their worldview and cognitive interest. Current secondary school programs provide for mastering a certain range of theoretical and literary concepts, forming ideas about the main genres of ancient Russian literature, and instilling in schoolchildren a culture of perception of works of Russian antiquity. To successfully implement this task, it is necessary to choose a way to consider ancient Russian works in school. “The more clearly the teacher raises the question about the specifics of the genre, the more clearly the analysis will be constructed, the more productive it will be for literary education and the aesthetic development of students, not to mention the fact that attention to the specifics of the genre will add variety to literature lessons and increase interest” Golubkov V.V. Methods of teaching literature. 7th ed. - M.: 2009. .

The literature of Ancient Rus' covers the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries. This is the first stage in the development of Russian literature. Old Russian literature was the literature of the emerging Great Russian nationality, gradually developing into a nation. Our understanding of ancient Russian literature is far from complete.

The literature of Ancient Rus' is medieval literature, which differs from the literature of modern times in its specific features.

Subject of study. Methods of teaching literature.

Object of study. Methods of teaching Old Russian literature in the fifth to ninth grades of secondary schools.

Objectives of the study.

Consider the specifics of teaching Old Russian literature in secondary schools in grades VI-IX.

Research objectives.

1. Old Russian literature at school.

2. Study of ancient Russian literature in grades VI-IX of secondary schools.

Structure and main content of the work.

The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, and a list of references.

Old Russian literature at school

The originality of ancient Russian literature

Russian literature is almost a thousand years old. This is one of the most ancient literatures in Europe. It is older than French, English, and German literature. Its beginning dates back to the second half of the 10th century. Of this great millennium, more than seven hundred years belong to the period commonly called “ancient Russian literature.”

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence and distribution (printing appeared only in the 16th century). Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections that pursued certain practical goals. “Everything that serves not for the sake of benefit, but for the sake of embellishment, is subject to the accusation of vanity.” These words of Basil the Great largely determined the attitude of ancient Russian society towards written works. The value of a particular handwritten book was assessed from the point of view of its practical purpose and usefulness.

Another feature of our ancient literature is anonymity. This was a consequence of the religiously Christian attitude of feudal society towards man, and in particular towards the work of a writer, artist, and architect. At best, we know the names of individual authors, “copywriters” of books, who modestly put their name either at the end of the manuscript, or in its margins, or (which is much less common) in the title of the work. At the same time, the writer will not accept his name with such evaluative epithets as “thin”, “unworthy”, “many sinners”. In most cases, the author of the work prefers to remain unknown, and sometimes hide behind the authoritative name of one or another “father of the church” - John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, etc. Buslaev F.I. Historical essays on Russian folk literature and art. T. 2 (Old Russian folk literature and art). -SPb.: - 2011..

One of the characteristic features of Old Russian literature is its connection with church and business writing, on the one hand, and oral poetic folk art, on the other. The nature of these connections at each historical stage of the development of literature and in its individual monuments was different.

However, the wider and deeper literature used the artistic experience of folklore, the more clearly it reflected the phenomena of reality, the wider was the sphere of its ideological and artistic influence.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. The course and development of historical events is explained by God's will, the will of providence. However, having discarded the religious shell, the modern reader easily discovers that living historical reality, the true creator of which was the Russian people. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or legend, hagiography or church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of persuasion. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

Ancient Russian literature is also a cycle. A cycle that is many times superior to folklore ones. This is an epic telling the history of the universe and the history of Rus'.

None of the works of Ancient Rus' - translated or original - stands apart. They all complement each other in the picture of the world they create. Each story is a complete whole, and at the same time it is connected with others. This is only one chapter of the history of the world. Even such works as the translated story “Stephanit and Ikhnilat” (an ancient Russian version of the plot of “Kalila and Dimna”) or “The Tale of Dracula”, written on the basis of anecdotal oral stories, are included in collections and are not found in separate lists. They begin to appear in individual manuscripts only in the late tradition - in the 17th and 18th centuries.

