Lesson on the topic Russian literature of the 18th century. Methodological development in literature (grade 9) on the topic: Russian literature of the 18th century

The material reveals the features of Russian literature of the 18th century, the concept of "classicism", developments on the work of J.B. Moliere and analysis of the peculiarities of the poetics of the comedy "The Bourgeois in the Nobility", the work of D.I. Fonvizin, a series of developments on the analysis of the comedy "The Minor", life and the work of M.V. Lomonosov, analysis of the ode “On the Day of Ascension...”, analysis of traditions and innovations of the ode “Felitsa” by G.R. Derzhavin, poems “To Rulers and Judges”, “Monument”, the concept of sentimentalism, material on Karamzin N.M. - writer and historian, analysis of the topic “affirmation of universal human values ​​in N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza”

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Lesson 4

Features of the development of Russian literature of the 18th century. Classicism in Russian and world art.

The goal is a general overview of “Features of the development of Russian literature of the 18th century”, introduction of the concept of “classicism”

There was that troubled time

When Russia is young,

Dressing up strength in struggles,

Muzhala with the genius of Peter

A. Pushkin

1introduction, repetition and generalization of what has been covered. Conversation

Features of the development of Russian literature of the 18th century.

How do you understand the meaning of the epigraph?

(the formation of statehood and the secularization of culture is associated with Peter I)

XVIII century – the time of turning point and the era of accumulation. In literature - the time of formation of new Russian literature, which

Takes on a secular character

Fiction is recognized as one of the leading structure-forming factors in a work of art (this happened in the second third of the 18th century)

What are the features of the manifestation of the category “fiction” in DRL?

(Practically there was none, it corresponded to some genres and served the purpose of creating an image, for example, in the hagiographic genre, in miracles)

A new system of genres is being created.

Russian literature of the 18th century preserved and enhanced the best qualities of the literature of the previous period.

Which?

(patriotism, connection with CNT, interest in the human personality)

Brought to a new level the accusatory focus against social vices, satirical ridicule of human and social vices

The main feature is the indissoluble connection with time. Reflecting the main stages of the formation of the Russian nation and statehood, it intervened in the solution of pressing political and social issues and became a powerful instrument for the further growth of national culture and self-awareness of the Russian people, the most important factor in the moral influence on society

Hence the main task of literature is to educate the contemporary socially and morally.

The main pattern of development of literature of this time is the process of its steady democratization. Instead of an educated monk, a wise prince, the author of works becomes “a scholar who writes by order or directly “by decree” of the king.” The hero has also changed - now he is a smart, cunning, resourceful person who achieves success. regardless of social status

A variety of fiction is especially popular

Magazines

Kheraskov “Useful entertainment”, “Free hours”, “Good intention”

Novikov – “Drone”, “Hell Mail” (Emin), “Pustomelya”

Catherine II – “All sorts of things”

Newspaper "St. Petersburg Vedomosti"

At the same time, the role of literature of the 18th century in preparing the brilliant achievements of our literature in the next “golden age” is great.

2 Work with Art. in the textbook and compiling a table “Russian literature of the 18th century” p. 35-41

Definition of classicism.

3 Writing in a notebook. Working with Art. in the textbook “Classicism” p. 39

Origins – France, Italy of the 17th-18th centuries, in the views of playwrights Corneille and Moliere and literary theorist N. Boileau in the treatise “Poetic Art”

The main property is an appeal to examples of antiquity, normative poetics

Aesthetics are based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature”; everything is subject to strict regulation and rules.

Character traits

A) cult of reason

B) piece of art organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole

C) strict plot and compositional organization, schematism

D) life phenomena are transformed in such a way as to reveal and capture their generic, essential features and properties

D) human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner ( speaking names), positive and negative heroes are contrasted

E) idealization of heroes, utopianism, absolutization of ideas

Emphasized objectivity of the narrative

Actively addressing social and civil issues

It is typical for plays of the classical era

System of roles - character types moving from play to play ( ideal heroine, lover Hero)

The plot is usually based on a love triangle

Vice is always punished, virtue triumphs

The principle of three unities

A) time - the action develops no more than a day

C) actions - one storyline, the number of characters is limited, there are no side characters

Composition

A) 4 acts - in 3 - the climax, in 4 - the denouement

The main characters are introduced to the secondary ones

Hierarchy of genres

Features of classicism in Russia

The formation of Russian classicism was due to the emergence and development of a new type of social consciousness. Russian classicism turned out to have typological features of European (primarily French) classicism

Normativity and genre regulation

Recognition of rationalism as a leading aesthetic category, and the mind is the supreme judge over the surrounding world

A sharp division into positive and negative heroes

Lack of dynamics in images, abstraction when creating an image

Requirements from the art of verisimilitude, which is narrowly understood and expressed in the principle of three unities

However, the formation of the Republic of Kazakhstan took place later than in European countries, although under relatively similar conditions of strengthening absolutism), when rationalism was replaced by enlightenment.

Features of Russian classicism

Focus on the essential issues of Russian life, it is characterized by social, civic pathos

Accusatory focus

The requirement to develop education, establish firm laws, recognize the natural equality of people, the intrinsic value of man

Connection with national tradition and CNT

(A.P. Sumarokov “Epistole on poetry)

Classicism in Russian and world art.

Classicism in Russia

The end of the 18th – 19th centuries. - the era of classicism in Russian architecture, which left a bright mark on the architectural appearance of Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities.

Classicism is a European cultural and historical movement that was focused on antique art, on ancient literature and mythology. In the middle of the 18th century. St. Petersburg was a city of single masterpieces, then regular development of the city began along straight avenues radiating from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism is the architecture of entire ensembles, striking in their unity and harmony. In 1806-1823. The Admiralty building was built according to the design of A.D. Zakharova. In the huge building, the architect emphasized the central tower. The Admiralty is crowned by a rapidly flying gilded needle with a boat.

Speaking about sculpture of the 18th century, it should be recognized that it represents a combination, a fusion of the features of Baroque and Classicism. Only at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Shchedrin and Martos provide examples of clear harmony, so to speak, pure classicism.

« Bronze Horseman" on Senate Square erected under Catherine II by the sculptor E. Falcone, installed on a solid granite rock. The horse seems to take off on a wave, trampling the snake with its hooves - a symbol of betrayal. Peter himself is also in Roman attire.

Sculpture Summer Garden– round, monumental and bust-length sculptural portrait. The subjects are allegorical figures that personify such concepts as Navigation, Architecture, World, etc. In general, the traditions of classicism with elements of baroque art can be traced.

In 1714, the foundation was laid for the St. Petersburg Kunstkamera, the first natural science museum in Russia, and the Botanical Garden was founded in St. Petersburg.

The development of scientific knowledge has prepared the conditions for the creation of higher scientific center Russia - the Academy of Sciences, the opening of which took place after the death of Peter at the end of 1725.

A significant event in cultural and educational matters was the opening of Moscow University at the beginning of 1755. The idea of ​​creating this higher educational institution belonged to the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov. There were 2 gymnasiums at the university - one for nobles, the other for non-serfs. Training sessions took place at three faculties: medical, philosophical, and legal. Unlike foreign ones, Moscow University did not have a theological faculty. There was a printing house at the university (N.I. Novikov became the director). The first public newspaper in Russia, Moskovskie Vedomosti, was published.

1757 - opening of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Russia is developing and establishing its own principles visual arts– academic classicism.

Karl Bryullov’s “The Last Day of Pompeii” and Alexander Ivanov’s “The Appearance of Christ to the People” were associated with the Academy with all their work.

Before Peter, there was no public theater in Russia. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a court theater operated, but this did not last long. Peter himself, who loved the theater, ordered the construction of a “comedy temple” on Red Square in Moscow. Since 1704, performances began to be given here. The actors were initially foreigners, but then Russian troupes began to be recruited.

Along with amateur theater, professional theatrical art began to develop - drama, opera, ballet.

F.G. played an extremely important role in the development of Russian professional theater. Volkov, called the "father of Russian theater." He opened his own theater in Yaroslavl in 1750, which Catherine demanded to transfer to the capital; his brilliant theater was a success on the banks of the Neva.

Domestic composers and music performers appeared. The contemporaries of the violin maker I.A. considered “Russian Stradivarius”. Batov, the works of D.S. were appreciated. Bortnyansky, V.N. Fomina.

At the beginning of the 19th century, some landowners became entrepreneurs. Serfs played in such theaters (M.S. Shchepkin was a serf until he was 33 years old, P.S. Mochalov grew up in the family of a serf actor) and civilian actors; such theaters became publicly accessible.

The second half of the 18th century was the heyday of literature. Among the authors, Lomonosov and Derzhavin stood out; Novikov’s satirical magazines (“Drone”, “Painter”) were read throughout Russia; Catherine II herself was involved in writing.

Russian culture was gaining strength, reinforcing national self-awareness, patriotic traditional people, Russia was moving into the 19th century.

Classicism in France:

The Sun King creates high culture represented by three masterpieces.

Versailles - a work architectural art, symbol of French statehood, architect Andre Le Nôtre. The metaphor of the sun is embedded in the image of Versailles: the alleys of the park diverged from one center point like rays. In the park itself there are sculptures of Apollo and Helios. The palace is built in the shape of the letter “U”, inside there are huge windows and mirrors located symmetrically.

There was a royal court theater in Versailles, whose director Jean Baptiste Poquelin, working under the pseudonym Moliere, wrote plays. Moliere thought in terms of classicism, although he included crude humor in his works, for example, “Tartuffe, or the Deceiver,” “The Bourgeois among the Nobility.”

The third peak was the work of Nicolas Poussin. This artist, in his aesthetic views, is a typical classicist.

“Jerusalem Liberated” - the main theme is the conflict between love and death, which will later become the main theme of creativity.

“Tancred and Erminia” - Erminia is depicted in a fit between hatred of the enemy and sympathy for man. She raised a knife to cut the hair and bandage the wounds of the young crusader.

"The Arcadian Shepherds" is a problem of life and death. A young man and a girl, walking in the park, see a tombstone with the inscription: “And I was in Arcadia,” which means “And I was happy,” because The country of Arcadia for Poussin and the classicists is a symbol of happiness.

“Landscape with Polyphemus” - Polyphemus is associated with destructive power - he is a giant tamed by his love for the sea nymph Galatea. Polyphemus is depicted sitting on a rock and playing the pipe.

At the end of his life, Nicolas Poussin suffers from paralysis, but continues to paint, tying his brushes to his hands, he creates the famous “Seasons”. The most famous picture this cycle is “Winter”. A flood is depicted - trees and rocks are depicted in the abyss of water, a woman in a boat passes a child to a man who has climbed onto a rock. A snake crawls in the rock - a symbol of eternity, which makes an ominous contrast.

DZ Retelling of Art. about classicism

Reading the comedy “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”

Individual assignment “Essay on life and creativity”

Lesson 5

J.-B. Moliere. Essay on life and creativity.

The goal is to get acquainted with the biography and essay on the work of J.B. Molière

1Repetition of what has been covered in the form of a written test

Distinctive features of literature of the 18th century (list)

Main trends in literature and art of the 18th century

What is the reason for the emergence of classicism in Europe and Russia? (where and when did it appear?)

Define classicism as a literary movement

The main features of European classicism (list briefly)

Describe in detail what the principle of the “three unities” is?

What is the theory of genre division?

2 Introduction to Moliere

Moliere is an artist of words, organically absorbing the features of classicism and baroque. He is the creator of a new word in art. He creates a special theater with a special world, in which there is a play of passion and reason, where “quite often the situation, conjecture, unbridled fantasy and emotions prevail over a purely rationalistic approach to life.” He elevated the comedy genre. The tragic and the comic, the sublime poetic and the low prosaic are in a bizarre connection. This is a kind of “laughter through tears.” Moliere's poetics and his theater are difficult to describe in one concept. He was an innovator from his very first steps on stage; he never confined himself to one direction - the dominant classicism.

3 Individual message “J.-B. Moliere. Essay on life and creativity."

4 Thesis note-taking

Real name J.-B. Poquelin (1621-1673), son of the royal upholsterer

Education at Clermont (Law) College

January 1, 1644 - opening of the Brilliant Theater, among its creators are the names of Moliere and the Bejart family. Autumn 1645 – destruction of the theater

The first Parisian period of his theatrical career was inglorious and lasted about a year.

Debt prison, provincial tour (1645-1658)

The goal is to change the status and meaning of your craft

Commedia dell'arte is a theater of improvisation, Moliere began to vary plots, sketch out roles - he became a playwright. Most outstanding works– “Don Juan”, “The Tradesman among the Nobility” (1670), “Tartuffe” and “Mesanthrope”

Creator of character comedy, where the main role was played not by the action, but by the moral and psychological state of the hero

Died on stage during the performance of his own comedy “The Imaginary Invalid”

DZ Are the requirements of classicism met in Moliere's comedy?

Support your observations with text.

Lesson 6

Features of the poetics of J.-B.'s comedy Moliere "The Bourgeois among the Nobility"

The goal is to consider the features of the poetics of Moliere’s theater using the example of the play “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”

1 Comedy in the system of classicism genres

Depiction of everyday life, human vices

Conventional plot, comedy scheme

The task of “making people laugh and using laughter”

Setting to spoken language

Happy ending

5 actions

A reasoner hero is a character who does not take active action in the development of the plot, designed to expose other heroes and express moralizing judgments from the author’s point of view.

2 Theme of the work

What is Jourdain aiming for?

(to be an aristocrat)

What is the comedy of situations and characters?

(all the heroes, except the wife, use Jourdain’s desire for their own purposes - Dorant - takes on debt, teachers and tailors take orders, Dorimena accepts expensive gifts, her daughter’s fiancé Cleont and his servant Koviel, dressed as the Sultan and his retinue, come up with a way to receive a blessing for marriage, Mr. Jourdain is also ridiculous in his aspirations for education, clothes, just to be closer to his dream. Thus, comedy arises from the comparison of the claims of an ignorant and rude person to the sophistication of manners and his real vulgarity and stupidity)

What moments reveal the discrepancy between Jourdain’s desire to occupy a high position and his internal capabilities, mental and spiritual development, taste?

(lack of taste - robe, suit, street songs, Nicole can also pronounce the sound U, does not know that there are poetry and prose...)

How do his wife and maid evaluate his actions?

(they feel sorry for him, his wife tries to open his eyes, to prove that what he is striving for is funny, they scold him)

Who were the aristocrats who conquered Jourdain?

(they laugh at him, use him for their own purposes, despise him)

In what words and what character is the main idea of ​​the play expressed?

3 Idea

The value of a human personality is not determined by affiliation

4 Signs of classicism and departure from them in comedy (checking DZ)

Heroes are carriers of one trait

Didactic in nature, but serious and current problem resolves in a comedic-farcical manner with gaiety and grace

The main character is a satirical image

Vocabulary work - drama, comedy, satire, irony

Lesson 7

“Satires of the brave ruler, shone Fonvizin, friend of freedom”

Fonvizin (1745 – 1792)

The goal is to get to know the personality of Fonvizin and the origins of his work

Writers... have... a duty to raise their loud voice

Against abuses and prejudices that harm the Fatherland,

So a man with a gift can, in his room with a pen in his hands,

To be a useful adviser to the sovereign, and sometimes a savior

Fellow citizens of their own and the Fatherland

D.I.Fonvizin

1 Essay on life and origins of creativity

Born on April 3, 1745. Descendant of a knight of the sword, captured during the Livonian War under Ivan the Terrible. For a long time, his last name was spelled differently: Von-Wizin, Von-Wiesen, Von-Wiesen, etc.

A nobleman by birth, F. entered the gymnasium at Moscow University at the age of ten. The student of the philosophy department has proven himself with translations (translation from German of “Moral Fables with Explanations by Mr. Golberg”). Excellent knowledge of languages ​​allowed him to serve in the College of Foreign Affairs. In St. Petersburg he met Derzhavin, Kheraskov, Knyazhnin, here he saw Lomonosov, “But nothing in St. Petersburg delighted me as much as the theater.” Lived in Moscow, France, retired. 1774 married Ekaterina Ivanovna Khlopova. Died 1792 December 1

Literary activity begins in the 60s. Inquisitive and witty man, he was created in order to become a satirist. And there were more than enough reasons for his bitter laughter in the Russian reality of that time. He joined the noble-aristocratic opposition, whose members criticized the despotic regime of Empress Catherine II and the arbitrariness of her favorites. There is an opinion that in the image of the Prostakovs in the comedy “The Minor” one can see the features of the empress, and in the image of the Prostakovs’ estate – the whole of Russia.

The first satirical comedy - “The Brigadier” (“The first comedy in our morals.” N.I. Panin), “The Minor (1781), continued to develop the genre of satire in the works - “General Court Grammar”, “Questions”, etc., conceived publish the satirical magazine “Starodum, or friend of honest people,” but the empress did not allow it.

2 Dictionary of literary terms

Satire - genre of fiction

The task of which is to ridicule or expose negative phenomena of reality in order to correct them

Originated in Ancient Greece in the 7th century BC. - Horace, Juvenal, Petronius. In modern times, Swift, Moliere, Voltaire, Boileau, Sumarokov, Kantemir and others have successfully worked in this genre.

