General history of art in 6 volumes. From the editorial board

« General history Arts" was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage, the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkina and others.

"General History of Art" is a history of painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture and applied arts of all ages and peoples from primitive art and up to and including the art of our days. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:

Volume one. Art Ancient world : primitive art, art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, art Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, art of Ancient Rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, ancient art India and China.

Volume two. Medieval Art. Book 1: art of Byzantium, medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art(up to the 17th century inclusive), art of Armenia, Georgia, Arab countries, Turkey, Merovingian and Carolingian art Western Europe, Romanesque and gothic art France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain. Book 2: art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. In the same book - the art of peoples Ancient America and Ancient Africa.

Volume three. Renaissance Art: art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th centuries, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th-16th centuries.

Volume four. Art of the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and America: art of Italy 17-18 centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland 17 centuries, France 17-18 centuries, Russia 18 centuries, England 17-18 centuries, USA 18 centuries, Latin America 17-18 centuries and other countries.

Volume five. 19th century art: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America, India, China and other countries.

Volume six. Art of the late 19th and 20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, contemporary art of Western Europe and America, people's democracies, China, India and others countries of the East.

The sixth volume will contain a detailed consolidated bibliography on the entire world history of art.

In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text, maps indicating places will be given for each chapter archaeological finds, art centers, locations of architectural structures.

The General History of Art seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all the peoples of the earth who have contributed to world history art. Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention when working on the “General History of Art” was occupied by those eras of the history of art in which there was a particularly high flourishing realistic art- the art of Ancient Greece, Chinese art of the 10th-13th centuries, the art of the Renaissance, realistic masters of Europe of the 17th-19th centuries, etc.

The General History of Art aims to give a summary current state world science of art. It also contains a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in various fields of art history.

Current page: 1 (book has 39 pages in total)

General History of Art

From the editorial board

Primitive art

Origin of art

The main stages in the development of primitive art

Art of Western Asia (I. Loseva)

Introduction

The most ancient culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th – early 3rd millennium BC)

Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)

Art of Akkad (24th – 23rd centuries BC)

Art of Sumer (23rd – 21st centuries BC)

Art of Babylon (19th – 12th centuries BC)

Art of the Hittites and Mitanni (18th – 8th centuries BC)

Art of Assyria (9th – 7th centuries BC)

Art of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom (7th – 6th centuries BC)

Art ancient egypt(M. Mathieu)

Introduction

Formation of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)

Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 – 2400 BC)

Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)

Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th – 15th centuries BC)

The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)

Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th – 2nd centuries BC)

Late Art (11th century – 332 BC)

Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)

General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece

Art of Homeric Greece

Greek Archaic Art

Greek Classical Art (Early 5th – mid 4th century BC)

Art of the Early Classics (The so-called “strict calm” 490 – 450 BC)

High Classical Art (450 – 410 BC)

Late Classical Art (From the end of the Peloponnesian Wars to the rise of the Macedonian Empire)

Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)

Hellenistic Art

The art of ancient Rome (N. Britova)

Art of Ancient Rome

Etruscan art

Art of the Roman Republic

Art of the Roman Empire 1st century. n. e.

Art of the Roman Empire 2nd century. AD

Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd – 3rd centuries. AD

Art of the Roman Empire 3rd – 4th centuries

Art of the Northern Black Sea Coast

Art of Ancient Transcaucasia

Art of Ancient Iran (I. Loseva, M. Dyakonov)

Art of Central Asia

Art of Ancient India

Art Ancient China

General History of Art

Volume one

From the editorial board

B.V. Weymarn, B.R. Vipper, A.A. Guber, M.V. Dobroklonsky, Yu.D. Kolpinsky, V.F. Levenson-Lessing, K.A. Sitnik, A.N. Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev

“General History of Art” was prepared by the Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts of the USSR Academy of Arts with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: the State Hermitage, the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin, etc.

Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, the art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, the art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, the art of Ancient Rome, the Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, the ancient art of India and China.

Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: the art of Byzantium, the medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art (up to the 17th century inclusive), the art of Armenia, Georgia, Arab countries, Turkey, Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, Romanesque and Gothic art of France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland , Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain. Book 2: art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. The same book contains the art of the peoples of Ancient America and Ancient Africa.

Volume three. Renaissance art: art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th centuries, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th - 16th centuries.

Volume four. Art of the 17th – 18th centuries in Europe and America: art of Italy 17th – 18th centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland 17th century, France 17th – 18th centuries, Russia 18th century, England 17th – 18th centuries, USA 18th century, Latin America 17th – 18th centuries and other countries.

Volume five. Art of the 19th century: art of the peoples of Russia, France, England, Spain, USA, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia, Latin America , India, China and other countries.

Volume six. Art of the late 19th - 20th centuries: Russian art of 1890-1917, art of France, England, USA, Germany and other countries of Western Europe and America of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, Soviet art, contemporary art of Western Europe and America, people's democracies , China, India and other Eastern countries.

The sixth volume will contain a detailed consolidated bibliography on the entire world history of art.

In addition to illustrations on tables and drawings in the text for each chapter, maps will be given indicating the places of archaeological finds, artistic centers, and locations of architectural structures.

The General History of Art seeks to characterize and evaluate the art of all peoples of the earth who have contributed to the world history of art. Therefore, in the book, along with the art of the peoples and countries of Europe, a large place is given to the art of the peoples of Asia, Africa and America. The main attention when working on the “General History of Art” was occupied by those eras of the history of art in which there was a particularly high flowering of realistic art - the art of Ancient Greece, Chinese art of the 10th - 13th centuries, the art of the Renaissance, realistic masters of Europe of the 17th - 19th centuries, etc. .

“General History of Art” aims to provide a summary of the current state of the world science of art. It also contains a number of original studies by Soviet art historians in various fields of art history.

The origin of art - N. A. Dmitrieva.

The main stages in the development of primitive art - V.V. Shleev.

Art of Western Asia - I. M. Loseva.

The Art of Ancient Egypt – M.E-Mathieu.

Aegean art - N. N. Britova.

The Art of Ancient Greece - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.

The art of the Hellenistic era - E. I. Rotenberg.

The Art of Ancient Rome - N. N. Britova.

Art of the Northern Black Sea Coast - N. N. Britova.

The art of Transcaucasia in ancient times - V.V. Shleev.

The Art of Ancient Iran - I. M. Loseva (Achaemenid Iran) and M. M. Dyakonov (Sassanian Iran).

Art of Ancient Central Asia - M. M. Dyakonov.

The Art of Ancient India - N. A. Vinogradova and O. S. Prokofiev.

The art of Ancient China - N. A. Vinogradova.

B.V. Weimarn (art of Western Asia, Iran, Central Asia, China) and E.I. Rotenberg (Roman art) took part in editing some chapters of the first volume.

The selection of illustrations and layout of the volume were made by A. D. Chegodaev and R. B. Klimov with the participation of T. P. Kaptereva, A. G. Podolsky and E. I. Rotenberg.

The maps were made by the artist G. G. Fedorov, the drawings in the text were made by the artists Yu. A. Vasilyev and M. N. Mashkovtsev.

The index was compiled by N. I. Bespalova and A. G. Podolsky, explanations for the illustrations by E. I. Rotenberg.

Consultations and reviews were carried out by the Institute of Art History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the USSR Academy of Sciences, sector Ancient East Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR, Sector of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Theory and History of Architecture of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR, Department of Art History of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Art Institute. V.I. Surikov and the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture named after. I. E. Repin, State Hermitage Museum, State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, Museum oriental cultures, State Museum of Art of Georgia.

The editorial board expresses gratitude to the scientists who provided great assistance with their advice and criticism in the preparation of the first volume: M. V. Alpatov, Sh. Ya. Amiranashvili, B. N. Arakelyan, M. I. Artamonov, A. V. Bank, V. D. Blavatsky, A. Ya. Bryusov, Wang Xun, A. I. Voshchinina, O. N. Glukhareva, Guo Bao-jun, I. M. Dyakonov, A. A. Jessen, R. V. Kinzhalov, T. N. Knipovich, M. M. Kobylina, M. N. Krechetova, V. N. Lazarev, M. I. Maksimova, V. K. Nikolsky, A. P. Okladnikov, V. V. Pavlov, A. A. Peredolskaya, B. B. Piotrovsky, V. V. Struve, Xia Nai, Tang Lan, S. P. Tolstov, K. V. Trever, S. I. Tyulyaev, N.D. Flittner, Han Shou-xuan, Chen Meng-chia.