It is difficult to imagine what has been said from anthologies, anthologies and individual editions of ancient Russian texts, torn from their surroundings in manuscripts. But if we remember the extensive manuscripts in which all these works are included - all these multi-volume Great Chetya-Menaion, chronicle vaults, prologues, Chrysostoms, Ezramagds, chronographs, individual collections of chets - then we will clearly imagine that feeling of the greatness of the world , which the ancient Russian scribes sought to express in all their literature, the unity of which they vividly felt.

There is only one genre of literature that seems to go beyond this medieval historicity: parables. They are clearly fictitious. In an allegorical form, they present moral teaching to readers, representing, as it were, a figurative generalization of reality. They talk not about the individual, but about the general, constantly happening. The genre of the parable is traditional. For Ancient Rus', it also has biblical origins. The Bible is littered with parables. Christ speaks in parables in the Gospel. Accordingly, parables were included in the compositions for preachers and in the works of the preachers themselves. But parables talk about “eternal things.” The eternal is the reverse side of a single historical plot of ancient Russian literature. Bulgakov S. Abbot of the Russian Land // Rabotnitsa. - 2011. - No. 9..

So, literature forms a certain structural unity - the same as that formed by ritual folklore or historical epic. Literature is woven into a single fabric thanks to the unity of theme, the unity of artistic time with the time of history, thanks to the attachment of the plot of works to real geographical space, thanks to the entry of one work into another with all the ensuing genetic connections and, finally, thanks to the unity of literary etiquette.

In this unity of literature, in this erasure of the boundaries of its works by the unity of the whole, in this lack of identification of the author’s principle, in this significance of the theme, which was all devoted to one degree or another to “world issues” and was not very entertaining, in this ceremonial decoration of the plots there is a peculiar grandeur. The feeling of greatness and significance of what was happening was the main style-forming element of ancient Russian literature.

Ancient Rus' left us many brief praises of books. Everywhere it is emphasized that books benefit the soul, teach a person abstinence, encourage him to admire the world and the wisdom of its structure. Books reveal “the thoughts of the heart,” they contain beauty, and the righteous need them like weapons for a warrior, like sails for a ship.

Literature is a sacred act. The reader was in some respects a praying person. He stood before the work, like the icon, and experienced a feeling of reverence. A touch of this reverence remained even when the work was secular. But the opposite also arose: mockery, irony, buffoonery. A striking representative of this opposite principle in literature is Daniil Zatochnik, who transferred the techniques of buffoonery to his “Prayer”. A lush courtyard needs a jester; The court master of ceremonies is opposed by a joker and a buffoon. In his “Prayer,” Daniil Zatochnik ridicules the path to achieving well-being in life with a tinge of cynicism, amuses the prince and emphasizes ceremonial prohibitions with his inappropriate jokes.

If we briefly define the values that were created by ancient Russian literature, then they can be seen in several areas.

Ancient Russian literature developed that amazing sense of social responsibility of the writer, which has become a characteristic feature of Russian literature of modern times. Already in Ancient Rus', literature became the pulpit from which the teaching word was constantly heard.

In ancient Russian literature, an idea was formed about the unity of the world, about the unity of all humanity and its history, combined with deep patriotism - patriotism devoid of a sense of national exclusivity, stupid and narrow chauvinism. It was in ancient Russian literature that that broad and deep view of the entire “inhabited world” (ecumene) was created, which became characteristic of it in the 19th century.

Through its rich translated literature, ancient Russian literature was able to assimilate the best achievements of Byzantine and South Slavic literature and become European literature.

In ancient Russian literature, the art of narration, the art of laconic characteristics, and the ability to create brief philosophical generalizations developed.

In Ancient Rus', on the basis of two languages - Old Church Slavonic and Russian, a surprisingly diverse and rich language of literature was created.

The system of genres in ancient Russian literature turned out to be extremely diverse and flexible.

Ancient Russian literature represented that developed, widely spread root system, on the basis of which the literature of modern times could quickly grow in the 18th century and to which the achievements of Western European literature could be grafted.

How do you explain the importance of understanding the author's point of view when reading works of fiction?

Reading a work of art is always a dialogue with the author. We either agree with him or argue, but almost never remain indifferent.