A) Cantemir’s satires were distinguished by their educational orientation and anti-clerical character

B) Sumarokov is a new type of plotless satire, compact in volume, sharp in ideological content, which is characterized by thematic and aphoristic speech, simplicity and precision of language

C) Lomonosov introduced elements of democratic thinking and style

D) I.I. Khemnitser - focus on figurativeness and dramatization of the narrative, bringing satire closer to various genres

D) Fonvizin turned to developing a small plot satire, perfected the dialogue, and began to use fable beginnings and fable verse in satire

According to the theory of classicism, he did not belong to high genres - he addressed the public significant topics, but used a reduced style

Satire does not directly correlate with any literary genre - from epic it borrows the breadth of coverage of events, from lyricism - emotional intensity, from drama - stagecraft.

By topic they were divided into narrative and socio-political

According to the object of the image - satire on a face or satire on a vice

The composition was usually three-part - an introduction defining the problematic and thematic focus of the work, the main part, which revealed the content, and a conclusion, where the author summarized and edified the reader

The leading methods of creating an image were: direct authorial characterization, indirect characterization given to the character by other persons, showing the hero in action, depicting the inner world of a person, speech characterization, portrait, artistic detail.

At the end of the 18th century. lost its leading position in literature and was transformed into the genres of epigram, fable, satirical song, etc.

Comedy - a type of dramatic work filled with humorous or satirical pathos

Formed in ancient Greece in the 5th century. BC. Classics of the genre can be considered Aristophanes, Plautus, Shakespeare, Moliere, Beaumarchais, Sumarokov, Lukin, Plavilshchikov

From the point of view of typology, comedies are distinguished

A) by the nature of the laughter principle - entertaining and accusatory

B) depending on the characteristics of the conflict - comedy of characters, comedy of situations

C) depending on the characteristics of the ideological and thematic content (love, everyday, educational, socio-political)

D) according to the specifics of linguistic expression - prosaic and poetic

In the mid-70s. XVIII century in Russian comedy there are 2 directions

A) protective, in which Catherine II, D.V. Volkov, A.D. Kopiev worked, tried to justify the domestic and foreign policy of the state

B) accusatory (Sumarokov, Fonvizin, Kapnist, Krylov). Among the main problems, comedians identified the peasant question, gallomania of the nobility, judicial and bureaucratic arbitrariness, problems of love and marriage, education and upbringing of the nobles.

Features of Russian comedy of the 60-90s.

Classic type of 5-act comedy

Heroes - nobles or burghers

They were divided into the “best” (those who think about the good of the state and care about the common good) and the “worst” (who care about their own well-being)

The principle of pairing in the organization of the figurative system

Comedy images are one-line (the embodiment of one virtue or vice, qualities are often exaggerated)

Form of verbal expression – dialogue and polylogue

The use of two leading stylistic layers - colloquial-everyday and bookish-literary

Drama - one of the types of literature, intended for performance on stage, from Greek. - "action"

The speech of the characters is accompanied by stage directions - the author's instructions about the setting of the action, the internal state of the characters, their movements, etc.

The art of the word is complemented by the director's interpretation, acting performance and stage setting

The main types of dramatic works are tragedy, drama (as a genre) and comedy

Irony – 1 hidden but easy to spot taunt

2nd type of trope, when what is said takes on the opposite meaning

3 Summing up

What facts do we know about Fonvizin as a satirist?

Is satire characteristic of traditional comedy of classicism?

What are the sources of satire in the comedy "undergrowth"?

From this point of view what was funny in Fonvizin’s comedy did not fit into the classicism formula of “making people laugh and using laughter.” The subject of his criticism was “difficult events and internal abuses.” Therefore, the artistic development of conflict and characters went beyond the comedy framework and entered the realm of satire. The “diseases” of society depicted in the comedy were, according to Gogol, “exposed to stunning obviousness by the merciless power of irony.”

DZ Characterize (in writing) the work according to the analysis plan

Lesson 8

The problem of tradition and innovation in D.I. Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor”

The goal is to analyze comedy from the point of view of compliance with classic comedy

Russian comedy began long before Fonvizin,

But it started only in Fonvizin

V.G. Belinsky

1 Conversation to identify the level of primary reader perception

What is unusual about the beginning of the play?

What characters appear in the first episodes?

What do we learn about them as the story progresses?

What problems are posed from the very first lines?

2 Working with the text of the work, teacher’s comments on related provisions

In 1782, Fonvizin completed work on the comedy, which became the pinnacle of Russian drama of the 18th century. He worked on it for about 3 years and created, according to Gogol, “a truly social comedy.”

A) “Minor” is a multi-themed, multi-problem and innovative work. This is the first socio-political comedy on the Russian stage, the main problems , the problems reflected in it are state power, serfdom, upbringing and education, data in inextricable connection

Satirical focus

- area of ​​depicted reality- provincial nobility, middle class. Private life with all specific problems, strengthens the voice of topicality in their sound, allows you to show and ridicule exactly what worries the author and requires immediate correction - rudeness, vulgarity, ignorance and lack of culture - the vices of the society of modern Fonvizin

The specificity of the depicted event correspondslanguage of the work– prose, frequent use live colloquial speech, even vernacular

Heroes divided into positive and negative (4*4). Book speech forms the basis of the language of positive characters

Complied with rule of three. The plot is a struggle for Sophia's hand. The action takes place in Prostakova's house. The author introduces small statements from the characters, which allows the reader and viewer to expand the picture of what is happening (Starodum's story about the service). Fonvizin paid the main attention to action and the dialogue was closely connected with the eventual plot of the work. The validity period is within 1 day, but the author does not give any instructions. Unity of action - one storyline, no extra characters, i.e. those that do not correspond to the disclosure of the author's idea.

B) However , originality and innovation of the dog are striking from the first scene , let’s call it “Trishkin caftan”. Instead of lengthy remarks, long introductions to the reader and viewer into the essence of the events taking place, we are faced with a clear plot of the main storyline. The action begins with a small scandal in the house of landowner Prostakova, we immediately get an idea of ​​her as a despotic housewife, but a loving mother. A caftan is an everyday item that helps to obtain the first characteristics of the characters, to understand the order established in her house and the relationships between the characters. Then, when Pravdin appears in the fourth appearance, we receive his assessments, but they are not new to us. From the very first words of the comedy, the author poses the problem of education, or rather the general lack of education (Trishka as a tailor), through generalization, Fonvizin goes further in his reasoning to the problem of poorly organized government affairs.

D) In ​​the final There is also a departure from classic rules. The comedy consists of five acts, as expected by the theory of classicism. The finale puts everything in its place and gives everyone what they deserve.

Teachers Tsyfirkin and Kuteikin were released, Vralman was returned to work as a coachman

Civil servant Pravdin, fulfilling the order, takes custody of the estate

Sophia and Milon intend to get married

But suddenly there is a tragic sound

Why do Starodum, Milon and Sophia forgive Prostakova, but Pravdin decides to punish her?

What was the last crime she committed?

Name the punishments she suffered, highlight the most severe among them.

Prostakova finds herself exposed and rejected by her only and beloved son. She faints from despair and pain, and not from pretense, as happens in comedies. She lost power and her son.

Therefore, it happens mixing styles - tragic and comic. This leads to a violation of cleanlinessgenre systemtragedy, with its age-old problems and civic ideal, invades the realm of the comic.

The path to trouble accompanies and ends with the author’s thought, expressed in the words of Starodum “Here are the fruits of evil!”

D) This same phrase violatesunity of action, taking the problematics of “The Minor” far beyond the scope of the question of true and false education stated in the title

E) This violation entails the following

Discussions about the problems of state power and the problems of the nobility lead to the growth of the ranks of actors - along with the middle class, a inferior – serfs and slaves (Eremeevna, Trishka, Tsyfirkin). The principle of one-dimensionality of heroes is also violated, which is emphasizedindividualization of their language

What does the speech of the characters indicate, what are the features of the speech of each of the characters

Does the characters' speech change depending on the situations the characters find themselves in?

“The Minor” is rightly considered the pinnacle of Fonvizin’s work and all Russian drama of the 18th century. Maintaining connections with the previous literary tradition, formally largely following the norms prescribed by the laws of classicism, the comedy turns out to be a deeply innovative work. This is the first tragicomedy. In Fonvizin, satirical bias was overcome by lively attention to the person, the desire to first understand and then expose.

Characteristics are a description of a living person and character, that is, stable characteristics of a person, depending on his upbringing, circumstances and lifestyle and manifested in his actions and actions

It is necessary to give general information about the character, provide evidence and illustrate thoughts in order. Proof, generalization and transition to the next thought must be consistent, logical and interconnected

DZ Written characteristics of any character

Vocabulary work - education, upbringing

Lesson 9

Statement and solution of the problem of upbringing and education in the comedy “Minor”

The goal is to analyze the problem of upbringing and education in Catherine’s “enlightened age” (interdisciplinary connections with the history of the Fatherland and culture)

Everything in this comedy seems like a monstrous caricature of everything Russian.

And yet there is nothing caricatured about it: everything is taken alive from nature.

N.V.Gogol

1 Repetition of what has been covered. Filling out the table

2 Checking the remote control. Conversation about characters, listening to characteristics

3 Abstract notes on the main features of the images

Mitrofan Terentyevich Prostakov

Minor, son of landowners, 15 years old (minor - a noble son who was not old enough to enter the service (under Peter - up to 15 years, from 1736 - from 20 years old). The concept of "minor" after the comedy became ironic. It carried a negative semantics

The name Mitrofan means “like his mother.” Became a household word for a stupid and ignorant mama's boy

- “The hour of my will has come. I don’t want to study, I want to get married.”

Exam (ignorant Prostakova could not evaluate her son’s literacy and the efforts of the teachers)

- “Get off me, mother, you forced yourself on me.”

- “For me, wherever they say”

Starodum “Well, what can come out of Mitrofanushka for the fatherland, for whom ignorant parents also pay money to ignorant teachers? How many noble fathers who entrust the moral education of their son to their serf slave! After 15 years, instead of one slave, two come out, an old guy and a young master.”

Domestic tyrant, lives for himself, rudeness of soul, laziness (“An ignoramus without a soul is a beast” Starodum)

Skotinina

The surname indicates simplicity, lack of learning, lack of education, getting into trouble

At the beginning - at the pinnacle of power, at the end he loses power

The purpose of life is to hunt for prey - Sophia's inheritance

Keeps the house on brute force, except for the relationship with Mitrofan and Vralman

- “A mixture of arrogance and baseness, cowardice and malice, vile inhumanity towards everyone and tenderness, equally vile, towards her son, with all this ignorance, from which, like from a muddy source, all these properties flow, coordinated in her character by a sharp-witted and observant painter " - P.A. Vyazemsky

- “Master of interpreting decrees” (Starodum)

- “on the border between comedy and tragedy” (P.A. Vyazemsky)

Different speech in different situations, rude expressions, zoologization technique

Sophia

The name means “wisdom”, but not of the mind, but of the soul, heart, feelings

Girl of marriageable age, heiress of Uncle Starodum, bride of Milon

Reads French

It is proper for a girl to be meek and obedient to her elders.

The choice of groom depends on her heart

Shades of sentimental romance in speech

Starodum

Sophia's mother's brother

The surname is the bearer of the principles of the Petrine era, distorted under Catherine

Father “he served Peter the Great,” “my father constantly told me the same thing: have a heart, have a soul, and you will be a man at all times.”

Severe disposition “whoever he loves, he will love directly”, “And whoever he doesn’t love is a bad person himself”

Does not tolerate flattery or servility

His mission is to help Sophia

He was perceived by his contemporaries as a teacher of life. Fonvizin “I must confess that for the success of my comedy “The Minor” I owe it to you. From your conversations with Pravdin, Milon and Sophia, I compiled entire phenomena, which the public listens to with pleasure.”

Book speech

That. heroes are divided into positive and negative depending on the level of education and upbringing, as well as civic position

4 Statement and solution of the problem of education and upbringing

A) introductory remarks

Since the time of Peter, enlightenment in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character and a more definite practical orientation. At the same time, the traditional form of “learning to read and write” by sextons by reading the Book of Hours was widespread and ubiquitous. Many closed educational institutions and private boarding schools were open for noble children, but there was also home schooling. In the 18th century Inviting foreign teachers became fashionable; this hobby reached its extreme forms by the end of the century.

We were surprised and saddened to learn

That many noble gentlemen live with fugitives, bankrupts,

Libertines and many women of the same kind who,

Due to the local passion for the French,

They were involved in raising the children of important people.

And especially... in the wide Russian wilderness...

Member of the French diplomatic mission Mr. Messelier

Catherine II had a reputation as an “enlightened” empress, corresponded with Voltaire, and participated in literary and journalistic polemics, but this was only a façade. Its main task was to strengthen autocratic power, while the enlightened nobility tried to limit this power. She surrounds herself with favorites who actually rule the country and issues several decrees that improve the position of noble circles.

1762 “On the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility” (“We intend to inviolably preserve the landowners on their estates and possessions, and keep the peasants in due obedience”). Landowners were allowed to send peasants to Siberia, and nobles could only be punished by church repentance. Under these conditions, the further formation and development of Russian society took place. The problem of education and upbringing is included in the title by Fonvizin and is one of the main ones. How does D.I. Fonvizin solve it?

B) Work in groups using cards (find the answers in the characters’ remarks)

Group 1

Group 2

A) “The German Adam Adamych Vralman teaches him all sciences in French. This one gets three hundred rubles a year... He doesn’t enslave a child,” former coachman

B) retired soldier Tsyfirkin “I like a little bit of arithmetic”

C) half-educated seminarian Kuteikin

Is he stupid?

How does he feel about teaching?

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

B) summing up

The idea of ​​​​raising an enlightened nobleman was not new in the time of Fonvizin. Peter I, Lomonosov, and many great people of the 18th century spoke about the need for enlightenment. But things weren’t so simple for Fonvizin. He understands that enlightenment alone is not enough. “Science in a corrupt person is a fierce weapon to do evil,” says Starodum. “...First we need to cultivate virtue, take care of the soul, and only then – about the mind.”

How to do it?

“We need such a law so that virtue becomes profitable... But there is no such law... It is not Prostakova and Skotinin who are to blame for their evil behavior and ignorance, but those who establish the laws. And the sovereign approves them.” That's who Fonvizin was aiming at!

DZ Biography of Lomonosov

Lomonosov's discoveries in the field of science ( individual assignments)

Answers to the question. 1-4 s. 49

Group 1

Are Prostakova and Skotinin literate?

How did their family view education?

Why (= the purpose of education for him) does Mitrofan study?

Group 2

What and how does Mitrofan learn?

Is he stupid?

How does he feel about teaching?

(find the answers in the characters’ remarks, use homework materials)

Group 3

What teachers teach Mitrofan?

What are they and what can they teach?

How are they treated in the Prostakov family?

(find the answers in the characters’ remarks, use homework materials)

Group 4

What is education, what is its purpose?

What is education, what is its purpose?

What is more important – education or upbringing?

(find the answers in the characters’ remarks, use homework materials)

Group 5

Compare the views on the upbringing of Prostakova and Starodum

Who is responsible for educating a true citizen and why?

Why does Fonvizin raise issues of upbringing and education?

(find the answers in the characters’ remarks, use homework materials)

Lesson 10

"Peter the Great of Russian Literature"

M.V. Lomonosov (1711 – 1765)

The goal is to study general information about Lomonosov as a reformer in various fields of knowledge

This famous scientist

He was a type of Russian person, both in his encyclopedicism,

Likewise, according to the sharpness of his understanding

A.I. Herzen

Convinced and original supporter of enlightenment

A.S. Pushkin

1 Checking the remote control. Conversation about Lomonosov. Listening and discussing reports

A) Biography

8 (19) November 1711 was born in the village of Mishaninskaya, Kholmogorovsky district, Arkhangelsk province, into a Pomor family

1730 - went to study in Moscow, studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, at the Kyiv Theological Academy and at the University of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences

1736 – 41 was abroad, studying natural sciences

1742 – appointed professor of chemistry at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences

1755 – opening of Moscow University

1760 – elected member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences

1764 – honorary member of the Bologna Academy

April 4 (15), 1765 died in St. Petersburg, buried in the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra

B) Discoveries

The range of the scientist’s research is unusually wide – chemistry, physics, navigation, seafaring, astronomy, history, law, philology. There is, perhaps, no area of ​​knowledge where Lomonosov’s bright mind has not penetrated. A.S. Pushkin called it the first Russian university.

1743 - “A Brief Guide to Rhetoric”

1748 – work “Experience in the theory of elasticity of air” - the structure of the atom

1754 – creation of a mosaic portrait of Peter in the Hermitage, revival of the art of mosaic and smalt production

1755 – “Russian Grammar”

1756 – law of conservation of matter (experiments on burning metals in a closed vessel)

1760 – “Brief Russian chronicler with genealogy”

1761 - established that Venus is surrounded by an atmosphere, designed an accurate telescope

1763 – work “On the Layers of the Earth”

1766 – “Ancient Russian History”

The goal of life is the establishment of science in the Fatherland, which he considered the key to the prosperity of his Motherland

B) Literary activity - teacher’s comments

His philological and literary activities are imbued with the same pathos.

Our literature begins with Lomonosov

He was her father, her Pethorm the Great."

V.G. Belinsky

The scientist sought to penetrate the secrets of language and the mysteries of poetry. Back in 1736, he acquired a treatise by the theorist of Russian verse V.K. Trediakovsky “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems.” In Germany, he writes an objection to Trediakovsky and sends it to St. Petersburg along with the ode “To the Capture of Khotin” as a report on his studies. In his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739), he boldly extended the tonic principle to all Russian versification. The goal is to give freedom to Russian verse.