Primitive art

Origin of art

N. Dmitriev

Art as a special field human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: “... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an enhanced division of labor, which was based on a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and the privileged few who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneously formed form of this division of labor was precisely slavery" ( F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).

But since artistic activity is a unique form of knowledge and creative work, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this work learned the world long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have revealed numerous works of visual creativity of primitive man, the age of which is estimated at tens of thousands of years. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These are works that appeared long before there could be a conscious idea of artistic creativity. Many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.

The material, objective nature of works of visual creativity is especially determined by favorable conditions for the researcher of the origins of the visual arts in comparison with historians studying the origins of other arts. If about initial stages epic, music, dance must be judged mainly by indirect data and by analogy with the creativity of modern tribes who are in the early stages of social development (the analogy is very relative, which can only be relied upon with great caution), then the childhood of painting, sculpture and graphics faces us firsthand.

It doesn't match my childhood human society, that is, the most ancient eras of its formation. According to modern science, the process of humanization of the ape-like ancestors of man began even before the first glaciation of the Quaternary era and, therefore, the “age” of humanity is approximately a million years. The first traces of primitive art date back to the Upper (Late) Paleolithic era, which began approximately several tens of thousands of years BC. so-called Aurignacian time( The Chellesian, Acheulian, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian stages of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) are named after the places of the first finds.) This was a time of comparative maturity of the primitive communal system: the man of this era, in his physical constitution, was no different from modern man, he already spoke and knew how to make quite complex tools from stone, bone and horn. He led a collective hunt for large animals using spears and darts. Clans united into tribes, and matriarchy arose.

More than 900 thousand years must have passed between ancient people from a person modern type, before the hand and brain were ripe for artistic creation.

Meanwhile, the manufacture of primitive stone tools dates back to much more ancient times of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Already Sinanthropus (the remains of which were found near Beijing) had reached a fairly high level in the manufacture of stone tools and knew how to use fire. People of the later, Neanderthal type processed tools more carefully, adapting them to special purposes. Only thanks to such a “school”, which lasted many millennia, did they develop the necessary flexibility of the hand, fidelity of the eye and the ability to generalize what is visible, highlighting its most significant and characteristic features - that is, all those qualities that appeared in the wonderful drawings of the Altamira cave. If a person had not exercised and refined his hand, processing for the sake of obtaining food such a difficult-to-process material as stone, he would not have been able to learn to draw: without mastering the creation of utilitarian forms, he would not have been able to create an artistic form. If many, many generations had not concentrated their thinking ability on capturing the beast - the main source of life for primitive man - it would not have occurred to them to depict this beast.

So, firstly, “labor is older than art” (this idea was brilliantly argued by G. Plekhanov in his “Letters without an address”) and, secondly, art owes its emergence to labor. But what caused the transition from the production of exclusively useful, practically necessary tools to the production, along with them, of “useless” images? It was this question that was most debated and most confused by bourgeois scientists who sought at all costs to apply Immanuel Kant’s thesis about the “purposelessness,” “disinterest,” and “inherent value” of the aesthetic attitude to the world to primitive art. Those who wrote about primitive art, K. Bücher, K. Gross, E. Grosse, Luke, Vreul, W. Gausenstein and others, argued that primitive people They were engaged in “art for art’s sake”; the first and determining stimulus for artistic creativity was the innate human desire to play.

Theories of “play” in their various varieties were based on the aesthetics of Kant and Schiller, according to which the main feature of aesthetic, artistic experience is precisely the desire for “free play with appearances” - free from any practical goal, from logical and moral evaluation.