It is necessary to understand the author’s position, if only in order to determine our own position as a reader. Yes, if we say that we didn’t like the book, we can always explain why such an assessment arose. Thus, already in the 5th grade, some students actively do not accept the stories of Baron Munchausen, because “they are not at all similar to real life events.”

Can all works of folklore be attributed to some indefinitely distant time? Give examples.

Most of the voluminous works of oral folk art - epics, fairy tales - are attributed by their nameless authors to fairy-tale times, for example, the times of King Pea. And the time and place of events in fairy tales are often emphatically devoid of specificity. But works of folklore do not necessarily exist in such an indefinitely distant time. There are many works that reflect a specific time. Such are, for example, historical songs about Peter I or Ivan the Terrible, a play about the war with Napoleon, modern responses to the events of our days.

However, even the epic past is not completely devoid of signs of time. In many epics there are responses not to a specific event, but to an era.

What qualities of a historical figure attracted ancient Russian authors?

Old Russian authors were attracted, on the one hand, by such qualities of a historical personality that helped a person of large scale to rule the country and lead the country to victories. The gift of leadership, courage, and efficiency were important here. And on the other hand, they were also attracted by purely personal virtues: kindness and observation, caring and lack of greed... This is how the idea of the hero of historical folk legend was formed as an ideal person, who, of course, was an impeccable example to be emulated both as a leader and as one of the members of the community of people of his time.

Which of the works of the 12th-17th centuries helped you form an impression of that time, of the people who lived at that time, their way of life, and morals?

Each of the works of a certain era that we read helps us imagine the past. The reader is especially confident in chronicles that strive to accurately reproduce the events that just happened.

What is the difference between a historical work and a work of fiction dedicated to historical events? Answer the question using the works of Karamzin and Pushkin.

The historical work accurately reproduces the events. In a work of art, the same events are included in a fictional outline created by the author, which helps to understand the era. These are the works of N. M. Karamzin and A. S. Pushkin included in the textbook. A high level of mastery of the material and a writer’s talent help these authors not only accurately convey specific events and images of specific characters, but also reproduce the era and make an author’s assessment of the events depicted. This is the story about the great Novgorod. This is the version of the fate of the prophetic Oleg. These are the events of Pugachev's uprising. In these works, even fictional characters help the reader imagine real heroes and real events of a bygone era. Petrusha Grinev and Savelich characterize the era no less convincingly than the historically reliable leader of the uprising Emelyan Pugachev.

Authors of the 19th and 20th centuries turned to epics with interest and love. Do you think they were concerned about their native history or the artistic merits of folk works? Try to explain this interest.

The interest in epics among many Russian classics was explained by the fact that they were not indifferent to their native history, and also by the fact that they were inspired by the artistic merits of our folklore. Getting acquainted with the epics, they were captivated by their heroic plots and the heroic characters of the gods presented in them. The particular strength of these feelings was caused by the accuracy of the reproduction of many events in the lives of these heroes. Each of them has its own biography, its own characteristic common to the entire cycle of epics. For the storytellers, these were real people whose lives were familiar to them and close to the smallest detail. And the authors of the 19th and 20th centuries turned to epics with the same trust and love. They were concerned both with the heroes and events of those times, and with the connection of times, including the connection of their own time with the distant epic time. They were and are attracted by the heroic principle in the characters of the heroes, the ability to overcome difficulties and the resilience of their characters, the psychological accuracy of reproducing those typical of a brutal struggle.

What contributed to the emergence of literature in Rus' and/how did this affect its content?

Old Russian literature is the initial stage in the formation and development of Russian literature. Its emergence is closely connected with the process of formation of the early feudal state. It was largely subordinated to the political tasks of strengthening this state, the desire to unite the fragmented principalities into a single centralized state. It reflects different periods of the development of Ancient Rus' from the 11th to the 17th centuries.

According to researcher V.V. Kuskov, “this is the literature of the emerging Great Russian nationality, gradually forming into a nation.” The chronicle played a special role in fulfilling this task.

The emergence of ancient Russian literature was largely facilitated by the adoption of Christianity by Russia, which influenced its content, artistic forms and emerging genres.