1757 writes a preface to the collected works “On the Use of Church Books in Russian language", where he recounts the famous story of the three calms

The main theme of poetry- service to the Motherland, its glorification. The image of the Motherland is often associated with the image of Peter, Lomonosov’s favorite hero. Poetry is not an immersion in the private world of a person, but a patriotic civic activity.

Main lyrical tone – solemn. It expressed the self-awareness of a nation that had just entered the world stage and, in this sense, was a young nation whose territory was vast and whose possibilities were unlimited.

Most suitable genre to express feelings loudly national pride There was a solemn ode to the sons of Russia, who defended the independence of their homeland from external enemies and in the ensuing peace, striving for enlightenment. He wrote tragedies “Tamira and Selim”, heroic poems “Peter the Great”, idylls “Polydor”, but it was the ode that became the main genre in his work. Odes were written for some ceremonial dates - the birthday of the Empress, the victory of Russian soldiers.

There are two types of odes to Lomonosov - laudable and spiritual. Commendable usually written for special occasions in court life. They praised the empresses, especially Elizabeth, during whose reign his literary activity mainly took place. However, the traditional, legalized form of praise did not prevent the poet from developing his favorite themes - the glorification of Russia and Peter as an enlightened monarch. Ode has ceased to be a genre of praise. It is not the merits of Elizabeth that concern Lomonosov, but the fate of Russia. The poet speaks on behalf of all of Russia. Its task is to capture the grandiose prospects for the country’s development that are opening up. The poet acted as the main character of the ode, he delivered a speech of praise to the champions of enlightenment or smashed enemies. In this he followed the art of eloquence. Hence the stylistic features - verbal abundance, unexpected turns of thought, vivid comparisons, sharp antitheses, hyperbolism of feelings, abstract allegory, play on the meaning of words, deliberate metaphor. Lomonosov chooses lofty words - Slavicisms, mythological and biblical names. The ode does not represent a continuous lyrical monologue; next to the author, both historical and mythological figures have the right voices. Thanks to such poetic principles, the ode acquires solemnity, monumentality, pomp and splendor. Lomonosov does not strive to convey the event; he is not interested in the objectivity of the image, but in the feeling it evokes. Spiritual odes were created as philosophical works. In them, the poet translated the Psalter, in those scenes that were close to his feelings. Lomonosov used the plots of the Psalms to express thoughts and feelings of a philosophical and personal nature. The main themes are the imperfection of human society, the loneliness of the poet and man in general in a world hostile to him, the greatness of nature.

vocabulary work - ode genre

individual task - expressive reading of the ode “Evening reflection on God’s majesty, on occasion of the great northern lights”

Lesson 11

The genre of ode and its development in Russian literature of the 18th century. Ode "On the Day of Ascension..."

The goal is to study the themes of Lomonosov’s work using the example of the ode genre

In the ode the poet is selfless: he is not an insignificant event

He rejoices in his own life, does not complain about them,

He speaks to the Prada and the judgment of Promyla,

Triumphs about the greatness of his native land,

Between Peruns and adversaries,

Blesses the righteous, curses the monster

V.K.Kuchelbecker

1 Conversation on remote control “The genre of ode and its development in Russian literature of the 18th century”

Define the ode genre

Where and when did the ode genre originate?

What are its thematic, compositional and stylistic features?

Ode is a poetic genre dedicated to the glorification of important events in the life of states and famous historical figures, characterized by an upbeat character and high civic content.

The ode originated in Ancient Greece as a chant in honor of heroes and winners Olympic Games. Among the ancient poets-odopists, Pindar, Horace, and Anacreon are known, whose names are associated with the formation of the civil, laudable and anacreontic varieties of ode. The ode especially spread and developed in the era of classicism. In France, the theory of ode was developed by N. Boileau, in Russia - Sumarokov, Trediakovsky, Derzhavin, Lomonosov.

The subject of the image in the ode was

A) major events public life

B) the lyrical state of a citizen for whom there was an inextricable connection between the personal and the public

The narrator in the ode is a bearer of social consciousness, an exponent of the ideals of the era

2 Teacher's comments

Patriotic odeevolvedfrom Trediakovsky’s own commendable ode to Lomonosov’s journalistic, Sumarokov’s critical, Derzhavin’s satirical and Radishchev’s tyrant-fighting

Among the Russian odopists were defenders of the monarchy (Petrov, Lomonosov), supporters of civil and political freedom (Radishchev and Ryleev)

Classification of the genre According to the thematic principle - spiritual, call, victorious-patriotic, philosophical, training

In relation to the literary school - Lomonosov, Sumarokov

A) “Vortical”, or Lomonosov, direction, which cultivated a laudable and victorious patriotic ode, distinguished by the priority of imagery and beauty of syllable over meaning, an abundance of rhetorical figures and tropes, and oratorical intonations. V. Petrov, Derzhavin, A. Radishchev belonged to this direction.

B) The rationalist, or Sumarokov school of odopists developed forms of laudatory and anankreontic odes, strived for simplicity, clarity of content, internal consistency of composition and style decisions. These are odes by V. Maykov, M. Kheraskov, V. Kapnist

In relation to the literary tradition - Pindaric, Horatian. Anankreontic

In terms of socio-political orientation - laudatory, addressed to the monarch, tyrannical

Russian ode, as a rule, shunned pure forms

The ode genre was closely related to the aesthetic categories of the beautiful, sublime and heroic

The macrostructure of the ode was usually three-part (introduction, main part, conclusion), the microstructure depended on the content and genre variety of the work

Most of the odes are constructed as a monologue

The system of images was built on the basis of antithesis using various groups of characters: real-historical, allegorical, symbolic

The genre fell into decline by the end of the 18th century, but continued to exist along with others; sentimentalists and romantics parodied the ode.

3 Analysis of “Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty Empress Elizaveta Petrovna,” November 25, 1747”

What is the main idea of ​​the ode?

Why does the poet glorify Elizabeth and what does the poet hope for?

A) written on occasionfifth anniversary of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter. The recitation of odes used to form part of the ceremony, so rulers ordered them. The poet went beyond court speech, raising the most important questions:

The need for the development of science and education

Development and prosperity of the state

Peter as a model for the reigning empress

The importance of Elizabeth's peace-loving policies

B) Refers to the genre solemn ode - prove

B) Composition - ordinary, strict

Stanzas 1-2 - the beginning with a traditional appeal to the empress, glorifying beauty, the greatness of the universe and the empress herself

Stanzas 3-6 - the deeds of Elizabeth Petrovna are glorified

Stanzas 7-11 - with admiration the poet remembers Peter the Reformer, the ideal of the Russian monarch

From the 12th stanza there is again admiration for the merits of the “Great Peter’s Daughter”. At the same time, it describes the wealth, beauty and immensity of the expanses of the state. The description ends with a call for the development of still undeveloped natural resources and the development of science in this regard

Stanzas 22-23 - the famous appeal to his compatriots, whom Lomonosov convinces of the benefits of doing science

Stanza 24 - final glorification of the empress and blessing of her wise, peace-loving reign

D) Idea strengthening and development of the state on an educational basis

E) Artistic originality

Does the work correspond to the odic canon?

a) formal style

b) heroes of ancient mythology, historical figures

c) Slavicisms

d) an abundance of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals

e) comparisons, metaphors, personifications

4 Compare with the spiritual ode “Evening reflection on God’s majesty, on occasion of the great northern lights”

Expressive reading of an ode

What are spiritual odes and what are their characteristics?

A) Does not have a biblical source, inspired by scientific studies in physics and astronomy. This is the experience of creating a scientific picture of the world through poetry.

B) Proposes a scientific hypothesis about the electrical nature of the northern lights

C) In the center is the image of a human explorer, like a titanium discoverer, who questions the Creator

That. faith in the human mind, the desire to know the “secrets of many worlds” are combined with admiration for the limitless creative power of the Creator

E) Emotional dissonance is striking in the ode. On the one hand, delight in the sensation divine harmony in world-building, on the other hand, there is anxiety about the unknowability of the world.

E) This is a hymn and an elegy (a poem about life and death, the problems of existence) at the same time

DZ Read article. Biography of Derzhavin – pp. 59-62, 65 (up to and including Belinsky)

reading the ode “Felitsa”

learn an excerpt from Lomonosov's ode

Lesson 12

G.R. Derzhavin in his assessment of Russian cultural figures. Traditions and innovative character of the ode “Felitsa”. G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816)

The goal is to evaluate Derzhavin’s work as innovative. Analysis of the ode “Felitsa”

Derzhavin was proud “not that he discovered Catherine’s virtues,

And because the first one spoke in a “funny Russian syllable.”

He understood that his ode was the first artistic embodiment

Russian life, that she is the germ of our romance.

V.F. Khodasevich

1 Conversation on homework with teacher’s comments

A) Biography

Poet, translator, playwright. Born on July 3(14), 1743 in the Kazan province in the impoverished noble family noble Tatar Murza Bagrim, who owned 10 serfs

He served as a private in the Preobrazhensky Regiment and took part in the palace coup of 1762, which brought Catherine II to the throne. Participated in the war against Pugachev, was awarded three hundred souls in Belarus and was dismissed from the army.

His first literary experiments date back to 1773, but he became famous only in 1782, when the ode “Felitsa” was published without his knowledge.

The Empress appoints him governor of the Olonets province, then transfers him to Tambov. He served as the empress's personal secretary, senator, and in 1802 Alexander II appointed him to the post of minister of justice. Supporter of enlightened absolutism. In October 1803, unreconciled with lawlessness and hypocrisy, he retired and settled on his estate Zvanka, Novgorod province, where he died on July 8 (20), 1816. He was buried in his beloved Khutyn Monastery. In 1957, his ashes were transported to Novgorod and buried near the western wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral.

B) Literary activity

He began publishing in 1776. At first he followed the traditions of Lomonosov, later he created his own original style. Combining high and low calms, he included elements of topical satire in the ode genre, as well as intimate lyrical motifs (“Felitsa”, “Vision of Murza”, “Nobleman”), and introduced realistic motifs into landscape lyrics. His poetry reflected a dual perception of the world - the tragedy of death, the instability of fate (“On the Death of Prince Meshchersky,” “Waterfall”) and the enjoyment of life (“Invitation to Dinner,” “Eugene. The Life of Zvanskaya”). Religious and philosophical ideas were reflected in the ode “God”. Among his works are laudatory, victorious (“On the Capture of Ishmael”), satirical and philosophical odes. Being the last representative of late Russian classicism, Derzhavin simultaneously destroyed the principles of classicism, preparing the ground for the “light poetry” of K.N. Batyushkov and the early lyrics of A.S. Pushkin. Derzhavin's neodic poetry is replete with landscape sketches and portrait descriptions of historical figures. His work is characterized by a special autobiography, a synthesis of style and a variety of verse metrics.

1804 – collection of poems “Anankreontic Songs”

1805 – “Notes on the contents of Derzhavin”

1806 – drama “Pozharsky, or the liberation of Moscow”

1807 - the tragedy “Herod and Mariamne”, on his initiative literary evenings began to be held - the society “Conversations of Lovers of Russian Literature”

1808 – preparations are underway for publication of collected works (parts 1-4)

1809 - 10 – Explanations on the literary works of Derzhavin” (literary autobiography)

1811 - 15 – “Discourse on lyric poetry, or ode”

1812 - comic opera “The Fool is Smarter than the Clever”

1816 – 5th part of collected works

2 Analysis of the features of Derzhavin’s poetry based on the ode “Felitsa”

- “Ode to the wise Kyrgyz-Kaisak princess Felitsa, written by the Tatar Murza, who has long settled in Moscow, and lives on his business in St. Petersburg. Translation from Arabic." The reason for writing was the empress's fairy tale "The Tale of Prince Chlorus", which told about the adventures of the prince in search of a "rose without thorns" (virtue), where under the name Felitsa ("happiness") the image of the empress herself was depicted. Derzhavin uses the name in his work glorifying the empress and satirically showing her entourage - endless favorites. The title also referred the reader to numerous works of oriental themes.

Derzhavin’s friends, V. Kapnist and N. Lvov, warned that the ode should not be published. A year later, the poet Osip Kozodavlev asked to read it and distributed it throughout St. Petersburg without Derzhavin’s knowledge. The President of the Russian Academy E.R. Dashkova published it in the magazine “Interlocutor of Lovers of Russian Literature.” They say that the Empress cried when she read it. She presented the poet with a gold snuffbox with diamonds with the inscription “From Orenburg from the Kyrgyz princess to Murza Derzhavin” and 500 chervonets. From that day on, literary fame came to Derzhavin, he became close to the court.

- “Felitsa” is an innovative work in content and form

What are the canonical features of the ode genre and in what ways does the poet deviate from them?

The originality of the ode genre in the era of classicism (repetition)

A violation of normative aesthetics is manifested in the fact that

A) the work interacts with high odic and low satirical principles

B) within the framework of one work there is a combination of different genre and stylistic layers

C) a departure from the one-dimensional construction of the hero’s image

D) introduction of autobiographical material into the ode

This work reflects 2 important Topics Russian description – national-historical (Catherine as a statesman of the era) and moral-didactic (“a man on the throne”). The poet includes in the ode a seriesgenre formations. It brings the ode closer to the genre of a friendly message, a word of praise, poetic satire (about morals during the reign of Anna Ioanovna), verbal still life (description of Prince Potemkin's feasts), epigram and anecdote (in the depiction of the favorites of G. Potemkin, A. Vyazemsky, A. and G . Orlov), pastorals (landscape sketches).

The ode has a three-part macrostructure:

Introduction (1-2 stanzas), - main part (3-25), - conclusion (26)

The introduction is two-part - in the first stanza the problematic is defined and a typological connection is established with the tale of Prince Chlorus, the odic beginning dominates, in the second stanza ironic-satirical notes appear.

The main part, in which the laudatory and accusatory lines find their development, falls into three ideological and thematic blocks. In the complimentary conclusion, made in the style of an oriental prayer, there are 2 themes: the poet and the “god-like queen” glorified by him. The basics of the ode are plotless, but they contain3 plot-organized fragments- a story about a day in the life of the Russian Empress, about the entertainments of nobles and fun at the court of Anna Ioanovna.

Before Derzhavin, the image of the empress was built according to the canons defined by Lomonosov: the monarch was portrayed as an earthly deity, a collection of virtues and a source of mercy. The image of Catherine is devoid of staticity and one-dimensionality; it changes depending on the ideological and artistic task of the author - to create a full-blooded and multifaceted image of an outstanding person of his time. In the first part - earthly woman in the circle of worries and activities (walk, lunch, errands). The poet contrasts the empress with the collective image of her close associate. In the second part - Catherine is a statesman, her antipode is Anna Ioanovna.

Before Derzhavin, in odic poetry there was a conventional image of the author, the image of a singer who spoke with the earthly gods on behalf of the Russian people. Derzhavin abandons the traditional scheme of the image, filling it with autobiographical features - a story about the poet’s family and hobbies. The image of Murza led to the transformation of content and image.

Thus, in the ode two narrative plans can be distinguished: individual-author and genre. The author's style manifests itself more clearly in part 1, and the genre-stylistic odic tradition - in parts 2 and 3

The innovative nature of the ode was appreciated by Derzhavin’s contemporaries and his fellow writers. Derzhavin himself noted that such an ode “has never existed in our language yet.”

3 G.R. Derzhavin in his assessment of Russian cultural figures.

Working with the article in the textbook “Creative Laboratory of G.R. Derzhavin” p. 65

DZ Prepare an expressive reading of the article. "To Rulers and Judges", "Monument"

Answer questions 1, 3, 5, 6 orally. 67

Lesson 13

Poems by G. Derzhavin “To Rulers and Judges.” "Monument".

The first true lyricist of Russia

1 Repetition of what has been covered in the form of a written test:

Define the genre of ode

Prove that “Ode on the Day of the Accession...” by M.V. Lomonosov was created according to the canons of the classic genre of ode

What is the innovative nature of the ode genre in G.R. Derzhavin’s work “Felitsa)

2 Analysis of the ode “To Rulers and Judges”

A) Teacher's opening speech

Derzhavin’s unusually courageous, decisive and independent character was evident in everything, incl. and in creativity. One of his poems almost caused disgrace and exile. This is an ode to "Lords and Judges" written in 1787, which he called an "angry ode." The cause of anger was Derzhavin’s conviction that laws were not being observed and that evil dignitaries were doing the deeds.

B) Reading a poem

B) Analysis of primary perception

What is the pathos of the work? (accusatory, angry)

This poem is a bold poetic development of the 81st Psalm - the so-called biblical hymns that make up the Pastoral - one of the books of the Old Testament, the authorship of the songs is attributed to King David of the Old Testament. The theme of the psalm is in tune with the spirit of Derzhavin’s time. It is no coincidence that during the French Revolution, Psalm 81 was paraphrased by the Jacobins; it began to express indignation at King Louis XVI, who was subsequently executed. Catherine, having read Derzhavin’s works, became furious, and one of the dignitaries said to the poet: “What are you, brother: writing Jacobin poems?” The poem was cut from an already printed issue of the St. Petersburg Bulletin magazine.

Turning to the Psalter as a model text has its own history. The emergence and development of Russian poetry is associated with the Pasltyr. This type of poetry appeared among Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov, Derzhavin and other poets, not disappearing until the 30-40s of the century. Among the reasons for Derzhavin’s appeal to this text is:

Traditional appeal for Russian poetry

Works of spiritual themes made it possible to touch in an allegorical form on the problems of contemporary social life for the poet

Introduction to the treasury of world literature

What is the theme of the work?