“The aesthetic creative impulse,” wrote Friedrich Schiller, “imperceptibly builds in the middle terrible kingdom forces and in the midst of the sacred kingdom of laws there is a third, cheerful kingdom of play and appearance, in which it removes from man the shackles of all relationships and frees him from everything that is called coercion, both in the physical and moral sense"( F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, p. 291.).

Schiller applied this basic tenet of his aesthetics to the question of the emergence of art (long before the discoveries of genuine monuments of Paleolithic creativity), believing that the “merry kingdom of play” was being erected already at the dawn of human society: “...now the ancient German is looking for more shiny animal skins , more magnificent horns, more graceful vessels, and the Caledonian seeks out the most beautiful shells for his festivities. Not content with introducing a surplus of aesthetics into what is necessary, the free impulse to play finally breaks completely with the shackles of need, and beauty itself becomes the object of human aspirations. He adorns himself. Free pleasure is counted among his needs, and the useless soon becomes the best portion of his joy." F. Schiller, Articles on Aesthetics, pp. 289, 290.). However, this point of view is refuted by facts.

First of all, it is absolutely incredible that cave people, who spent their days in a fierce struggle for existence, helpless in the face of natural forces that confronted them as something alien and incomprehensible, constantly suffering from a lack of food sources, could devote so much attention and energy to “free pleasures.” . Moreover, these “pleasures” were very labor-intensive: it took a lot of work to carve large relief images on stone, like the sculptural frieze in the shelter under the rock of Le Roc de Cerre (near Angoulême, France). Finally, numerous data, including ethnographic data, directly indicate that images (as well as dances and various types of dramatic actions) was given some extremely important and purely practical significance. Ritual ceremonies were associated with them, aimed at ensuring the success of the hunt; it is possible that they made sacrifices associated with the cult of the totem, that is, the beast - the patron saint of the tribe. Drawings have been preserved reproducing a re-enactment of a hunt, images of people in animal masks, animals pierced by arrows and bleeding.

Even tattoos and the custom of wearing all kinds of jewelry were not caused by the desire to “play freely with appearances” - they were either dictated by the need to intimidate enemies, or protected the skin from insect bites, or again played the role of sacred amulets or testified to the exploits of a hunter, for example, a necklace made of bear teeth could indicate that the wearer took part in a bear hunt. In addition, in the images on pieces of deer antler, on small tiles, one can see the beginnings of pictography ( Pictography is the primary form of writing in the form of images of individual objects.), that is, a means of communication. Plekhanov in “Letters without an Address” cites the story of one traveler that “once he found on the coastal sand of one of the Brazilian rivers, drawn by the natives, an image of a fish that belonged to one of the local breeds. He ordered the Indians accompanying him to cast a net, and they pulled out several pieces of fish of the same species that are depicted on the sand. It is clear that by making this image, the native wanted to bring to the attention of his comrades that such and such a fish was found in this place"( G. V. Plekhanov. Art and Literature, 1948, p. 148.). It is obvious that Paleolithic people used letters and drawings in the same way.

There are many eyewitness accounts of hunting dances of Australian, African and other tribes and of rituals of “killing” painted images of animals, and these dances and rituals combine elements of a magical ritual with exercise in the corresponding actions, that is, with a kind of rehearsal, practical preparation for the hunt . A number of facts indicate that Paleolithic images served similar purposes. In the Montespan cave in France, in the region of the northern Pyrenees, numerous clay sculptures of animals were found - lions, bears, horses - covered with traces of spear blows, apparently inflicted during some kind of magical ceremony ( See the description, according to Beguin, in the book by A. S. Gushchin “The Origin of Art”, L.-M., 1937, p. 88.).

The indisputability and numerousness of such facts forced later bourgeois researchers to reconsider the “game theory” and put forward a “magic theory” as an addition to it. At the same time, the theory of play was not discarded: most bourgeois scientists continued to argue that, although works of art were used as objects of magical action, the impulse for their creation lay in the innate tendency to play, to imitate, to decorate.