The content of the literature of the Russian Middle Ages is particularly spiritual. The life of the human soul, the education and improvement of the moral world of man - this is its main task. Her works glorified such Christian ideals as mercy, modesty, spiritual generosity, and non-covetousness. The consequence was the emergence of a genre of hagiography that glorified the heroic and ascetic essence of the most worthy people of the era - saints, heroes, military leaders, leaders of the Orthodox Church, whose physical and spiritual exploits could serve as an example for the education of youth.

How is the biblical story about Christ’s descent to earth and his acceptance of torment for human sins interpreted in the apocrypha “The Mother of God’s Walk through Torment”?

Like other apocrypha, “The Virgin’s Walk through the Torment” was included in the 11th century in the list of “renounced books,” that is, not recognized by the church due to inconsistency with a number of official church interpretations.

Thus, the interpretation of the theme of sinners in the apocrypha differs from the canonical one, primarily in the depiction of hell and the torment to which the dead are subjected there. If church books only asserted the inevitability of torment after the death of a sinner, then the apocrypha amazed the reader’s imagination with detailed pictures of hellish torment. Some researchers of ancient Russian literature (N.K. Gudziy, V.V. Kuskov) see in the monument a kind of opposition to God’s Judgment of the Mother of God’s living sympathy for sinners.

As for the coming of Christ into the world and his acceptance of torment for human sins, there are no discrepancies between the biblical interpretation and the interpretation of the apocrypha.

According to the Bible, the Lord sent his son to earth as the Savior of the world, who will deliver people from the slavery of sin and the power of the devil - “he will erase the head of the serpent,” as God told the first people in paradise, will save people from eternal death and will open the gates to the Kingdom of Heaven for eternal blissful life with God. Through a voluntary atoning sacrifice, Christ saves people from final destruction. Having trampled death with his own death, he gave people eternal life, eternal bliss, that is, salvation to all who believed in him.

In the apocrypha, in response to the prayers of sinners, the intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos and the angelic host, Christ descends from the throne and says that he came to earth to free people from original sin. At the same time, he recalls the violation of God’s commandments and the unrepentance of sinners. The appearance of Christ to sinners and the temporary relief of their lot is not a canonical text and therefore is not recognized by the church.

Try to prove, based on the given excerpt from the text of “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk,” that this is an artistic depiction of the saint.

The Monk Nestor, depicting Theodosius of Pechersk, uses the techniques inherent in works of art to create the image of a hero, in this case a saint. These include a detailed comparison of Theodosius with a luminary, visible to everyone and illuminating the path for the Monkmen. This comparison is intended to especially highlight his holiness, recognition of his miraculous services to the entire secular and monastic society.

Creating a lively, vivid image of Theodosius of Pechersk, the author says that he happily worked in the bakery and had a strong and strong body. This distinguishes the image of Theodosius from the accepted depiction of other saints - gray-haired, gray-bearded, serious and focused on their internal thoughts. This description contains an instructive idea necessary for hagiographic literature - an example of such ascetic work for youth.

What features of the chronicles can you share?

The chronicle arose back in Kievan Rus from the need of Russian society to have its own written history, and this was associated with the growth of the national self-awareness of the people. The chronicle was a historical document that included texts or transcriptions of treaty documents, wills of princes, resolutions of feudal congresses and other documents. Events of not only domestic, but also world history, and their interconnection became the subject of interest for chroniclers. This was especially evident in The Tale of Bygone Years, in which the question of the origin of the Russian people was explored in connection with world history. The chronicle was kept year by year, had collective authorship, and therefore in it we find diverse opinions about the events of history, wider coverage, and a direct reflection of the people's point of view on these events. In it one can even notice differences in the political views and literary skills of its compilers.