Modern life of the state, where the poet sees the violation of laws, the identity of evil and injustice.

The idea is the need to submit everyone to the law of the highest truth and justice; he asserts the inevitability of punishment for “evil” rulers. The point is that unrighteous power cannot be durable; it will inevitably face the wrath of God.

Solemn style, oratorical sound

Derzhavin, a former monarchist, openly protested against the vices of autocracy, discovered one of the most important trends in Russian literature, which would later be continued by Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol and others.

3 Analysis of the poem “Monument”

Derzhavin’s poem was written in 1795 and refers to the mature period of creativity - the time of taking stock of the results of life and comprehending one’s heritage. Derzhavin translates Horace's poem "To Melpomene". Before him, Lomonosov turned to translation; his translation was so accurate that subsequent poets turned to the text not of the original, but of Lomonosov.

According to formal characteristics, the poems of Lomonosov and Derzhavin are odes. But. A special genre type of ode, which takes its origins from the work of Horace, is called"monument".

Horace reflects on the glory that has come to him, about future fate of his creativity, raises the theme of the poet and poetic immortality. Melpomene is one of the 9 muses, the patroness of tragedy.

Originality of Derzhavin's work

The theme is the glorification of true poetry, the affirmation of the high purpose of poetry. This is a poetry anthem. Creativity is a monument to its creator. This idea is a continuation of the Horatian image.

Horace sees the guarantee of poetic immortality in the power and immortality of Rome, Derzhavin - in respect for his Fatherland

Horace takes credit for the fact that he became a reformer of verse; for Derzhavin, the problem of the relationship between the poet and the authorities is important, although he reflects his innovation in the field of poetic language and genres - he made the Russian syllable “funny”, i.e. sharp, cheerful, simple; dared to speak about the empress as well as about a common man.

Thus, Derzhavin established the genre canon of the “monument” poem, relying on the pan-European cultural tradition, he creates an original poem. This genre was later interpreted by Pushkin, Fet and others.

4 Summing up

How can you comment on the 2 points of view of A.S. Pushkin on the work of G.R. Derzhavin?

1) We know that young Pushkin picked up Derzhavin’s poetic baton, developing in his work the line of “poetry of reality” that appeared in the poems of his great predecessor. “Old Derzhavin noticed us and, going to the grave, blessed us,” Pushkin himself said with his forehead. But in the history of literature it often happens that the new makes its way in a creative duel with the old, not only absorbing its achievements, but also starting from what seems to have already become obsolete. So, along with the above words, Pushkin, in a letter to his friend the poet Delvig, left a slightly different testimony about his attitude towards Derzhavin’s poetry: “After your departure, I reread all of Derzhavin’s poetry, and here is my final opinion. This eccentric did not know either Russian literacy or the spirit of the Russian language (that is why he is lower than Lomonosov). He had no idea about syllable, or harmony - or even about the rules of versification. That is why it must infuriate every discerning ear. It not only cannot stand the ode, but also cannot stand the stanza...What is in it? Thoughts, pictures and movements are truly poetic; reading it, it seems that you are reading a bad free translation from some wonderful original. By God, his genius thought in Tatar, and he did not know Russian letters due to lack of time. Derzhavin, eventually translated, will amaze Europe, and out of people’s pride we will not say everything we know about him (not to mention his ministry)... His genius can be compared with the genius of Suvorov...”

Answer the question in writing. 1,5,7 p.103

definition of “Sentimentalism” p.84

individual messages Karamzin – historian “History of the Russian State”, publicist “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, writer

Lesson 14

N.M. Karamzin is a writer and historian. The concept of sentimentalism

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826)

The goal is to study Karamzin’s biography, evaluate his talent, study the concept of “sentimentalism”

Whatever you turn to in our literature is the beginning of everything.

Dedicated to Karamzin: journalism, criticism, story-novel,

Historical stories, journalism, history studies

V.G. Belinsky

Karamzin is our first historian and last chronicler

A.S. Pushkin

1 Conversation on remote control

A) Biography

Born on December 1, 1766 in the family of a Simbirsk nobleman. He studied at home, then at the Simbirsk boarding school, then at the boarding school of Professor Schaden of Moscow University

From 1783 – military service, retirement

Meeting with Turgenev I.P., who brings him to Moscow

N.I. Novikov’s circle, edited the children’s magazine “Children’s Reading for the Mind and Heart”

Aesthetic views are formed under the influence of 2 systems: Freemasonry and Enlightenment

1803 - begins a multi-volume study on the history of Russia, death interrupted the work on volume 12, which outlined the events of the Time of Troubles (the narrative reached 1611)

B) My creative path began with translations. Then came own works in the style of sentimentalism - “The Russian True Tale: Evgeniy and Yulia”, “Poor Liza”, “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”, “Martha the Posadnitsa”

Karamzin, as a philologist, according to V.V. Vinogradov, managed to “form one language accessible to a wide readership “for books and for society” in order to “write as they say, and speak as they write.” Karamzin transformed and brought together literary and spoken language. It was he who introduced the words “public” and “generally useful” into the Russian language.

2 Listening to and discussing individual messages

3 Conversation on homework with teacher’s comments

B) Sentimentalism from English Sentimental – sensitive; feeling becomes the central aesthetic category of this direction. In this respect, the feeling of the sentimentalists is opposed to the reason of the classicists

main idea – peaceful, idyllic human life in the lap of nature

The village (the center of natural life, moral purity) is opposed to the city (the symbol of evil, vanity)

New heroes “villagers and villagers”

The landscape is idyllic, sentimental

Representatives of sentimentalism Laurence Stern “Sentimental Journey”, Richardson “Clarissa Harlow”, J.-J. Rousseau “Julia, or the New Heloise”

Appeared in Russia in the 60-70s. XVIII century (M.N. Muravyov, N.M. Karamzin, V.V. Kapnist, N.A. Lvov, young V.A. Zhukovsky)

The main theme is love

Main genres - sentimental story, travel, epistolary genre, in lyric poetry - idyll, or pastoral

Ideological basis - protest against the corruption of aristocratic society

Main property – the desire to represent the human personality in the movements of the soul, thoughts, feelings, aspirations

Aesthetics are based on imitation of nature, idealization of patriarchal life, pastoral moods

Traits:

a) moving away from the straightforwardness of classicism in the depiction of characters and their assessment

b) emphasized subjectivity of approach to the world

c) cult of nature, feelings, innate moral purity and innocence

d) affirms the rich inner world of representatives of the lower classes

Features of Russian sentimentalism

Strong didactic orientation

Pronounced educational character

Active improvement of the literary language through the introduction of colloquial forms into it

4 Summing up

Karamzin's work played an outstanding role in the history of Russian literature. A.P. Pushkin, who from an early age appreciated and distinguished him from all other writers, said: “The pure, high glory of Karamzin belongs to Russia...”.

How do you understand these words?

Answer all questions orally. by number 2 p.103,

In writing: - characterize the image of Lisa and Erast,

How are the features of sentimentalism manifested in the story?

(explaining PD, open page 103 and show to students)

Lesson 15

Affirmation of universal human values ​​in N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza”

The goal is to analyze the story as a work of sentimentalism

1 Repetition and generalization of material

2 Analysis of the story

Target story - the image of a rich man spiritual world Russian peasant woman and the destructiveness of the power of money

Symbolism of the name – a sympathetic attitude towards Lisa of the Narrator, an indication of the socio-economic aspect of solving the problem (Lisa is poor) and the moral and philosophical (the hero is an unhappy person)

The title contains conflict – love (the story of the relationship between Lisa and Erast, the tragic death of Lisa) is the leading one, the social beginning of the conflict (the love of a nobleman and a peasant woman), associated with class prejudices and economic circumstances (the ruin of Erast and the need to marry a rich bride)

How does Karamzin show the development of feelings between Lisa and Erast?

What was the feeling that flared up for Lisa and for Erast, who managed to taste the “secular fun”?

When and why did Erast’s attitude towards Lisa change?

- Traits of Sentimentalism

A) poeticization of feelings, changeable and contradictory

B) close attention to the intimate world of a private person

C) the specifics of creating an image - a psychological portrait, detail, gesture, speech characteristics of the characters, characteristics of the Narrator and other characters

D) Macrostructure

Introduction on behalf of the Narrator with a description of Moscow, Danilov and Simonov monasteries

The main part tells about the story of Lisa

Conclusion, where the Narrator talks about the tragic fate of the remaining heroes of the work

D) colloquial speech educated part of the nobility

Features of Pre-Romanticism

A) crime plot and tragic ending

B) the internal discord of the heroes - the discrepancy between the ideal and reality (Isa dreams of being a wife and mother, is forced to put up with the role of a mistress), Erast’s love not only does not reveal his soul, but, on the contrary, destroys the world of his illusions

B) psychologism of images

3 Characteristics images (conversation on remote knowledge)

System of images –images of Lisa and Erast, supplemented by the characters of their environment (the widow, Erast’s friends, the valet, Lisa’s mother, the shepherd boy, Anyuta).

Turns to the poetics of the “speaking name” - Liza (meek, quiet) surpasses Erast in talent for loving, Erast (loving).

In addition, the name Lisa is associated with love theme in comedy-vaudeville works in which the heroine is frivolous and far from innocence and naivety

- “And peasant women know how to love”

What kind of heroine do we see in the parental home?

What epithets does Karamzin give her?

What does the reader learn about Erast before meeting Lisa?

The image of the Narrator learns the story from Erast

The image of Nature, Nature empathizes with Lisa’s grief. It is both the scene of action (river bank, pond, grove) and the emotional background of the work. Only Lisa and the Narrator have the right to communicate with the natural world. Erast is far from understanding the language of nature, he is a “civilized” person, Lisa is a “natural”

4 DZ Preparation for the final test work under the section “Russian literature of the 18th century”

At the beginning of the 18th century, during the Petrine era, Russia began to develop rapidly thanks to transformations in all areas of government and cultural life. Russia's independence strengthened. Its military power has increased. There was a cultural rapprochement with European countries.

Russian society achieved enormous results in the field of culture and literature in the 18th century - Vedomosti 1708 - replacement of the Church Slavonic font with a secular one (civil) Organization of the education system, emphasis on natural science and technical subjects, education as a practical value 1725 - creation of the Academy of Sciences 1719 - Kunstkamera January 1, 1700 - new chronology Changes in everyday life (barber shaving, European costume, smoking tobacco, holding assemblies (1718)) 1717 - “An honest mirror of youth”

The literature of the 18th century was associated with the best traditions of ancient Russian literature (the idea of important role literature in the life of society, its patriotic orientation). The reform activities of Peter I, the renewal and Europeanization of Russia, extensive state building, the transformation of the country into a strong world power despite the cruelty of the serfdom system - all this was reflected in the literature of that time. Classicism became the leading literary movement of the 18th century. Since the 60s In the 18th century, a new literary trend emerged in Russian literature - sentimentalism.

Classicism From the Latin word “classicus” - exemplary. Style and direction in art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, focusing on the heritage of ancient culture as the norm and ideal example. Classicism is characterized by strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images. Genres of classicism: Ode, tragedy, high satire, fable.

Classicism reached its heyday in France in the second half of the 17th century. The works of classic writers reflected the ideas of a strong independent state with the absolute power of the monarch. The main conflict in the works of classicism is the conflict between duty and feeling. At the center of these works is a person who has subordinated the personal to the public. For him, above all else is the duty of a citizen, serving the interests of the homeland and the state. Such a citizen must first of all be the monarch. The classicists considered reason to be the highest criterion of the true and beautiful.

In Russian literature, classicism was closely associated with the ideas of the European Enlightenment, such as: the establishment of firm and fair laws, enlightenment and education of the nation, the desire to penetrate the secrets of the universe, and the affirmation of the natural equality of people of all classes.

Features of Russian classicism: Strong connection with modern reality. Images of positive heroes unable to come to terms with social injustice. The conflict (for example, duty and passion) is resolvable and can end happily for the heroes. The lyrical genre comes first.

Sentimentalism Sentiment (French feeling, sensitive) Arose in Western Europe in the 20s. 18th century, in Russia in the 70s. 18th century, and in the first third of the 19th century it took a leading position. Features of the direction: Sincere interest in the personality, character of a person, his inner world. The ability to feel!!! – the dignity of the human person. Glorification of eternal values ​​- love, friendship, nature. Genres: travel, diary, essay, story, everyday novel, elegy, correspondence, “tearful comedy.” The setting is small towns and villages. Lots of descriptions of nature. Comforting people in suffering and sorrow, turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty.

Like the classicists, sentimentalist writers relied on the ideas of the Enlightenment that the value of a person does not depend on his belonging to upper classes, but from his personal merits. The classicists subordinated everything to reason, the sentimentalists - to feelings, experiences and all kinds of shades of mood. Examples of works of sentimentalism in the West: “Clarissa” by S. Richardson, “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by I.V. Goethe. N.M. is considered to be the head of Russian sentimentalism. Karamzin. In the story "Poor Liza" Karamzin first discovered the world of human feelings, the depth and power of the love of a simple peasant woman. Revealing the world of feelings, the literature of sentimentalism cultivated in a person dignity and respect for his strengths, abilities, and experiences, regardless of his position in society.

Literature of the 18th century (general overview)

Goals: together with students, recall from the history course the socio-political situation that determined the destinies of writers of the 18th century and was reflected in their works; give the concept of classicism, note the civic pathos of Russian classicism.

During the classes

I. Learning new material.

1.Teacher's opening speech.

XVIII century had special significance for Russia. The beginning of a new era was marked by the transformative activity of Peter I, when, according to Pushkin, “Russia entered Europe like a ship launched, with the sound of an ax and the thunder of cannons...” and “... the European Enlightenment moored to the shores of the conquered Neva” ( This refers to Russia's acquisition of the shores of the Baltic Sea after the victory over Charles XII).

Write the epigraph for the lesson in your notebook:

There was that troubled time

When Russia is young,

Straining strength in struggles,

She dated the genius of Peter.

A. S. Pushkin

How did the formation of Russian statehood take place in the 18th century? How is this process related to the activities of Peter I?

Great were the achievements of this time in the field of science, education, art and literature, which put Russia
at the end of the 18th century. on par with European countries:

1) in 1721 the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was established;

2) in 1755, Moscow University was opened with two gymnasiums attached to it (for nobles and for commoners);

3) in 1757, the Academy of Arts was founded and a Russian professional public theater was opened, first in St. Petersburg, and a year later in Moscow.

But the era of the establishment of autocracy was fraught with acute contradictions. In the 18th century, especially under Catherine II, the enslavement of peasants was completely completed and the right of landowners to sell peasants at public auction was confirmed. The plight of the serfs repeatedly led to peasant unrest and revolts (the uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev in 1773–1775).

The nobility received in the 18th century. special rights and privileges. French culture - fashions, manners, language - is becoming widespread. Seekers of easy money have flocked to Russia from France. Having been footmen, coachmen, and hairdressers in their homeland, these uneducated people became educators of noble sons and daughters, for whom Paris was the center of the world.

But other youth lived next to them and greedily reached out to true enlightenment, thinking about the fate of the Fatherland, about the situation of the people, about the duty of a patriot. These young people did not all belong to the nobility by birth, some came from the people (M.V. Lomonosov - a major scientist and poet, F. Shubin - a sculptor, the Argunovs - serf artists, etc.), but they were the pride and glory of Russian culture of the 18th century. It wasn't easy for them. Empress Catherine II was the daughter of her era, with all its contradictions. On the one hand, she corresponded with famous French philosophers and educators, convincing them of her intention to introduce sublime ideals of Reason, Justice and even... Freedom into the customs of the barbaric country where she was destined to rule. But Pushkin, for whom the events of the 18th century. were not distant history, in a short note he showed the true state of affairs: “Catherine loved enlightenment, and Novikov, who spread its first rays, passed from the hands of Sheshkovsky to prison, where he remained until her death. Radishchev was exiled to Siberia; The prince died under the rods - and Fonvizin, whom she feared, would not have escaped this fate if not for his extreme fame.” (“Notes on Russian history of the 18th century”).

Notebook entry for the second epigraph:

Our literature suddenly appeared in the 18th century.

A. S. Pushkin

– What was the preparation, how did the unprecedented flowering of Russian literature of the 18th and 19th centuries become possible?

2. work according to the table.

Russian literature of the 18th century

End of table.

Conclusion. Russian literature of the 18th century. adopted the experience of European literature, but also preserved the best traditions of Ancient Rus', primarily citizenship, interest in the human personality, and a satirical orientation.

3. Definition of the concept of "classicism"(p. 35).

Teacher . The origins of world classicism - France of the 17th century: the views of the French playwrights Corneille and Moliere and the literary theorist Boileau. Here is a fragment from Boileau’s treatise “The Poetic Art”:

Whatever the plot, high or funny,

The meaning must always be in accordance with the smooth rhyme,

It seems in vain that she is at war with him:

After all, rhyme is only a slave: it must be obedient.

If you search carefully, then soon a sharp mind

Get used to finding it easily and at once;

The sane mind submits to the yoke,

She gives him a valuable frame.

In classicist works, heroes, as a rule, were strictly divided into positive and negative:

Skilfully preserve for your hero

Character traits among any events.

But strict logic is expected of you in the theater;

It is governed by the law, demanding and tough.