It is necessary to point out another version of this theory, which asserts the biological innateness of the sense of beauty, supposedly characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals. If Schiller’s idealism interpreted “free play” as a divine property of the human spirit—namely, the human spirit—then scientists prone to vulgar positivism saw the same property in the animal world and accordingly connected the origins of art with the biological instincts of self-decoration. The basis for this statement was some observations and statements of Darwin about the phenomena of sexual selection in animals. Darwin, noting that in some breeds of birds, males attract females with the brightness of their plumage, that, for example, hummingbirds decorate their nests with multi-colored and shiny objects, etc., suggested that aesthetic emotions are not alien to animals.

The facts established by Darwin and other naturalists are not in themselves subject to doubt. But there is no doubt that it is just as illegitimate to deduce from this the origin of the art of human society as to explain, for example, the reasons for travel and geographical discoveries, carried out by people, by that instinct that prompts birds to their seasonal migrations. Conscious human activity is the opposite of the instinctive, unconscious activity of animals. Known color, sound and other stimuli actually have a certain influence on the biological sphere of animals and, becoming established in the process of evolution, acquire significance unconditioned reflexes(and only in some, relatively in rare cases the nature of these stimuli coincides with human concepts of beauty and harmoniousness).

It cannot be denied that colors, lines, as well as sounds and smells, affect the human body - some in an irritating, repulsive way, others, on the contrary, strengthening and promoting its correct and active functioning. This is one way or another taken into account by a person in his artistic activity, but in no way lies at its basis. The motives that forced Paleolithic man to draw and carve figures of animals on the walls of caves, of course, have nothing to do with instinctive impulses: this is a conscious and purposeful creative act of a creature that has long ago broken the chains of blind instinct and has embarked on the path of mastering the forces of nature - and therefore, and understanding these forces.

Marx wrote: “The spider performs operations reminiscent of those of the weaver, and the bee, with the construction of its wax cells, puts some human architects to shame. But even the worst architect differs from the best bee from the very beginning in that, before building a cell of wax, he has already built it in his head. At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that was already in the worker’s mind at the beginning of this process, i.e. ideal. The worker differs from the bee not only in that he changes the form of what is given by nature: in what is given by nature, he at the same time realizes his conscious goal, which, like a law, determines the method and character of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will"( ).

To be able to realize a conscious goal, a person must know natural object, with which he deals, must comprehend its natural properties. The ability to know also does not appear immediately: it belongs to those “dormant forces” that develop in a person in the process of his influence on nature. As a manifestation of this ability, art also arises - it arises just when labor itself has already moved away from the “first animal-like instinctive forms of labor”, “freed from its primitive, instinctive form” ( K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, 1951, p. 185.). Art and, in particular, fine art, at its origins, was one of the aspects of labor that developed to a certain level of consciousness.

A man draws an animal: thereby he synthesizes his observations of it; he more and more confidently reproduces his figure, habits, movements, and his various states. He formulates his knowledge in this drawing and consolidates it. At the same time, he learns to generalize: one image of a deer conveys features observed in a number of deer. This in itself gives a huge impetus to the development of thinking. It's hard to overestimate progressive role artistic creativity in changing human consciousness and his relationship to nature. The latter is now not so dark for him, not so encrypted - little by little, still by touch, he studies it.

Thus, primitive fine art is at the same time the embryos of science, or more precisely, primitive knowledge. It is clear that at that infant, primitive stage of social development, these forms of knowledge could not yet be dismembered, as they were dismembered in later times; At first they performed together. It was not yet art in the full scope of this concept and it was not knowledge in the proper sense of the word, but something in which the primary elements of both were inseparably combined.

In this regard, it becomes understandable why Paleolithic art pays so much attention to the beast and relatively little to man. It is aimed primarily at understanding external nature. At the very time when they had already learned to portray animals remarkably realistically and vividly, human figures They are almost always depicted in a very primitive way, simply ineptly, with the exception of some rare exceptions, such as the reliefs from Lossel.

1 6. Woman with a horn. Hunter. Reliefs from Loselle (France, Dordogne department). Limestone. Height approx. 0.5 m. Upper Paleolithic, Aurignacian time.