Chroniclers often used folklore and book sources. One of the first chronicle collections - “The Tale of Bygone Years” - is a monument of collective creativity, on which, starting from the reign of Yaroslav the Wise in the 30s of the 11th century, more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked on it, as a rule, monks or representatives of the princely - boyar environment. The Monk Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, gained the greatest fame as a chronicler. Material from the site

Chronicles, and especially “The Tale of Bygone Years,” allowed for a mixture of genres within one work. Thus, in the composition of the “Tale...” we find chronicle legends (for example, about the death of Prince Oleg from his horse, subsequently used by A. S. Pushkin), closeness to hagiographic literature (about the transfer of the relics of Saints Boris and Gleb, about the death of Theodosius of Pechersk). In the depths of the chronicle, a military story begins to take shape, for example, about Yaroslav’s revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The Tale of Bygone Years also included the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. However, with all the eventual and genre mosaic of the chronicle, it is distinguished by thematic unity - the depiction of individual milestones in the history of Russia, the presentation of events in a strict time sequence. The chronological connection of events was supported in the chronicle by a genealogical line, that is, by showing the continuity of power of the Rurik princes. The chronicler necessarily points out the family relations between the princes, whose glory each of them inherits.

The chronicles proclaim as their main ideas the assertion of the independence of Rus', the superiority of Christianity over paganism, the inseparability of Russian history from universal history, a call for unity of action in the fight against enemies, and the spiritual unity of Russian society.

Can you name the distinctive features of the “educational” genre?

In Ancient Rus', oratorical prose developed, which, in turn, is divided into solemn and teacher eloquence. Teaching belongs to the teacher's eloquence. Its goal is instruction (edification), information, polemics. It is small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and was written or pronounced in the generally accessible, living, spoken Old Russian language.

“The monuments of didactic prose, often artless in style, contained many vivid everyday realities and scenes of “low” reality, especially in the description of human vices... Nurturing Christian morality, “educational” literature condemned vices and glorified virtues, reminding believers about the day of the Last Judgment and the inexorable torment that is prepared for sinners after death in hell.

Among the works of didactic eloquence, a group of “words” on the topic of “plagues of God” stands out, where any disaster that has befallen the country: drought or flood, epidemic or enemy invasion<…>regarded as Divine retribution for sins. Another group of “teachings” and “conversations” is addressed to monks and contains a number of rules that a monk must strictly follow: fasting, being meek in disposition, performing feats of prayer, resorting to repentance and communion as often as possible.” (L. A. Olshevskaya, S. N. Travnikov)

An example of a monument of secular “educational” literature is “The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh.”

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The concept of “Old Russian literature” includes literary works of the 11th-17th centuries. The literary monuments of this period include not only literary works themselves, but also historical works (chronicles and chronicle stories), descriptions of travel (they were called walks), teachings, lives (stories about the lives of people ranked among the saints by the church), epistles, works of the oratorical genre, some texts of a business nature. All these monuments contain elements of artistic creativity and emotional reflection of modern life.

The overwhelming majority of ancient Russian literary works did not preserve the names of their creators. Old Russian literature, as a rule, is anonymous, and in this respect it is similar to oral folk art. The literature of Ancient Rus' was handwritten: works were distributed by copying texts. In the course of the handwritten existence of works over the centuries, texts were not only copied, but often revised in connection with changes in literary tastes, the socio-political situation, in connection with the personal preferences and literary abilities of the copyists. This explains the existence of different editions and variants of the same monument in handwritten lists. Comparative textual analysis (see Textology) of editions and variants makes it possible for researchers to restore the literary history of a work and decide which text is closest to the original, author’s, and how it has changed over time. Only in the rarest cases do we have author's lists of monuments, and very often in later lists texts come to us that are closer to the author's than in earlier lists. Therefore, the study of ancient Russian literature is based on an exhaustive study of all copies of the work being studied. Collections of Old Russian manuscripts are available in large libraries in different cities, archives, and museums. Many works are preserved in a large number of lists, and many in a very limited number. There are works represented by a single list: “The Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”, etc., in the only list the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has come down to us, but he also died during Napoleon’s invasion of Moscow in 1812 G.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the repetition of certain situations, characteristics, comparisons, epithets, and metaphors in different works of different times. The literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by “etiquette”: the hero acts and behaves as he should, according to the concepts of that time, act and behave in the given circumstances; specific events (for example, a battle) are depicted using constant images and forms, everything has a certain ceremoniality. Old Russian literature is solemn, majestic, and traditional. But over the seven hundred years of its existence, it has gone through a complex path of development, and within the framework of its unity we observe a variety of themes and forms, changes in old and creation of new genres, a close connection between the development of literature and the historical destinies of the country. All the time there was a kind of struggle between living reality, the creative individuality of the authors and the requirements of the literary canon.