Are you introducing a new face to the stage?

Let your hero be carefully thought out,

Let him always remain himself.

Classic plays are characterized by a “role system”.

Role - character stereotypes that move from play to play. For example, the role of a classic comedy is an ideal heroine, a hero-lover, a second lover (loser), a reasoner (a hero who takes almost no part in the intrigue, but expresses the author’s assessment of what is happening), a soubrette - a cheerful maid who, on the contrary, actively participates in intrigue.

The plot is usually based on a “love triangle”: hero-lover – heroine – second lover.

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and virtue triumphs. This direction was characterized principle of three unities, arising from the requirement to imitate nature (this is the main slogan of classicism):

– unity of time: the action develops no more than a day;

– unity of action: one storyline, limited number of characters (5–10), all characters must be connected by the plot.

We must not forget, poets, about reason:

One event per day

Let it flow in one place on stage;

Only in this case will it captivate us.

Boileau

Requirements for the composition: 4 acts are required; in the third - the climax, in the fourth - the denouement.

Features of the composition: the play is opened by minor characters who introduce the viewer to the main characters and tell the backstory. The action is slowed down by the monologues of the main characters.

In classicism there was a very clear division into high and low genres.

Genres of classicism

4.Recording the concepts and basic requirements of classicism.

II. Summing up the lesson.

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A. Beletsky and M. Gabel

History of Russian literature of the 18th century. Soviet literary criticism has to be largely rebuilt, in the fight against a number of persistent prejudices about this era that dominated the bourgeois history of Russian literature. These include, first of all, the characteristics of the entire R. l. XVIII century as imitative, completely overwhelmed by the influence of French “pseudo-classicism” - a kind of disease that was difficult to overcome by individual writers - pioneers of “nationality” and “originality”. The entire complex variety of literature of the 18th century, which reflected the complexity and severity of the class struggle, was reduced by bourgeois historians to the activities of several “luminaries” writers - Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Karamzin - and some of them were interpreted as bright representatives of “ classicism,” and others as timid pioneers of “realism.” Bourgeois “third-class” literature of the 18th century fell out of the field of view of researchers, as well as peasant oral creativity and literature, represented by numerous handwritten collections, which were indiscriminately referred to as the continuation of the traditions of “ancient” literature. In bourgeois literary criticism, there were, of course, individual attempts to go beyond these established frameworks and begin the study of mass literature (works by Sipovsky on the novel, A. A. Veselovskaya on love lyrics, etc.); but the limitations of bourgeois research methods reduced them to the collection and preliminary classification of raw material, to the presentation of content. The situation has not yet changed enough in our days: Soviet literary criticism has not yet paid due attention to this area. In those cases where these questions were approached, the literary process of the 18th century. was covered from the erroneous positions of Plekhanov’s “History of Russian social thought": the Menshevik theory of the class struggle of the 18th century exhibited there, which allegedly remained in a “hidden state,” led to the characterization of R. l. XVII century as literature exclusively of the nobility, driven forward thanks to the struggle of the best part of the Europeanizing nobility with the government and partly with the autocracy - a “supra-class” institution. Only recently has the acutely posed problem of the critical, Marxist-Leninist development of the literary heritage caused a revival in the study of the heritage of R. l. XVIII century The need has arisen to revise tradition, re-evaluate individual writers, the study of “grassroots” (as bourgeois historians called it) bourgeois, common, petty-bourgeois and peasant literature. An indicator of this revival is the release of “Literary Heritage”, dedicated to the 18th century, with a number of fresh materials and articles of fundamental importance, reprinting of 18th century poets. (Tredyakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Derzhavin, heroic-comic poem, Vostokov, Radishchevite poets), publication of Radishchev’s works, works about Lomonosov, Radishchev, Chulkov, Komarov, etc.

History of literature of the 18th century. represents the development of features that emerged from the middle of the 16th century, from the beginning of the absolutist-feudal period in the history of the country, and which determined the main features of the literary movement throughout the entire period from the middle of the 16th century. until the end of the 18th century. But in the development of literature of the era of feudalism, we can talk about a special period from the end of the 17th to the end of the 18th century, when the triumph of the noble monarchy received its complete expression in literature. She found her bright representative in the person of Peter I, who, according to Comrade Stalin, “did a lot to create and strengthen the national state of landowners and merchants... did a lot to elevate the class of landowners and develop the emerging merchant class” (from a conversation with E. Ludwig, “Bolshevik”, 1932, No. 8, p. 33). Thus, Peter’s activities turned out to be fraught with new contradictions, strengthening the “emerging merchant class,” objectively creating the material basis for the growth of new capitalist relations and at the same time clearing the way for new cultural influences, “not stopping at barbaric means of struggle against barbarism” (Lenin. On “leftist” childishness and petty-bourgeoisism, Sochin., vol. XXII, p. 517). The entire history of the 18th century, especially from its middle, was marked by growing class contradictions and the maturing crisis of the feudal system. The relatively sharp rise of capitalism marks the beginning of a new period in the 19th century.

Late 17th century period until the 30s XVIII century does not create a specific style in literature. On the one hand, the traditions of old church (Slavic in language) literature are still very strong; on the other hand, there is a growing system of new thoughts and feelings, timidly seeking verbal expression and giving complex combinations of new elements with old ones, familiar from the literature of the 17th century. The literature of the “Petrine era” is in the same stage of “formation” as the language, which is sometimes a curious mixture of Slavic and Russian elements with Polish, Latin, German, Dutch, etc. The growth of trade relations has not yet received a clear literary expression , except for the oratorical performances of Feofan Prokopovich and his own play - the “tragedy-comedy” “Vladimir” (1705), which, however, dates back to the Ukrainian period of his activity. The development of trade is associated with aggressive tendencies in foreign policy (need access to the sea, new markets): official literature was in a hurry to support and advertise the military undertakings of the authorities, creating for this a special repertoire, which came out mainly from the “Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy” in Moscow, from the pen of professors who came from Ukraine ( These are the allegorical plays - “A terrible image of the second coming of the Lord to earth”, 1702; “Liberation of Livonia and Ingermanland”, 1705; “God’s humiliation of the proud,” 1702; “Political apotheosis of the Great Russian Hercules Peter I”, etc.). Both these plays and the panegyric verses on the occasion of victories are a direct continuation of school, “baroque” literature of the 17th century. The psychological and everyday change in the life of the nobility - as a result of its strengthening and expansion of the range of its social and state activities - is reflected more clearly in the unofficial narrative and lyrical creativity of the early 18th century. The handwritten anonymous story of the “Petrine era” bears clearly defined new features. Its hero, a serving nobleman or merchant, a man already living in “Russian Europe”, and not in the Moscow state, separated from the West by a protective wall of national and church exclusivity; he travels, feeling at home abroad; he is successful in business and in particular in “affairs of love.” The structure of the stories (“The Story of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky”, “The Story of the nobleman Alexander”, “The Story of the Russian merchant John and the beautiful maiden Eleonora”) is biographical. A young man, looking for service, comes to St. Petersburg and becomes a sailor. Having mastered the “sailor sciences,” he goes abroad “for a better knowledge of the sciences,” where he embarks on commercial enterprises. In this initial part of the biography of the hero - a noble or merchant son - features of real reality and everyday life of the early 18th century are scattered. With the transfer of action abroad, they give way to the stereotyped scheme of the old adventure novel. The “Russian merchant” or nobleman abroad turns into a romantic hero who falls from the embrace of love into the hands of robbers, is separated from his beloved during a shipwreck and finds her after a long search. What is interesting is not so much the assimilation of a template, which in the West originates from the novels of the late Hellenistic era, as the introduction into the story of details suggested by observation of living life. From this side, the verbal design is also interesting, in particular the vocabulary, where Old Slavonic elements are replaced by barbarisms, technical expressions, words introduced by the new way of life (cavalier, flute, carriage, aria, “pass”, etc.). P.). One of the means of expressing the hero’s love experiences is the lyrical monologues, romances and songs introduced into the story. With them, the story connects with the lyric poetry of this time - quantitatively significant, mostly nameless (among the composers of lyrical poems we know, however, the Germans Gluck and Paus, Mons, the favorite of Catherine I, his secretary Stoletov). Written either in syllabic or syllabic-tonic verse, these lyrical plays are a naive expression of the individualism of the noble elite, the result of the beginning of the penetration of new principles into the old system of feudal relations. Freeing themselves from the “Domostroevsky shackles” in relations between the sexes, adopting the “gallant” manners of the Western nobility, Mons and Stoletov seek expression of their intimate, almost exclusively love experiences in the forms of a conventional style, new for Russian literature and already completing its development in Europe: love - unquenchable fire, illness, wound inflicted by “Cupid's arrow”; beloved - “dear lady”, with a dawn-like face, golden hair, eyes shining like rays, scarlet sugar lips; “Fortune” rules over those who love - either in the traditional image of a mythological goddess, or with features reminiscent of “fate-share” oral creativity. Noble poetry of this period is not limited only love lyrics. It also knows genres of greater social significance, for example, satire, significant examples of which were first given by Kantemir, although satirical elements had appeared before him, for example, in the verses of Simeon of Polotsk, in the oratorical prose of Feofan Prokopovich, or in “interludes”, which often caricatured the enemies of feudal politics expansion. Cantemir's satires served to promote European cultural influences, which sharply intensified at the end of the 17th century. Cantemir's satires ran counter to those that were dominant in the 30s. political trends and did not appear in print, distributing in manuscripts; they were published in 1762. Kantemir’s satirical attacks are directed against all enemies of the feudal-absolutist Europeanization of Russia and against the distortion of this Europeanization: Kantemir denounces the “ignorant”, conservatives who see science as the cause of “heresies”, “evil nobles” who place merit in noble origin who assimilate only the appearance of culture, schismatics, bigots, bribe-takers, bad upbringing is one of the main causes of ignorance. While denouncing, he at the same time agitates for “science”, proving the practical importance of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and maritime affairs. Realistic in content and in everyday language, his satires formally follow classical Latin (Horace, Juvenal) and French models - the satire of Boileau, who required schematization of specific content to create generalized abstract images of the “prude,” “dandy,” “reveler,” etc. P.

The literary diversity of this period is not limited to the literature of the noble elite. The end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. - the time is not so much printed as handwritten literature, numerous collections where works of the previous era are preserved, passing from reader to reader (legends, lives, circulations, old translated and original stories, etc.). Judging by the memoirs and inscriptions on the books themselves, it can be argued that this handwritten literature was the favorite reading of both the conservative landowner and the old-style merchant - all those groups that were not in favor of the growth of European trade relations. The creative output of these groups at the beginning of the 18th century. still little studied and not even fully known. But the material published so far is of great historical value. Opposition to the new forms of the ruling class of landowners and the emerging class of merchants was exerted not only by a certain part of the nobility, but also by the patriarchal merchants and, above all, by the peasantry, who languished under the unbearable yoke of conscription, taxes, corvée, and work in serf factories. Part of the protest of these latter groups was withdrawal into schism and sectarianism. The schismatic literature of the “Petrine era” is the most vivid expression of resistance to Peter’s reforms, which contained not only the aspirations of conservative groups, but to a certain extent also the protest of the peasantry. A prominent place in it belongs to satire protesting against innovations: a new calendar, a new science, a poll tax, “vile potions” - tobacco, tea, coffee, etc. popular print with the text “The mice are burying the cat,” you can see a satire on Peter, depicted as the cat Alabris, “the Kazan cat, the Astrakhan mind, the Siberian mind” (a parody of the royal title), who died on “gray (winter) Thursday, on the sixth-fifth "(Peter died on Thursday of the winter month - January - between the fifth and sixth o'clock in the afternoon). The same satirical allusions to Peter are seen in the illustrations for the “Explanatory Apocalypse” (manuscript of the Historical Museum in Moscow), in “ folk drama"about "Tsar Maximilian", which remained in folklore almost until the end of the 19th century. Along with satire, the oral creativity of the same groups created a number of new “spiritual poems”, imbued with a mood of gloomy despair in view of the approach of the “last times”, the “kingdom of Antichrist” and calling for flight into the “desert”, suicide, self-immolation, etc. Many of typical images and thus this poetry remained in everyday use of oral literature until the 19th century.

The literary activity of Kantemir, Feofan Prokopovich and partly official poets was a preparation for Russian classicism, which dominated a certain part of literature for almost a century, transformed at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. and left a noticeable imprint in the works of Batyushkov, Griboyedov, Pushkin, Baratynsky and others. The design of this style in R. l. was influenced by French classicism (partly German, the influence of which Lomonosov experienced). However, many individual elements of Russian classicism are rooted in the school “baroque” Russian and Ukrainian literatures of the XVII V. Classicism flourished most brightly in France XVII V. in the conditions of the growth of the big bourgeoisie, which gravitated towards the “court”. Russian classicism received a different content, different from French, despite its formal imitation. The Russian bourgeoisie did not take part, as in France, in the creation of court classicism. It arose among the Russian nobility, its court elite, interested in strengthening feudal relations. The most aristocratic theory of Russian classicism was created by writers of non-noble origin - commoner Tredyakovsky and the son of a peasant Lomonosov; the phenomenon is quite understandable - the result of the ruling class subjugating individual people from the exploited class. The noble theoretician of classicism Sumarokov, having adopted basically the same principles, reworked and “lowered” classical poetics in significant details and particulars, adapting it to the aesthetic needs of wider circles of the nobility, not only the courtiers. This decrease occurred in an acute situation literary struggle. The aristocratic principles of Russian classicism consist, firstly, in the requirement that the poet choose “high” subjects: persons of “low” rank were allowed only in comedy, where, in turn, it was unacceptable to bring out persons of high origin. According to the subject of the image, the language of the work should also be “high”: the characters in it speak “the language of the court, the most prudent ministers, the wisest clergy and the most noble nobility” (Tredyakovsky). To write on “high” topics, the poet must have elegant and good “taste”; the development of taste is conditioned by appropriate education: the poet is recommended to have a thorough knowledge of rhetoric, versification, mythology - the source of themes and images - and the study of literary images - Greek, Roman, French. The poetics of classicism, noble by its nature, accepts some elements of bourgeois ideology, making “reason”, “common sense” the main leader of poetic inspiration. From the point of view of rationalism, the incredible is rejected, the principle of “plausibility”, “imitation of nature” is put forward. But “imitation of nature” is still far from later realism: by “nature” we do not mean real, changeable reality, but the essence of phenomena, in the depiction of which everything individual, temporary, and local is discarded. This “high” poetry, built on “common sense”, seeking mathematical precision of expression, has high goals: it must teach, and classicism especially cultivates didactic genres. First of all, Russian classical poetics began to develop issues of poetic language, which had to be adapted to new tasks. Lomonosov gave the theory of “three calms” - high, medium and low: the starting point is the use of “Slavic sayings”. The theory provoked severe criticism from Sumarokov, but held its ground and determined poetic practice. Lomonosov finally legitimized the transition from the syllabic system of versification to the syllabic-tonic system, which had been proposed even earlier by Tredyakovsky and practically carried out by the anonymous poets of the “Petrine era.” Classicism is most clearly represented by the works of Lomonosov, who promoted theoretical works(“Letter on the rules of Russian poetry”, “On the benefits of church books in the Russian language”, “Rhetoric”, etc.) high, magnificent art of words, moralizing, helping to solve problems public order. In Lomonosov's work, problems were posed and artistically resolved that the literature of the beginning of the century timidly and naively put forward, advocating for the expansion and strengthening of the socio-economic base of feudal Russia. Without leaving the genre framework of high poetry, he used ode, and partly tragedy and epic, to promote the tendency of a feudal-absolutist, military-bureaucratic monarchy in its European “cultural” forms.

Since Peter I firmly and decisively outlined this program, he becomes an ideal for Lomonosov, a role model for subsequent monarchs. Lomonosov’s differences with Sumarokov and his school are explained, of course, not by their personal relationships, but by the difference in their group, intra-class positions. The classicism of Sumarokov and his group is reduced and partly vulgarized. The performance of this latter group is already characteristic of the second period of R. l. XVIII century Sumarokov’s school (Elagin, Rzhevsky, Ablesimov, Bogdanovich, etc.) energetically fights the Lomonosov system, parodying and ridiculing the “high” style of the poet, conducting literary polemics with him. By the 60s. "Sumarokovites" defeat Lomonosov: his literary principles, temporarily broken, will be partially revived only in the 70s. in an ode by V. Petrov. In contrast to Lomonosov, who demanded “high soaring” (in works that were not intended for publication, Lomonosov himself did not follow these requirements, by the way), Sumarokov’s literary theory seeks simplicity and naturalness. Lomonosov put forward mainly “high” genres - ode, tragedy, epic; Sumarokov instills “middle” and even “low” genres - song, romance, idyll, fable, comedy, etc. In contrast to Lomonosov’s pathetic speech, replete with tropes and figures, complicated by Slavicisms, Sumarokov uses a simple language that does not shy away from vulgarisms. Instead of high problems of national importance, the Sumarokov school develops intimate, predominantly love themes, and creates “light poetry.” However, there is no complete rejection of the “high” style: among the genres of “high” poetry, tragedy has been preserved and receives special attention from Sumarokov. The classical tragedy, despite the psychological schematism in the depiction of faces, despite the timelessness of the plot, was saturated with lively political content. Despite its “abstraction”, Russian tragedy of the 18th century. - a vivid reflection of the struggle between various trends in the nobility. Sumarokov himself and his followers imbued the tragedy with monarchical tendencies in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism,” revealing in it the “heroic virtues” of the monarch and the idea of ​​“honor” of his subjects, which consisted in devoted service to the throne, in the renunciation of personal feelings if they come into conflict with duty loyal subject. In turn, the monarch must be a “father” (of course for the nobility), and not a “tyrant” and jealously guard the interests of those who are his support.