In Paleolithic art there is not yet that primary interest in the world of human relationships that distinguishes art, which delimited its sphere from the sphere of science. From the monuments of primitive art (at least fine art) it is difficult to learn anything about the life of a tribal community other than its hunting and related magical rituals; The most important place is occupied by the object of the hunt - the animal. It was its study that was of main practical interest, since it was the main source of existence, and the utilitarian-cognitive approach to painting and sculpture was reflected in the fact that they depicted mainly animals, and such species, the extraction of which was especially important and at the same time difficult and dangerous, and therefore required particularly careful study. Birds and plants were rarely depicted.

Of course, people of the Paleolithic era could not yet correctly understand both the patterns of the natural world around them and the patterns of their own actions. There was still no clear awareness of the difference between the real and the apparent: what was seen in a dream probably seemed to be the same reality as what was seen in reality. From all this chaos of fairy-tale ideas, primitive magic arose, which was a direct consequence of the extreme underdevelopment, extreme naivety and inconsistency of the consciousness of primitive man, who mixed the material with the spiritual, who out of ignorance ascribed material existence to immaterial facts of consciousness.

By drawing the figure of an animal, a person, in a certain sense, really “mastered” the animal, since he knew it, and knowledge is the source of mastery over nature. The vital necessity of figurative knowledge was the reason for the emergence of art. But our ancestor understood this “mastery” in a literal sense and performed magical rituals around the drawing he made to ensure the success of the hunt. He fantastically rethought the true, rational motives of his actions. True, it is very likely that visual creativity did not always have a ritual purpose; here, obviously, other motives were also involved, which were already mentioned above: the need for the exchange of information, etc. But, in any case, it can hardly be denied that the majority of picturesque and sculptural works also served magical purposes.

People began to engage in art much earlier than they had a concept of art, and much earlier than they could understand its real meaning, its real benefits.

While mastering the ability to depict the visible world, people also did not realize the true social significance of this skill. Something similar happened later development sciences, which were also gradually liberated from the captivity of naive fantastic ideas: medieval alchemists sought to find the “philosopher’s stone” and spent years of hard work on this. They never found the philosopher's stone, but they gained valuable experience in studying the properties of metals, acids, salts, etc., which prepared the way for the subsequent development of chemistry.

Saying that primitive art was one of the original forms of knowledge, the study of the surrounding world, we should not assume that, therefore, there was nothing aesthetic in it in the proper sense of the word. The aesthetic is not something completely opposite to the useful.

Already the labor processes associated with the manufacture of tools and, as we know, which began many millennia earlier than the occupations of drawing and modeling, to a certain extent prepared a person’s ability of aesthetic judgment, taught him the principle of expediency and correspondence of form to content. The oldest weapons almost shapeless: these are pieces of stone, hewn on one, and later on both sides: they served for different purposes: for digging, and for cutting, etc. As tools become specialized according to function (pointed points, scrapers appear , incisors, needles), they acquire a more defined and consistent, and thereby more elegant, form: in this process the importance of symmetry and proportions is realized, and that sense of proper proportion is developed, which is so important in art. And when people who sought to increase the efficiency of their work and learned to appreciate and feel vital meaning appropriate form, approached the transfer of complex forms of the living world, they were able to create works that were aesthetically very significant and effective.

Economical, bold strokes and large spots of red, yellow and black paint conveyed the monolithic, powerful carcass of the bison. The image was full of life: you could feel the trembling of tensing muscles, the elasticity of short strong legs, you could feel the readiness of the beast to rush forward, bowing its massive head, sticking out its horns and looking from under its brows with bloodshot eyes. The painter probably vividly recreated in his imagination his heavy run through the thicket, his furious roar and the warlike cries of the crowd of hunters pursuing him.