The emergence of Russian literature dates back to the end of the 10th century, when, with the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in Rus', service and historical narrative texts should have appeared in Church Slavonic. Ancient Rus', through Bulgaria, where these texts mainly came from, immediately became familiar with the highly developed Byzantine literature and the literature of the South Slavs. The interests of the developing Kyiv feudal state required the creation of their own, original works and new genres. Literature was called upon to cultivate a sense of patriotism, to affirm the historical and political unity of the ancient Russian people and the unity of the family of ancient Russian princes, and to expose princely feuds.

Objectives and themes of literature of the 11th - early 13th centuries. (issues of Russian history in its connection with world history, the history of the emergence of Rus', the struggle with external enemies - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, the struggle of princes for the Kiev throne) determined the general character of the style of this time, called by academician D. S. Likhachev the style of monumental historicism. The emergence of Russian chronicles is associated with the beginning of Russian literature. As part of later Russian chronicles, the “Tale of Bygone Years” has come down to us - a chronicle compiled by the ancient Russian historian and publicist monk Nestor around 1113. At the heart of the “Tale of Bygone Years”, which includes both a story about world history and year-by-year records about events in Rus', and legendary legends, and stories about princely feuds, and laudatory characteristics of individual princes, and philippics condemning them, and copies of documentary materials, there are even earlier chronicles that have not reached us. The study of lists of Old Russian texts makes it possible to restore the unpreserved titles of the literary history of Old Russian works. XI century The first Russian lives also date back (of princes Boris and Gleb, abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius). These lives are distinguished by literary perfection, attention to pressing problems of our time, and the vitality of many episodes. Maturity of political thought, patriotism, journalisticism, and high literary skill are also characterized by the monuments of oratorical eloquence “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Hilarion (1st half of the 11th century), the words and teachings of Cyril of Turov (1130-1182). The “Instruction” of the great Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) is imbued with concerns about the fate of the country and deep humanity.

In the 80s XII century an author unknown to us creates the most brilliant work of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The specific topic to which the “Tale” is devoted is the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But the author is concerned about the fate of the entire Russian land, he recalls the events of the distant past and the present, and the true hero of his work is not Igor, not the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, to whom a lot of attention is paid in the Lay, but the Russian people, the Russian land. In many ways, “The Lay” is associated with the literary traditions of its time, but, as a work of genius, it is distinguished by a number of features unique to it: the originality of the processing of etiquette techniques, the richness of the language, the sophistication of the rhythmic structure of the text, the nationality of its very essence and the creative rethinking of oral techniques. folk art, special lyricism, high civic pathos.

The main theme of the literature of the period of the Horde yoke (1243, XIII century - end of the XV century) was national-patriotic. The monumental-historical style takes on an expressive tone: the works created at this time bear a tragic imprint and are distinguished by lyrical elation. The idea of strong princely power acquires great importance in literature. Both chronicles and individual stories (“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”), written by eyewitnesses and going back to oral traditions, tell of the horrors of the enemy invasion and the infinitely heroic struggle of the people against the enslavers. The image of the ideal prince - a warrior and statesman, defender of the Russian land - was most clearly reflected in the “Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” (70s of the 13th century). A poetic picture of the greatness of the Russian land, Russian nature, the former power of the Russian princes appears in the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” - in an excerpt from a work that has not survived in full, dedicated to the tragic events of the Horde yoke (1st half of the 13th century).