IN last third XVIII century a crisis of the feudal serf system is brewing. At its core is the crisis of the landowner economy, which is faced with growing capitalist relations, the growth of new class contradictions in the clash with the emerging bourgeois class, coming forward with its demands and declaring its rights. The search for a way out of the crisis in the growth of feudal exploitation leads to an explosion of acute class struggle: the national liberation movement and the peasant war of 1773-1775 shook the entire feudal system to its core.

On this basis, a kind of noble opposition grows, which looks for the culprit in the bureaucratic apparatus of power. In the tragedy, the image of a tyrant king and a defender of freedom fighting against him appears, but in a specific noble interpretation of the plot. The comedy takes as its object the clerk. The new genre created in our country in the 18th century - utopia - has the same orientation. Finally, a reflection of the emerging new social relations is the “decrease in style”, its adaptation to new tastes.

Without touching on the tragedy, the “decrease” of high style occurred among Sumarokov and his followers along the line of lyricism and especially along the line of comedy. Lomonosov's theory classified comedy as a low genre, allowing it greater freedom from “rules” and thereby “reducing” its classicism. Broad aristocratic literature did not fail to take advantage of this relative freedom. In his “Epistole on Poetry” Sumarokov pays a lot of attention to comedy. She was given a didactic task: “the property of comedy is to correct the character through mockery - to make people laugh and to use its direct rules.” If the courtly-aristocratic theory of Boileau rebelled against buffoonery, condemning Moliere for his passion for the people and rude jokes, Sumarokov willingly allows an element of the rudely comic into his comedy. Classical theory demanded that the action of comedy be centered around the vicious passion of human character, outside of its social and everyday coloring and outside of its individual reigns. Psychological schematism, resulting from the classical understanding of “nature” and “plausibility,” appeared like this. arr. the main method of character comedy with a strictly defined circle of characters (the stingy, the ignorant, the bigot, the dandy, the pedant, the crooked judge, etc.). The plot of the comedy, destined by the Roman comedians and repeated with variations in the comedies of Molière, Regnard, Detouches and others, is also limited. Sumarokov follows them: but due to the “lowering” of the comic, its coarsening, allowed by Sumarokov, his comedy absorbs elements of semi-folk interludes and elements of the Italian comedy of masks (commedia dell'arte), which existed in the Russian theater of the first half of the 18th century. While exposing dandies and dandies, pedants, ignoramuses, superstitions, and misers to ridicule, Sumarokov’s comedy does not forget about its didactic task: its heroes are representatives of the noble class, and “mockery” of them should “rule noble morals.” Sumarokov's comedy knows only one enemy - the clerk, who, thanks to Peter's table of ranks, could climb the social ladder, make his way into the ranks of the serving nobility and sometimes even turn into a nobleman. The feeling of caste makes Sumarokov hate clerks. Among his admirers, Sumarokov very soon became known as the “Russian Moliere”: however, even despite the “decline” of the genre, his comedy with narrow aristocratic educational tendencies did not satisfy the bourgeois-philistine public, and almost simultaneously with its appearance it met with sharp criticism. Lukin, who was largely influenced by bourgeois ideology and was oriented not at the noble, but at the “philistine” audience, spoke out against Sumarokov’s comedy. He himself notes that the first production of his play “Mot, Corrected by Love” (1765) aroused the displeasure of the noble stall; in the prefaces to his plays he talks about a new audience - about servants who read more than their masters; When creating comedies, he, in his own words, took into account the peculiarities of the stage talent of the theater actors created by the Yaroslavl bourgeoisie, actors who “played merchants better.” Lukin demands a concrete depiction of Russian morals from comedy; the borrowed plot should “incline toward Russian morals”; it is necessary to abandon the foreign-sounding names of the characters and force the heroes of the comedy to speak in pure Russian, allowing “foreign speeches” only, for example. for the speech characteristics of a dandy and a dandy. In theory, Lukin turned out to be stronger than in practice: his own comedies did not implement completely new principles, but in some cases (for example, in “The Shrewd Man,” 1765) he also succeeded in sharply criticizing noble morals (put into the mouth of a merchant); he noted with satirical features the serf-like manner of treatment of nobles with servants, lightly touching on this. arr. the entire feudal-serf system. The bourgeois slogan “to bend comedy to Russian morals” was also adopted by other playwrights - Fonvizin, Knyazhnin, Nikolev, Kapnist, etc. This suggests that in the 60-70s. the nobles had to not only listen to the voice of bourgeois groups, but, in the fight against them, restructure themselves accordingly. The evolution of noble comedy in the middle of the century goes from an abstract comedy of characters to a concrete everyday comedy, from psychological schematism to experiments in typifying noble reality. The heyday of everyday noble comedy is characteristic of the last third of the 18th century. Its task is to maintain, strengthen the nobility, re-educate it so that, having overcome its weaknesses, it could resist the peasantry and partly the bourgeoisie. The criticism of the nobility in the comedy of this time is generally devoid of accusatory pathos and is friendly: the denunciations do not concern the essence of the feudal-serf system; on the contrary, they strive to divert this topic, speaking out against the low cultural level of Ch. arr. provincial small nobility, against the cultural “perversions” of the metropolitan nobility. Everyday comedy became a means of educational policy of the nobility, ridiculing Frenchmania as a phenomenon of noble pseudo-education, the idle talk and idle thoughts of dandies and dandies, the rudeness of small-scale morals, and the ignorance of noble “minds.” She warned against all kinds of freethinking - Voltairianism, materialism, Freemasonry, perceiving them as phenomena hostile to the integrity of the feudal-landowner ideology, she took up arms against representatives of other classes - merchants and especially clerks, believing that it was in them that the reason for the shortcomings of the noble system was hidden - bribery , chicanery, judicial troubles - not noticing and not wanting to notice that bribe takers and bureaucrats are a product of the state system, and putting it that way. arr. effect in place of cause (“Sneak” by Kapnist). The comedy contrasted the negative images of nobles with the images of bearers of noble “honor” - the Starodums, Pravdins, Milonovs. Fonvizin proclaimed the principles of noble educational policy especially zealously, through the mouth of Starodum, exposing the morally decaying court nobility, preaching nobility, which lies “in good deeds, not in nobility,” in good behavior, in the development of feelings. The preaching of the education of feeling, which is more valuable than reason, was a transformed adoption of one of the principles of the Western advanced bourgeoisie of the 18th century. (see below for a description of Russian sentimentalism). While maintaining formal similarities with classic comedy(unity, love affair, division of persons into “virtuous” and “vicious”, cliche names of the characters - Khanzhakhin, Skotinin, Krivosudov, etc.), everyday comedy nevertheless differs in its artistic method from the psychological schematism of a comedy of characters. This is a method of typical everyday characterization, especially pronounced in the depiction of negative faces. Everyday typification is also achieved by the introduction of everyday figures of episodic significance (in “The Minor” - Mitrofan’s teacher, his mother, the tailor Trishka), speech characteristics, emphasizing the linguistic features of this environment (Russian-French language of dandies and dandies, professional and class features of the language of clerks, seminarians, etc.). From this comedy the direct path leads to the comedies of the early 19th century. - to Krylov, Shakhovsky, and then Griboyedov. Overcoming the classical “rules”, developing towards mastering the realistic method, comedy begins to absorb elements of “third-class” literature. The same should be said about the genre of comic opera - “drama with voices,” that is, inserted numbers for singing and musical accompaniment. Among the authors of comic operas we find, for example. “the serf Count Yaguzhinsky traveling in Italy” Matinsky, a writer of noble ideology, whose play “Gostiny Dvor” was almost as successful as Ablesimov’s famous comic opera “The Miller - a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker” (1779), which caused a number of imitations. “The Sbitenshchik” by Knyazhnin, “The Miller and the Sbitenshchik are Rivals” by Plavilshchikov, etc. Free from “rules” (unity of place and time), varied in subject matter (plots from the life of the nobility, merchant, peasant, from Russian and oriental fairy tales, history, mythology etc.), widely using folklore (songs, dramatizations of rituals, especially weddings), comic opera stopped halfway in its development and, approaching for example. to peasant themes, most often gave an idyllic image of serf life, in the cloudless sky of which clouds are possible, but not for long (“Misfortune from the carriage” by Knyazhnin with the characteristic final chorus of the peasants “a trinket ruined us, but a trinket saved us”). Pursuing primarily the goals of entertainment, the genre of comic opera, curious as a movement forward along the path of “nationality,” did not have much social significance.

Despite the aggravation of class contradictions, the nobility was still so strong that it could produce from its midst a major poet, whose work to a certain extent synthesized different directions of landowner literature and which became an almost continuous hymn to the joy and fullness of noble life, and to a certain extent, life in general . This poet is Derzhavin, overcoming the traditions of Lomonosov classicism in the very genre that Lomonosov glorified - in ode. Just as Lomonosov is the “singer of Elizabeth,” so Derzhavin is the “singer of Felitsa” (Catherine II): but Derzhavin’s ode is full of deformations of the classical canon. And the interpretation of the theme is the praise of the monarch in a friendly and familiar, sometimes playful manner, and the introduction of realistic, sometimes crude scenes into the ode, and the absence of a strict plan, logic of construction, and the language, from “high calm” abruptly turning into vernacular, and general, characteristic for all of Derzhavin’s poetry, a mixture of styles and genres - all this runs counter to Lomonosov’s poetics. In general, Derzhavin’s poetry is a vivid expression of the rapture of life, a panegyric of the splendor and luxury of life metropolitan nobility and the abundant “simplicity” of life of the estate nobility. Derzhavin’s nature is “a feast of colors and light”; the figurative symbolism of his poetry is entirely based on images of fire, sparkling precious stones, sunshine. Derzhavin's poetry is deeply material and objective. This “objectivity,” the materiality of language, is also incompatible with the magnificent abstraction of Lomonosov’s speech, the traditions of which Derzhavin overcame. Only sometimes does the poet seem to think for a moment about the future fate of his class, instinctively feeling that the system that feeds his existence is already beginning to disintegrate. But the notes of doubt and thoughts of instability (“today is God and tomorrow is dust”) that sometimes erupt from Derzhavin are explained more likely by thinking about the fate of individual representatives of the class, about the vagaries of “chance,” than about the fate of the entire class as a whole. Destroying classical aesthetics, Derzhavin’s poetry is gradually approaching (in recent years) sentimentalism, “neoclassicism” and Ossianic romanticism, which dominated Russian lyric poetry at the beginning of the 19th century.

Under the conditions of the dictatorship of the nobility, the literary development of other classes (the large and petty bourgeoisie and especially the peasantry) was strangled, but nevertheless, along with the formation of capitalist relations by the end of the 18th century. The energy of the developing bourgeois literature of the 18th century is also growing. This literature has not yet been sufficiently studied. Bourgeois literary criticism only noted the process of “lowering” noble literature into the bourgeois environment - from stories and novels to songs and lyrics in general, without explaining the complex deformation of the work that took place. The consumption of the literature of the ruling class by the subordinate classes is a natural phenomenon, but by no means a mechanical one. But not only in these processings was the 18th century. creativity of the subordinate classes. It is enough to recall at least Sumarokov’s protest against the “dirty kind of tearful comedies” (regarding the translation and production of Beaumarchais’s “Eugenie”) to understand how dangerous bourgeois literature seemed to the nobility. In the 60-70s. “Third-class literature” is already perceived by noble writers as an unpleasant and hostile symptom. This is the time when Lukin put forward the slogan of “inclining comedy to Russian morals,” when satirical journalism flourished, partially captured by bourgeois ideologists, when parodies of the noble classical epic (such as Kheraskov’s “Rossiada”) appeared - ironic-comic poems, when in the literary ranks common writers - Chulkov, Popov, Komarov - entered, when the genres of the novel and “tearful comedy”, not provided for by the classical theory, were taking shape, the popularity of the genre of comic opera, free from “rules”, “drama with voices”, was growing, when finally the first revolutionary from the nobility who reflected in With his literary activity, to a large extent, the aspirations of the revolutionary peasantry, Radishchev threw down his first challenge to feudal-serf society, so that a few years later he could decisively oppose it. Among satirical journalism, which arose on the model of English satirical and moralizing magazines, several publications appeared that definitely promoted bourgeois ideology (“Parnassian Shrewdler”, 1770, Chulkova and Novikova’s magazines - “Drone”, 1769, “Painter”, 1772, and “Wallet” , 1774). Satire was the main literary genre for expressing anti-noble tendencies, which otherwise, in conditions of infringement of the Russian bourgeoisie, could not be introduced into literature. The difference between noble and bourgeois satire in magazines is immediately striking. The nobility (for example, “All sorts of things”) stands for satire in the “smiling kind”, for light and gentle criticism of noble morals, manifestations of hypocrisy, helipading, a tendency to gossip, etc.

Bourgeois satire unfolds in socially it is enough to pay attention to its slogan - the epigraph of Novikov’s “Drone” - “they work, and you eat their bread”, undoubtedly socially pointed, in the second edition it had to be replaced by another, more neutral one. Bourgeois satire declares war on the nobility, especially the noble aristocracy, contrasting it with the image of “a perfect, virtuous husband, albeit vile, as some stupid nobles call it.” If we add to this such brightly anti-serfdom articles as the story of a certain I.T. (apparently Radishchev) about a trip to the village “Ravaged”, published in “The Painter,” it will become clear why satirical journalism of this type turned out to be a short-lived phenomenon. The activation of “third-class literature” in this period also affected the creation of the “heroic-comic poem” (Chulkov), which also had an impact on the literature of the nobility (V. Maikov). This genre arises as a parody of the heroic poem of the “high” style (Kantemir, Tredyakovsky, Lomonosov). “High Calm” remained in academic circles until the second decade of the 19th century, but it was not popular even among the noble clans. The comic poem interprets the “low” plot in a “high calm”, parodying it like this. arr. and pathos, and mythological scenery, and plot situations of the classical poem: the “hero” is shown in fights, in a drunken brawl; the introduction of sketches of “vile” reality - the life of the lower strata - provides material for characterizing the position of the people in the noble state. In the poem by V. Maykov (“Elisha, or the irritated Bacchus”, 1771) scenes depicting prison life, peasant work, fights and disputes between neighboring villages due to demarcation, peasant land shortage, latrine trades, a correctional home for “loose wives”, compared with a monastery, etc., are also far from noble theme , as well as the language of the poem with its focus on living, “common” speech. Standing apart from the series of comic poems is Bogdanovich’s “Darling”, which came out of the “Sumarokov school”, a product of “light poetry”, paving the way for works whose pinnacle in the 19th century. there will be “Ruslan and Lyudmila” by Pushkin. Chulkov's comic poems are distinguished by a different character, interesting by the use of folklore material that did not penetrate into the poetry of the nobility. Noble poets generally interpreted folklore in a condescending manner: Derzhavin, for example. He considered Russian fairy tales and epics to be “one-color and monochromatic”; in them he saw only “gigantic and heroic boasting of absurdity, barbarism and gross disrespect for the female sex expressed.” Chulkov was also the first collector and publisher of folklore material. The “heroic-comic poem” breaks off in its development after the 70s, only to be revived somewhat later in the form of a burlesque poem-parody of the reimagined “Aeneids” by Osipov, Kotelnitsky, Naumov and others. Boileau also regarded burlesque as a folk genre. The interpretation of the heroic plot in a crudely vulgar tone was one of the means to build on the ceremonial literature of the upper classes; This is what Russian travesty did, the creation of “petty-minded” writers from the petty-bourgeois environment. But “third-class” literature in the field of the novel turned out to be especially prolific. Classical theory did not say a word about the novel; from Sumarokov’s point of view, novels are “a wasteland made up of people who waste their time in vain, and serve only to corrupt human morals and to further ossification in luxury and carnal passions.” Nevertheless, the novel filled the second half of the 18th century. According to the researcher’s calculations, novels make up 13.12% of all printed products of the 18th century, 32% of all “fine literature”, especially increasing in number towards the end of the century, with the advent of “free printing houses”. Along with this, they are also distributed by handwriting. Chulkov in the magazine “Both and Sio” describes a clerk who feeds himself by copying popular stories about Bova, Peter the Golden Keys, Evdokh and Berf sold on the market: he had to rewrite one “Bova” forty times. The novel penetrates into a wide variety of social groups: it fills the libraries of landowners, it is read with enthusiasm by the merchants, the petty bourgeoisie, and literate courtiers; Its popularity is evidenced by memoirists (Bolotov, Dmitriev, etc.) and, finally, literature itself, which captures the image of the reader and especially the female reader. A lover of novels, a noble girl who discovers her ideal in the hero of the novel, which is then embodied in the first acquaintance she meets, later became in a classic way noble literature (Griboyedov's Sophia, Pushkin's Tatyana). Genre diversity of the 18th century novel. very big. Among the nobles, on the one hand, translated novels like knightly, pastoral, salon-heroic with a moralizing tendency were especially popular, such as Fenelonov’s “Telemacus” and his imitations by Kheraskov (“Cadmus and Harmony”); on the other hand, a psychological novel depicting images of ideal nobles, like the translated “The Adventures of the Marquis G*”. In the bourgeois environment, they are carried away by the genre of the “punctual” novel such as “Gilles Blaza” by Lesage or the genre of the novelized fairy tale (Chulkov, Komarov, Levshin, Popov). The genre of the picaresque novel is particularly widespread in “third-class” literature. Telling the story of a clever hero who changes professions and, by force of circumstances, either descends or ascends the social ladder, this novel made it possible to change the everyday environment, paying significant attention to the life of the “social lower classes.” One of the most popular novels of the 18th century, preserved in readers' use even later - "The Story of Vanka Cain" - took as its basis a historical figure, a certain Ivan Osipov, a peasant who from a serf becomes a thief, from a thief - a Volga robber, from a robber - a policeman spy and detective. His biography served as the outline of the “detective” novel and had several adaptations, the most popular of which belongs to the writer Matvey Komarov. Komarov also owns other popular novels - “About My Lord George” (“About My Lord the Stupid”, mentioned in Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Russia” among examples of popular literature read by peasants) and the novel “The Unhappy Nikanor, or the Adventures of a Russian Nobleman ", where the hero of the picaresque novel is a nobleman who, after a series of misadventures, ends his life as a hanger-on jester. The picaresque novel made it possible to introduce, as in a “heroic-comic” poem, material from the life of merchants, artisans, and the peasantry, thus contributing. arr. self-affirmation in the literature of the “third estate”. The fairy-tale-adventurous novel, which arose from mixing elements of the knightly novel with Russian epic and fairy-tale folklore, served the same purpose to a certain extent. The introduction of folklore (though often falsified, especially when it came to Slavic mythology) was also literary achievement the third estate, in whose life, as well as in the life of the “lower social classes” in general, folklore was still an integral part of everyday life. So the bourgeoisie had its say in the field of the novel. The relative weakness of the class did not allow him to master other genres, for example. dramatic, to the extent that it happened in the West. Since the mid-60s. famous examples of Western bourgeois drama appear in Russian translations - “The Merchant of London” by Lillo, plays by Diderot, Mercier, Lessing; introducing “pathetic phenomena” into comedy, Lukin tries to get closer to the drama genre; Kheraskov, Verevkin (“It’s As It Should”), and Plavilshchikov (“Sidelets”, “Bobyl”) come quite close to it in some of their plays, but the genre of drama - with significant differences from Western European bourgeois dramas - is already receiving full development in the era of sentimentalism.