In numerous images of deer and fallow deer, primitive artists very well conveyed the slender figures of these animals, the nervous grace of their silhouette and that sensitive alertness that is reflected in the turn of the head, in the perked ears, in the bends of the body when they listen to see if they are in danger. Depicting with amazing accuracy both the formidable, powerful bison and the graceful doe, people could not help but assimilate these very concepts - strength and grace, roughness and grace - although, perhaps, they still did not know how to formulate them. And a slightly later image of a mother elephant, covering her baby elephant with her trunk from an attack by a tiger - doesn’t it indicate that the artist was beginning to be interested in something more than appearance beast, that he looked closely at the very life of animals and its various manifestations seemed interesting and instructive to him. He noticed touching and expressive moments in the animal world, manifestations of maternal instinct. In a word, a person’s emotional experiences were undoubtedly refined and enriched with the help of his artistic activity already at these stages of its development.

General history of art. Volume 6, book two. 20th century art

General history of art of the late 19th century - mid-20th century of countries that entered the path of socialism in the 20th century.

Academy of Arts of the USSR

Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts in six volumes Editorial Board

B.V. Weymarn, B.R. Vipper, A.A. Guber, M.V. Dobroklonsky, Yu.D. Kolpinsky, V.F. Levinson-Lessing, A.A. Sidorov, A.N. Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev

State Publishing House "Art" Moscow 1966 Title page second Academy of Arts of the USSR

Institute of Theory and History of Fine Arts volume six art of the 20th century book two

under general edition B.B.Weimarn and Yu.D.Kolpinsky State Publishing House "Art" Moscow 1966 Information at the end of the book.

General History of Art Volume VI, Book Two M., “Art”, 1966, 848 pp., Editor I. A. Shkirich Design by artists I. F. Rerberg and E. A. Gannushkin

Art editor A. A. Sidorova Proofreaders N. G. Antokolskaya and N. Ya. Korneeva Subp. to print 30/VI 1966

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From the editorial board

The second book of volume VI is devoted to the art of the late 19th - mid-20th centuries. countries that took the path of socialism in the 20th century.

The scientific edition of the section, which includes the art of Russia and Soviet art, is by B.V. Weimarn. Scientific edition of the section dedicated to art foreign countries socialism, - Yu. D. Kolpinsky and B. V. Weimarn.

Introduction - B.V. Weymarn.

Russian art of the 19th - early 20th centuries. - N. I. Sokolova (introduction, section on V. A. Serov, sculpture, architecture), M. B. Milotvorskaya (painting).

Art of Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. - E.M. Kostina.

Soviet art - O. I. Sopotsinsky (introduction and painting); E. M. Kostina (theater and scenery painting); R. Ya. Abolina (sculpture); A. Yu. Nurok (graphics); decorative and applied arts - I. M. Bibikova (1917 - 1945), I. M. Ryazantsev (1945 - 1965); V. P. Tolstoy (architecture).

German art Democratic Republic- I. P. Gorin.

Art of Poland - L. M. Urazova (fine arts); S. O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Czechoslovakia - Yu. D. Kolpinsky (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Hungary - L.S. Aleshina (fine arts); S.O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Romania - M. T. Kuzmina (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Bulgaria - E.P.Lvova (fine arts); S.O. Khan-Magomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Yugoslavia - N. Ya. Yavorskaya (fine arts); S. O. KhanMagomedov, O. A. Shvidkovsky (architecture).

Art of Albania - A. N. Tikhomirov.

Art of Mongolia - O. S. Prokofiev.

The art of China - N. A. Vinogradova.

Art of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea - N. A. Vinogradova.

Art of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam - O.S. Prokofiev.

The art of Cuba - V. M. Polevoy.

The selection of illustrative material was carried out by L. S. Aleshina, N. A. Vinogradova, V. M. Makarevich, O. S. Prokofiev and the editors of the volume. The layout of the album of illustrations was made by the scientific editors of the volume. The list of illustrations was prepared by L. S. Aleshina, V. M. Makarevich. The index was compiled by N. N. Bankovsky and M. I. Bezrukova. The bibliography for both books of volume VI was prepared based on materials presented by the authors of the corresponding chapters, N. A. Vinogradova. L. S. Aleshina, N. N. Bankovsky, M. B. Milotvorskaya took part in preparing the text of the volume for publication. The drawings in the text were made by the artist V. A. Lapin. The book uses photographic materials from the Scientific Research Museum of Architecture named after A. V. Shchusev, photographs by A. A. Alexandrov, S. G. Belyakov, N. A. Belyaev, E. A. Nikitin, N. A. Kratskin. In addition, photographic materials by O. A. Shvidkovsky were used.