Literature of the 14th century - 50s XV century reflects the events and ideology of the time of the unification of the principalities of north-eastern Rus' around Moscow, the formation of the Russian nationality and the gradual formation of the Russian centralized state. During this period, ancient Russian literature began to show interest in the psychology of the individual, in his spiritual world (though still within the limits of religious consciousness), which leads to the growth of the subjective principle. An expressive-emotional style emerges, characterized by verbal sophistication and ornamental prose (the so-called “weaving of words”). All this reflects the desire to depict human feelings. In the 2nd half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. stories appear, the plot of which goes back to oral stories of a novelistic nature (“The Tale of Peter, Prince of the Horde”, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of the Merchant Basarga and his son Borzosmysl”). The number of translated works of a fictional nature is significantly increasing, and the genre of political legendary works (The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir) is becoming widespread.

In the middle of the 16th century. Ancient Russian writer and publicist Ermolai-Erasmus creates “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia” - one of the most remarkable works of literature of Ancient Rus'. The story is written in the tradition of an expressive-emotional style; it is built on the legendary legend about how a peasant girl, thanks to her intelligence, became a princess. The author widely used fairy-tale techniques; at the same time, social motives are acute in the story. “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia” is in many ways connected with the literary traditions of its time and the previous period, but at the same time it is ahead of modern literature and is distinguished by artistic perfection and bright individuality.

In the 16th century the official character of literature intensifies, its distinctive feature becomes pomp and solemnity. Works of a general nature, the purpose of which is to regulate spiritual, political, legal and everyday life, are becoming widespread. The “Great Menaion of Chetya” is being created - a 12-volume set of texts intended for everyday reading for each month. At the same time, “Domostroy” was written, which sets out the rules of human behavior in the family, detailed advice on housekeeping, and the rules of relationships between people. In literary works, the individual style of the author is more noticeably manifested, which is especially clearly reflected in the messages of Ivan the Terrible. Fiction is increasingly penetrating historical narratives, making the narrative more interesting. This is inherent in the “History of the Grand Duke of Moscow” by Andrei Kurbsky, and is reflected in the “Kazan History” - an extensive plot-historical narrative about the history of the Kazan kingdom and the struggle for Kazan by Ivan the Terrible.

In the 17th century the process of transforming medieval literature into modern literature begins. New purely literary genres are emerging, the process of democratization of literature is underway, and its subject matter is significantly expanding. Events of the Time of Troubles and the Peasant War at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. change the view of history and the role of the individual in it, which leads to the liberation of literature from church influence. Writers of the Time of Troubles (Abrahamy Palitsyn, I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, Ivan Timofeev, etc.) try to explain the acts of Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, False Dmitry, Vasily Shuisky not only by the manifestation of divine will, but also by the dependence of these acts on the person himself, his personal characteristics. In literature, the idea of the formation, change and development of human character under the influence of external circumstances arises. A wider circle of people began to engage in literary work. The so-called posad literature is born, which is created and exists in a democratic environment. A genre of democratic satire emerges, in which state and church orders are ridiculed: legal proceedings are parodied (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”), church services (“Service for the Tavern”), sacred scripture (“The Tale of a Peasant Son”), office work practice (“The Tale of about Ersha Ershovich", "Kalyazin Petition"). The nature of the lives is also changing, which are increasingly becoming real biographies. The most remarkable work of this genre in the 17th century. is the autobiographical “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum (1620-1682), written by him in 1672-1673. It is remarkable not only for its lively and vivid story about the harsh and courageous life path of the author, but for its equally vivid and passionate depiction of the social and ideological struggle of its time, deep psychologism, preaching pathos, combined with full revelation of confession. And all this is written in a lively, rich language, sometimes in a high bookish language, sometimes in a bright, colloquial language.

The rapprochement of literature with everyday life, the appearance in the narrative of a love affair, and psychological motivations for the hero’s behavior are inherent in a number of stories of the 17th century. (“The Tale of Misfortune-Grief”, “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, etc.). Translated collections of a novelistic nature appear, with short edifying, but at the same time anecdotally entertaining stories, translated knightly novels (“The Tale of Bova the Prince”, “The Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich”, etc.). The latter, on Russian soil, acquired the character of original, “their” monuments and over time entered popular popular literature. In the 17th century poetry develops (Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin and others). In the 17th century The history of the great ancient Russian literature as a phenomenon characterized by common principles, which, however, underwent certain changes, came to an end. Old Russian literature, with its entire development, prepared Russian literature of modern times.