However, in the literature of the 70s. the intensification of the class struggle was no longer only along the line of the “third estate”, but mainly and with the greatest force along the line of the peasantry. The Peasant War of 1773-1775, which resulted from previous long-term peasant movements, revealed the severity of the contradictions of feudal society. The nobility realized the power of the class hatred of the peasants, decisively attacked the rebels and dealt with them. In the noble literature of this time we have a whole series of speeches where the political nature of the peasant movement causes a storm of indignation. Sumarokov speaks out against “Pugachevshchina” in two poems, calling Pugachev a “vile robber”, the leader of a “robber crowd”, a gang made up of “beasts”, “monsters of nature”; he is fully aware of the goals of the movement seeking to “exterminate the nobles” and “overthrow the support of the throne.” There is no execution that would be sufficient for Pugachev, from Sumarokov’s point of view. The anonymous author of the recently published “Poems on the Villain Pugachev” also demands the most severe execution and eternal damnation for the “villain.” An attempt to depict the era, of course from a noble point of view, was made in Verevkin’s comedy “Exactly” (published in 1785, written in 1779). The author is a participant in one of the punitive expeditions against the peasantry. The timing of the comedy is the final moment of the movement, when Pugachev has already been caught. The comedy features a governor who left the city when the rebels approached him (a fact that occurred many times in reality); the formulaic intrigue (obstacles encountered by lovers) is colored by the flavor of the historical moment: the hero goes into the army because “it is shameful to think about marriages and love affairs when the blood of noble compatriots is shed.” Meanwhile, the heroine falls into the hands of enemies and takes a fancy to one of them; after the liquidation of the uprising, she wants to go to a monastery, but the hero restores her “honor,” considering her innocent. The play is filled with glorification of the noble resistance to the rebellious peasantry: the leader of the resistance, Panin, is likened to “an archangel from heaven,” with a “small” army he “defeated, dispersed, caught and pacified all this damned bastard,” etc.; Another pacifier, Milizon (Mikhelson), evokes no less delight.

We will find no less harshness - in relation to the nobility - in the peasant creativity of this era (see the section “Oral Poetry”). Starting from the “crying of serfs” (“Crying of the slaves of the last century”, “Complaint of Saratov peasants against the zemstvo court”) through songs about serf bondage, we come to rich folklore about Pugachev. In the everyday life of the peasantry of the 18th century. Previously composed songs about Stepan Razin also live on. Both songs about Razin and songs about Pugachev are filled with a feeling of acute class hatred. We have, of course, only fragments of the probably extensive “Pugachev cycle”; but they also constitute quite eloquent and historically valuable material that changes the face of Russian literature of the 18th century, once created by bourgeois researchers.

The revolutionary ferment among the peasantry, which was not directly reflected in written literature, nevertheless had a unique effect on it. Even at the beginning of the century, the protest of the peasantry against landowner exploitation found expression in a certain part of schismaticism. Later, a number of bourgeois writers reflected in their work - inconsistently and contradictorily - the seething stream of peasant consciousness hostile to the existing order. In terms of such criticism, Novikov had already acted in part, mainly a typical representative of liberalism of the 18th century, who later turned to the reactionary path of Freemasonry and mysticism. In 1790, Radishchev became a spokesman for revolutionary sentiments. The influence of the Enlightenment and the French bourgeois revolution played a decisive role in the creation of Radishchev’s ideology. There can be no talk of Radishchev’s “ideological loneliness,” supposedly falling out of the literature of the 18th century, as bourgeois literary criticism claimed. In conditions of intensified (especially after the French Revolution) government supervision of literature, it was difficult for works that criticized the feudal system to penetrate into print; this does not mean that there were few of them, and even less does it mean that the corresponding ideological movements were represented by individuals. Radishchev sets literature not only educational tasks, but also demands that the writer be a political and social fighter, striving for the social re-education of his readers. This was prevented by censorship - the demand for freedom of the press was put forward. “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) by Radishchev is directed against two foundations of the feudal-landlord state - autocracy and serfdom. The theme of “autocracy”, developed in “Travel” in journalistic discussions and in the ode “Liberty”, is interpreted completely differently from the interpretation of noble and bourgeois writers close to them: in tragedies imbued with the spirit of intra-noble opposition, the monarch was a “tyrant” only when he did not share his power with the nobles, he strove for unlimited domination; Radishchev has an unlimited monarch - “the first murderer in society, the first robber, the first violator of general silence, the fiercest enemy, directing his anger at the inside of the weak.” Autocracy is a violator of the “agreement” that determines the relationship between the government and the people: the people enter into a “silent” agreement with the sovereign - the “first citizen”, entrusting him with power, but reserving the right to control, judge and remove the monarch in case of abuse of power. Therefore, the English revolution is worthy of praise, punishing with death the king who abused the people's trust. The main thing in the state is the “law”, before which all citizens must be equal: from the point of view of this democratic principle, Radishchev approaches his second topic. Serfdom is for him the worst evil, “a monster, mischievous, huge, yawning and barking” (a verse from Tredyakovsky’s “Telemachida”, taken as the epigraph to “The Journey”). From Radishchev's point of view serfdom Not only is it incompatible with the humane principles of equality and freedom, it also undermines the economic power of the state and leads to population extinction. Having based his views on the theories of the ideologists of Western European bourgeois democracy (Mabley, Raynal, etc.), Radishchev was able to apply them to Russian reality, even outlining specific conditions for the abolition of serfdom with the allocation of land to peasants and their transformation into small landowners. The theme of serfdom was developed by Radishchev both in pathetic journalism and in the fictional form of short stories giving descriptions peasant life and poverty, revealing the horrors of lordly tyranny. Setting himself the educational tasks of social reorganization based on the principles of bourgeois democracy, Radishchev used a special method in his main work, which made it possible to combine elements of journalism with showing living reality. In “The Journey”, reasoning, lyrical outpourings, stories and stories, descriptions (maybe partly following the example of Stern) are combined into a certain whole. Form of “travel” from the end of the 18th century. becomes popular in noble literature (in 1794-1798 Karamzin’s “Letters of a Russian Traveler” were published as a separate edition). But there are a number of sharp differences between Radishchev’s book and the noble “travels”. Radishchevsky’s “traveler” is, first of all, a bearer of a certain class ideology and then a generally “sensitive” person: his sensitivity is a manifestation of social humanity; For him, reality is not a reason for an outpouring of personal feelings or an expression of curiosity, but material for reflection and generalizations of a sociological nature. Radishchev's style is the result of a complex interaction between the rationalistic tendencies of classicism, the realistic aspiration to living reality and some elements of sentimentalism. In the literature of the 18th century. Radishchev’s literary and social environment could not express itself widely, it went “underground”, but during the years of temporary weakening of censorship oppression, at the beginning of the 19th century, Radishchev found followers - poets and publicists who united in the “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and arts" (Pnin, Born, Popugaev, Nik. Radishchev, etc.).

At the end of the 18th century. there was a rise in capitalism. Under these conditions, a certain part of the nobility, who felt the instability of feudal relations and at the same time did not accept new social trends, put forward a different sphere of life, previously ignored. This was an area of ​​intimate, personal life, the defining motives of which were love and friendship. This is how sentimentalism arose as a literary movement, final stage development of R. l. XVIII century, covering the initial decade and moving into the XIX century. In contrast to the literature of classicism, sentimentalism placed the average person from the nobility and his everyday life at the center of attention. By its class nature, Russian sentimentalism is deeply different from Western European sentimentalism, which arose among the progressive and revolutionary bourgeoisie, which was an expression of its class self-determination. Russian sentimentalism is basically a product of noble ideology: bourgeois sentimentalism could not take root on Russian soil, since the Russian bourgeoisie was just beginning - and extremely uncertainly - its self-determination; the sentimental sensitivity of Russian writers, which affirmed new spheres of ideological life, previously, during the heyday of feudalism, of little significance and even forbidden - longing for the passing freedom of feudal existence. But at the same time, Russian sentimentalism reflected some features of the new relationships. This is, first of all, certain individualistic tendencies, and then, abstractly, it is true, attention to the non-noble elements of society, which was reflected in the affirmation of the all-class feeling (“And peasant women know how to feel”). There are no anti-noble tendencies left in this slogan, just as there is no criticism of the nobility in Karamzin’s sentimentalism. Using e.g. the widespread plot scheme of the Western sentimental novel - an aristocrat seduces a bourgeois girl (Richardson's Clarissa Garlow) - the same Karamzin in his "Poor Liza" (1792) emptied the class meaning from it. In Richardson, the aristocratic seducer is contrasted with the virtue of the heroine, resistant to all temptations and morally triumphant over vice. Karamzin's heroine, the peasant woman Liza, does not oppose Erast, and the author himself does not condemn him, but is only sad about the unfortunate, but from his point of view, inevitable outcome. Sentimentalism in Russian literature was not, of course, the result of the creative initiative of Karamzin alone, as bourgeois school textbooks once claimed: its elements, long before Karamzin, broke into the classical idyll, found a place for themselves in comic opera, in the experiments of the Russian “tearful comedy”, in psychological novel , in love lyrics. Karamzin is more a result than the beginning of development. He himself, as often happens, was not aware of his connection with previous literature, pointing to foreign examples (Shakespeare, Milton, Thompson, Jung, Gessner, Rousseau, etc.: the poem “Poetry”). In the field of prose, sentimentalism especially put forward two genres: the genre of a sentimental journey and the genre of a sensitive story. Karamzin’s “Letters of a Russian Traveler” gave rise to a whole series of imitations (“Journey to Midday Russia” by Izmailov, 1800-1802; “Journey to Little Russia” by Shalikov, 1803; “Another Journey to Little Russia” by him, the travels of Nevzorov, Gledkov, etc.). Karamzin's travel genre is a relaxed combination of lyrical outpourings, portraits, landscapes, descriptions of urban life, social life, short stories and short stories. In the center is the traveler himself - a sensitive hero, an enthusiast of nature and humanity, pure and meek in heart, making friendly connections everywhere. It goes without saying that his attitude towards the French Revolution (he witnessed its initial stage) is completely negative. His “love for humanity” boils down to the desire to see contented and happy people around him, so as not to disturb his peace with scenes of misfortune; in the desire to be “touched”, to be touched by manifestations of human gratitude, paternal or filial love, friendship. Such abstract “love” could be a convenient veil to cover up feudal reality. The peasant, imbued with sensitivity, must love his masters and bless his yoke. Most of all, however, the sensitive hero is busy analyzing his heart. A scrupulous analysis of feelings and experiences is combined in “Journey” with a careful recording of background details, with loving attention to the little things of everyday life. Another favorite genre of sentimentalism is the sensitive story. Its features appear especially clearly when comparing it with an adventurous (puntish) novel of third-class literature, from which Karamzin’s story clearly takes its cue. The novel is built on complexity and a quick change of adventures: the story avoids complex plots, simplifying and curtailing the action, transferring it to the psychological plane. The focus here is also on the analysis of feelings revealed in characterizations, monologues, and author’s comments. The latter create a tense atmosphere of emotionality around the hero, further enhanced by lyrical descriptions of nature. The literary activity of Karamzin and his school was perceived as reformist not only because they “discovered” new world human emotions, but also because in connection with this the system of artistic speech was reorganized. The main principle of language reform was the desire for “pleasantness,” as opposed to the “clumsiness” of 17th-century prose, with its syntactic disorder. Karamzin reformed the vocabulary, expelling Slavicisms and “common people” from it; in place of confused periods, symmetrical periods with uniform increases and decreases were introduced; neologisms are created. This is how the principle of syntactic and lexical ease and pleasantness is implemented. A long struggle flared up around Karamzin’s language reform, which took up the first decades of the 19th century, the struggle of the “Shishkovists” with the “Karamzinists,” a conservative-feudal noble group and a group that was moving away from perceived new, social phenomena (capitalism) into the sphere of personal life, attractive in its sophistication and isolation. But at the same time, there is no doubt the progressive significance of Karamzin’s language “reform,” which contributed to the expansion of the reading environment at the expense of the largest groups of nobility... With Karamzin and the “Karamzinists” we are already moving into the 19th century, the beginning of which is the era of the gradual fading of the classical style, development sentimentism, and at the same time the development of the bourgeois attack on noble literature, the growth of those bourgeois-realistic tendencies that were rooted precisely in the 18th century.

Bibliography

Peretz V.N., Essays on the history of poetic style in Russia. The era of Peter V. and the beginning of the 18th century, I-VIII, “ZhMNP”, 1905-1907

and dept. ot.: I-IV, St. Petersburg, 1905

V-VIII, St. Petersburg, 1907

Bush V.V., Old Russian literary tradition in the 18th century. (On the issue of social stratification of the reader), “Scientific notes of the Saratov State. University named after N. G. Chernyshevsky", vol. IV, no. 3. Pedagogical. Faculty, Saratov, 1925

Gukovsky G., Russian poetry of the 18th century, Leningrad, 1927 (formalistic work)

Sakulin P.N., Russian literature, part 2, M., 1929 (bourgeois sociological approach)

Desnitsky V., On the tasks of studying Russian literature of the 18th century. (in the book “Iroi-comic poem”, see above)

"Literary Heritage", vol. 9-10. XVIII century, M., 1933 (editorial articles by G. Gukovsky and others, a number of new publications of texts)

The same, vol. 19-21, M., 1935 (articles by V. Desnitsky, D. Mirsky and from the editor - Results of the discussion)

“XVIII century”, Sat., Articles and materials, ed. ak. A. S. Orlova, ed. Academy of Sciences, M. - Leningrad, 1935 (among others - L. Pumpyansky, Essays on the literature of the first half of the 18th century)

Gukovsky G., Essays on the history of Russian literature of the 18th century, ed. Academy of Sciences, M. - L., 1936

Berkov P., Lomonosov and the literary polemics of his time, ed. Academy of Sciences, M. - L., 1936

General courses: Porfiryeva, Galakhova, Pypin, Loboda, etc. On the history of individual genres: Afanasyev A., Russian satirical magazines 1769-1774, M., 1859 (republished in Kazan in 1919), Krugly A., On theory poetry in Russian literature of the 18th century, St. Petersburg, 1893

Sipovsky V.V., Essays from the stories of the Russian novel, vol. I, no. 1-2 (XVIII century), St. Petersburg, 1909-1910

Veselovskaya A., Collection of love lyrics of the 18th century, St. Petersburg, 1910

Rozanov I. N., Russian lyrics. From impersonal poetry to “confession of the heart”, M., 1914

His, Songs about the living son, collection. “XVIII century”, see above

His, Russian book poetry from the beginning of writing to Lomonosov, collection. "Verses. Syllabic poetry of the 17th-18th centuries,” M. - L., 1935 (“Poet’s Book”)

Warneke V., History of the Russian Theater, ed. 2

Kallash V.V. and Efros N.E. (eds.), History of the Russian theater. vol. I, M., 1914

Bagriy A., On the issue of Russian lyric poetry of the 18th century, “Russian Philological Bulletin”, (M.), 1915, No. 3. See also the bibliography for articles characterizing the genres.

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://feb-web.ru were used

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Vyrubovsky branch

Municipal budgetary educational institution

"Nikiforovskaya secondary school No. 1"

Nikiforovsky district

Tambov region

System of lessons on classicism

Prepared

teacher of Russian language and literature

Polyakova Tatyana Viktorovna

/System of lessons on classicism/

Lesson topic: Literature of the 18th century. Classicism.

Lesson objectives: Educational:

a) review the era (cultural, economic,

political situation)

b) introduce students to the literary movement

“classicism”, note its main features and

characteristics

Developmental :

a) students’ mastery of a complex of theoretical

concepts on this topic

Educational:

a) broaden the horizons of students

b) develop the aesthetic taste of students

Literature: 1. Textbook on Russian literature, ed. V.Ya.

Korovina

2. Yu.M. Lotman Textbook on Russian literature

3. Literary encyclopedic dictionary

Org. moment

Greeting students, checking absentees.

In today's lesson we will look at what changes and transformations the 18th century brought with it, and how these transformations affected literature.

We will also get acquainted with the literary movement “classicism” (one of the main movements of Russian literature of the 18th century)

There was that troubled time

When Russia is young,

Straining strength in struggles,

She dated the genius of Peter.

Lecture with elements of conversation

18th century literature (like literature of any other period) is inextricably linked with the era, with the cultural and socio-political life of the country.

Review of the cultural and political situation in Russia in the 18th century.

Russia of the 18th century (the initial period of the Peter the Great era) was experiencing a number of cardinal transformations in all areas of state, cultural, and political life.

Russia's independence is strengthening, its military power is increasing, and its influence in the European arena is increasing. Thanks to all the transformations, autocratic power is also strengthening. 18th century - the century of enlightenmentabsolutism with his ideas of citizenship, patriotism, and national unity.

Absolutism - autocracy

/Moscow University opens, secondary and vocational schools are created, a new calendar is introduced, the first Russian newspaper is founded, the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts, the first permanent Russian theater are established /

To move the country forward, eradicate patriarchal foundations and superstitions, it was necessary to pay attention to the development of the following areas: - education

The science

Culture

Seal

In this regard, it acquires special and exceptional significanceliterature.

The literature of the 18th century brings with it the image of a person who feels like a citizen and a patriot, who, for the good of society and the state, is ready to sacrifice personal well-being, ready to subordinate his feelings to public duty.

The dominant trend in literature of the 18th century wasclassicism.

Classicism– (from lat. classicus– exemplary), artistic style and aesthetic direction in European literature 18th – early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient images as an ideal aesthetic standard.

/The concept of beauty in the art of classicism is associated with symmetry and harmony. This was reflected in the rules of behavior of people secular society: violent expression of feelings was considered indecent in the 18th century and was perceived as a sign of low birth or bad upbringing. The manifestation of even the strongest passions must be likedeep waters encased in granite shores ./

Features of classicism

Approval of the ideas of enlightened absolutism - patriotism, citizenship, unity of the nation.

Affirmation of the priority of reason.

The aesthetics of classicism is based on the principle of rationalism: a work of art must be intelligently and consistently constructed, logically verified (based on the principle of “imitation of nature”).

Compliance with certain creative norms and rules (strict plot and compositional organization).

A clear division of heroes into positive and negative

“Immutability” of the hero (lack of internal development).

Idealization of the hero (odes of Lomonosov)

Interest in the folk language, the use of folk speech in works.

Objectivity of narration.

Features of classicism

Division of genres into “high” and “low”.

Highs: (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology; their heroes are monarchs, generals)

Low: (comedy, satire, fable) depict the private, everyday life of middle-class people.

Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary is allowed.

The leading genre of classicism was tragedy, addressed to the most important social and moral problems of the century. Social conflicts appear in it reflected in the souls of the heroes, faced with the need to choose between moral duty and personal passions.

Law of “three unities” (unity of time, place and action)

unity of time - the action takes place over the course of one day

unity of place - the action takes place in one place

unity of action – single plot line, a large number of characters (related to the plot)

Russian classicism originated in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature A.D. Kantemira, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov.

Features of Russian classicism.

connection with modern reality

satirical focus

appeal to specific phenomena of Russian life

predominance of national-historical themes

high level of development of the ode genre

3. Lesson summary

In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, joined the pan-European literary development, while maintaining its national identity.

Homework a) teach a lecture on classicism

b) preparation of reports on the activities of M.V.

Lomonosov (individual assignments)

Lesson topic: M.V. Lomonosov. Reformist

activities in the field of Russian language and

literature.

Lesson objectives: Educational:

a) introduce students to the personality of one of the

greatest figures of education - M.V.

Lomonosov

b) reveal the essence of M.V.’s reforms. Lomonosov

Educational:

a) master the complex theoretical concepts By

this topic

Educational:

a) instill in children a sense of national pride,

patriotism

Literature:

Literary encyclopedic dictionary (articles:

ode, Lomonosov)

middle classes

V.Ya. Korovina

Org. moment

In today's lesson we will get acquainted with the personality of an outstanding figure of Russian education - M.V. Lomonosov, and also evaluate the significance of his reform activities.

2. “The Tale of Lomonosov” Combining extraordinary willpower with

with the extraordinary power of the concept,

Lomonosov embraced all branches of education.

The thirst for science was the strongest passion

this soul full of passions. Historian,

rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist,

artist and poet, he experienced everything

and penetrated everything.

A.S. Pushkin

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov

(1711-1765)

M.V. Lomonosov was born on November 8 (19), 1711 in the village of Denisovka (now the village of Lomonosovo) in the Arkhangelsk province in the family of a Pomor peasant. I went with my father on fishing boats in the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean (hard work, endurance). He learned to read and write early and by the age of 14 he had read all the books he could get his hands on: Magnitsky’s Arithmetic, Smotritsky’s Slavic Grammar and Simeon of Polotsk’s Rhyming Psalter.

In December 1730 he left (against his father’s will) with a fish train to Moscow.

In January 1731, Lomonosov, posing as a noble son, entered the Moscow Spaviano-Greco-Latin Academy, where he received good training in ancient languages ​​and other humanities (he knew more than 30 languages). He knew Latin perfectly and was subsequently recognized as one of the best Latinists in Europe.

At the beginning of 1736, as one of the best students, Lomonosov was sent to the university at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in the fall of the same year - to Germany, to the University of Marburg, where he studied natural sciences and humanities for 3 years. In 1739 he went to Freiburg, where he studied chemistry and mining at the Mining Academy. In 1741 Lomonosov returned to Russia. In 1745 he became a professor of chemistry (academician) at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. At this time, Lomonosov studied astronomy, navigation, local history, geography, meteorology, and mathematics.

Let's listen to reports about Lomonosov's activities in the field of chemistry, physics, and astronomy.

Student messages

/ Add. In 1748 M.V. Lomonosov created a chemical laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, in which he conducted scientific research, including developing the composition of glass, porcelain, and smalt, which he used for his mosaics. He independently designed instruments for chemical research and optical instruments. /

In 1755, on the initiative of Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened.

Lomonosov's reforms in the field of Russian language and literature.

Advances in language

In 1755 it was publishedRussian grammar Lomonosov. In it, for the first time, sounds were separated from letters, and the physiological and acoustic properties of sounds were also considered. The Grammar provides the first classification of the main dialects of the Russian language. The Russian and Church Slavonic languages ​​are clearly distinguished, their main differences at different levels of organization of the sound system are determined.

was created by Lomonosov“three calms” concept /reform in the field of language stylistics/

The essence of the reform

According to Lomonosov, each literary genre should be written in a certain “calm”.

““High calm” is characteristic of heroic poems, odes, “prosaic speeches about important matters.”

“Middle” – for poetic messages, elegies, satires, descriptive prose.

“Low” – for comedies, epigrams, fables.

Differences “ calm ” in the field of vocabulary

“High Calm” – Slavicisms + neutral words (commonly used in both Church Slavonic and Russian)

“Average calm” – commonly used words + a number of Slavicisms

“Low calm” – neutral vocabulary + colloquial words

Moreover, they excluded :

1. outdated Slavicisms, incomprehensible to Lomonosov’s contemporaries (ovogdy, ryasny )

2. rude, swear words (bastard, wander around )

Examples

Church Slavonicisms: daughter of the Lord, I cry, they are opened

Commonly used both for Church Slavonic and for Russian (neutral) words:hand, glory, god, now

Vernacular (not in Church Slavonic)I say, the stream that

Reform in the field of literature (in the field of poetry)

Lomonosov sought to comprehend the secrets of language and the secrets of poetry. Back in 1736, he acquired a treatise by the Russian language theorist V.K. Trediakovsky’s “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” which interested him extremely. Lomonosov's response was “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739).

The main provisions of the “letter”

Lomonosov extended the syllabic-tonic principle to all Russian versification (syllabic-tonic - syllabic-stressed, previously there was syllabic, based on the length of syllables)

Lomonosov brilliantly demonstrated the expressive capabilities of iambic.

Skillfully used a combination of male and female rhymes (Trediakovsky insisted on using only female rhymes)

Lesson summary : (1st)

Thus, Lomonosov gave scope to Russian verse, made it flexible, sonorous, and expressive. He brought the literary language closer to the spoken language (= accessibility).

Lomonosov's reforms in the areas of literary language and versification met the cultural needs of the nation. To express significant social content, new literary genres were needed, and Lomonosov opened up broad artistic horizons for poetry. At the same time, the scientist’s philological activity also had a broader meaning: it reflected the spirit of transformation characteristic of the post-Petrine era, in which Lomonosov’s scientific and poetic creativity unfolded.

Lesson topic: The genre of ode in the works of M.V. Lomonosov

Lesson objectives: Educational:

a) introduce students to the works of M.V.

Lomonosov

Educational:

a) determine the main ideas and themes of M.V.’s work.

Lomonosov

b) identify linguistic and stylistic features

creativity of Lomonosov (based on odes)

Educational:

a) development of the linguistic aesthetic ideal

students

Org. moment

In the previous lesson, we got acquainted with the personality of M.V. Lomonosov, his reform activities. In today's lesson we will turn to the works of Lomonosov (specifically to the odes)

Lecture with elements of conversation

Before determining the main themes of M. V. Lomonosov’s work, we need to understand what he saw as the purpose of a poet and poetry.

The poet, in Lomonosov's view, cannot limit himself to chanting only the movements of the human heart; he must be excited and animated by events that are important for the entire state, the entire country.

The idea of ​​the state and service to it lies at the heart of all the works of M.V. Lomonosov. The theme of the power and greatness of Russia, the patriotic pathos of “the benefit of society” were combined in Lomonosov’s poetry with the glorification of Peter 1 as an enlightened sovereign. And the genre that Lomonosov chose to glorify the wealth and power of Russia wassolemn ode.

Oh yeah - /genre of lyric poetry/, a poem of a solemn nature in honor of a person or event.

This genre arose in antiquity and at first was a song with a broad lyrical content. In Russian poetry, ode was perceived as a genre of civil lyric poetry with obligatory “high” content and “sublime” style. In his work, Lomonosov most often used two types of ode -spiritual and praiseworthy.

Let's try to make a small diagram. But first, let's think about what could be included in the content of these odes, what are they about?( spiritual ode ? ode of praise ? )

Oh yeah

Commendable Spiritual

Created for special occasions (philosophical)

court life. Topics: Worship Main Topics:

sciences, enlightenment, peace, monarchs as 1. imperfection

guardians of science and peace. Often society, loneliness

Biblical, historical people are used.

associations. The main tone is enthusiastic. 2. the greatness of nature

OD analysis

Let's consider Lomonosov's ode “Evening reflection on God's Majesty during the Great Northern Lights ”

(Expressive reading of the ode by the teacher)

What type of ode does this belong to? Prove it.

(Philosophical ode, since it contains the author’s thoughts)

(About the greatness of nature, its incomprehensibility, mystery, power and man - a “grain of sand” in this unknown world)

But! Man strives to penetrate the secrets of nature, that is, he is not a powerless contemplator, depressed and dejected. Man is a rational, thinking being. He admires the greatness of the Creator and his power, but does not give up trying to penetrate into the essence of phenomena.

Conversation.

Analysis by stanzas.

1st stanza – a majestic picture of nature is drawn (give examples)

Look at what a wonderful metaphorical image the author paints

An abyss has opened, full of stars...

(about the night sky)

Against the background of this gloomy, solemn picture of nature, is a person drawn? What does the author compare man to?

(With a grain of sand, with a small spark, with a feather)

What extraordinary natural phenomenon does the author admire?

(northern lights)

Who does the author turn to for an explanation of this natural phenomenon?

(to scientists, sages)

What artistic and expressive means does the author use in the ode and for what purpose?

Now let us turn to the ode “On the day of the accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna in 1747”

(expressive reading by students)

The day of accession to the throne occupied a central place in the annual cycle of court holidays. In 1747, the fifth anniversary of Elizabeth's accession was celebrated.

Let us note the features of classicism.

Sphere – public life; heroes - monarchs (Elizabeth, Peter); heroes are idealized; “high” content, “sublime” language.

What is glorified in the ode? We can understand this from the first lines

The consolation of kings and kingdoms of the earth, the beloved silence...

“Silence” - that is, the peaceful state of the state as the best time for the development of sciences and arts. And Elizabeth is the keeper of this silence.

Elizabeth, Peter, Catherine are idealized as monarchs-educators, patrons of science and education. Lomonosov paints the image of an ideal sovereign, shows what he should be like, and gives a “lesson to kings.”

Through the glorification of Elizabeth as the guardian of enlightenment and the sciences, the sciences themselves are glorified. Who is the author addressing (and for what purpose) in the passage?

O you who await...

4. Lesson summary

Having analyzed Lomonosov’s odes, we see that they are imbued with high civic pathos and their main goal (like all of Lomonosov’s work) was to glorify the wealth, power and greatness of enlightened Russia.

5. Homework

Analyze in writing an excerpt from the ode (On the day of accession...)

O you who await...

Lesson topic: A.N. Radishchev “Journey from St. Petersburg”

to Moscow"

Lesson Objectives : Educational :

a) introduce students to personality and creativity

A.N. Radishcheva

b) note the importance of social activities

writer

Educational:

a) identify the main themes and ideas of creativity

A.N. Radishcheva

Educational :

a) to instill in children a sense of compassion,

philanthropy

Literature: Yu.M. Lotman Textbook on Russian literature for

middle classes

Textbook on Russian literature, ed.

V.Ya. Korovina

Org. moment

In today's lesson we will get acquainted with the personality and work of A.N. Radishcheva. A thoughtful writer, a subtle observer, a sharp satirist, a person with tragic fate, Radishchev left a deep mark on the history of Russian literature.

2. “The Tale of Radishchev”

Radishchev was born into the family of a wealthy landowner. He studied first at home, in the village, then in Moscow, at Moscow University. Then he was enrolled in the Corps of Pages (he gets to know the empress, high society, palace intrigues, sees the life of the world “from the inside”)

The writer's reading range included the works of enlightenment philosophers - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. Radishchev traveled a lot abroad, where he studied law, natural science, chemistry, medicine, and philosophy.

“Autocracy is the state most contrary to human nature” - this is the thought that Radishchev took away from this journey. Returning to Russia, Radishchev entered the service. He tried to act according to his conscience everywhere and in everything and earned the respect of the best people of his era. At every step, Radishchev encountered manifestations of autocracy, arbitrariness, and despotism, which his heart did not want to put up with. The writer saw life without embellishment. Let's look at his words:

I looked around me - my soul became wounded by the suffering of humanity. I turned my gaze to my insides - and I saw that man’s misfortunes come from man, and often only because he looks indirectly at the objects around him

Radishchev made a bold attempt to look directly at the objects. In his home printing house, innocently called the vigilance of the censor, he published the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”

This work aroused the ire of Catherine. Radishchev was sentenced to death, but then the execution was commuted to imprisonment. Alexander 1 returned Radishchev to the court. The writer worked on the commission for drafting laws and proposed introducing freedom of printing and freedom of trade. Radishchev also proposes to introduce jury trials, abolish torture during interrogations, free serfs, and abolish corporal punishment. Naturally, the government could not like this. Not wanting to serve the state contrary to his principles, the writer commits suicide.

So, let's turn to Radishchev's main book. “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was an expression of such a love of truth that it was one of the most notable phenomena in the history of Russian literature of the 18th century.

Radishchev describes his journey from the new capital of Russia to the old. Naming the chapters by the names of the stations, he narrates various incidents and incidents that he observed in life or which he himself witnessed. He's dating different people: peasants, nobles, merchants... All of Russia with its troubles, poverty, dirt stands before the author.

3. Analysis of the chapter “Copper”

What terrible and cynical phenomenon of Russian life underlies the events of the chapter “Copper”? (examples!)

(sale of serfs)

How are those in power (landowners, nobles) depicted?

(cruel, cynical, having lost their human appearance)

Abuse of what human values shown in the chapter?

/Human gratitude, faith (sacrament of wedding), moral duty, gift of God (child)/

We see how people in power mock both human laws and the Laws of God. They lose their human appearance.

( pity, shame, compassion, rage)

4. Lesson summary:

Without rose-colored glasses, Radishchev looked at the Russian reality of his time and with exceptional courage condemned the despotism reigning in Russia, the arbitrariness of the authorities, the lack of rights of his subjects and the appalling situation of the peasants.

5 . Homework

Analyze the chapter “Lyuban” according to plan.

A) How is the peasantry portrayed in the chapter?

B) How does it feel about its position?

D) What thoughts does what he sees prompt the author?