For assistance in preparation this book- consultations, provision of photographs, etc. - the editorial board is grateful to the Tretyakov Gallery, the Russian Museum, the Hermitage, the Museum of Oriental Art, the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, the Institute of Art History of the USSR Ministry of Culture, the Institute of Theory, History and perspective problems of architecture of the State Committee for Civil Engineering and Architecture under Gosstroy

USSR and personally V. N. Belousov, R. A. Katsnelson, B. B. Keller, N. L. Krasheninnikova, N. A. Samoilova, A. A. Strigalev, I. V. Ern, as well as the director of the Slovak National Gallery in Bratislava, Professor I. Vaculik, Dr. I. Shetlik, Dr. B. Sheglikova, Director of the National Gallery in Budapest, Professor G. E. Pogan, Dr. K. Weidner, employees of the Research Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the Socialist Republic of Romania, Director People's Museum in Belgrade L. Trifunovic and researcher of the same museum N. Kusova, deputy director of the department of fine arts of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts J. Grum.

# From the editorial board

#Introduction

# Art of the peoples of the USSR

* Art of Russia

o Russian art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries

o Art of Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan of the late 19th - early 20th centuries

* Soviet art

o Introduction

o Painting o Sculpture o Graphics

o Arts and crafts

o Architecture

# Art of European Socialist Countries

* Art of the German Democratic Republic

* Art of Poland

* Art of Czechoslovakia

* Art of Hungary

* Art of Romania

* Art of Bulgaria

* Art of Yugoslavia

* Art of Albania

# Art of socialist countries of Asia and Latin America

* Art of Mongolia

* Art of China

* Korean art People's Democratic Republic

* Art of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

* Art of Cuba

# Bibliography

* General work

* Book one

* Book two

Introduction

B. Weimarn

In the art of the 20th century. Forces fighting for different, opposite in their goals and objectives, paths for the development of world artistic culture collide sharply and irreconcilably. The reactionary bourgeois ideology generated by imperialism directs art on a path hostile to realism, associated with the rejection of the great traditions of the past and, ultimately, the very principles of art, on the path of decline, withdrawal into subjectivism and pathology.

The socialist ideology of the proletariat, storming the stronghold of capital and building a classless, communist society, unites progressive artistic forces and leads world art along the path of further development and prosperity. On this path, artistic culture, imbued with socialist, truly universal humanism, continues the traditions of world realism, raising them to a qualitatively new level of development. Art socialist realism conquers the present more and more, and the future belongs to him.

The ideological basis of the art of socialist realism was the Marxist-Leninist worldview, which developed at the proletarian stage of the revolutionary liberation struggle of the oppressed classes. The new Tver method naturally arose in literature and art as artistic expression working class ideologies like his spiritual weapon in the struggle to rebuild society on a new basis.

Marxist theorists focused on great attention issues of the formation of socialist art, they saw in it a powerful means of ideological and aesthetic education of the broad masses of working people. By the 80s. last century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had already developed a system of aesthetic views based on materialist philosophy, illuminated by the experience of the world revolutionary labor movement. Demanding from art a deep figurative reflection of reality, Marx and Engels emphasized that a sign of true realism is “the truthfulness of the reproduction typical characters in typical

circumstances" ("TO. Marx and F. Engels on art,” vol. I, M., 1957, p. 11.).

The classics of Marxism called on progressive writers and artists, turning to the life of the working class, to reveal the deepest driving forces development of society - the revolutionary power of the proletariat, its rights and historical

role. This requirement was expressed very clearly in 1888 by Engels in a letter to M. Harkness. Reproaching the writer for the fact that in her work “the working class appears as a passive mass,” Engels wrote that “the revolutionary resistance of the working class to the environment that oppresses it” and the attempts of the proletariat “to achieve their human rights are inscribed in history and must therefore take their place in the field realism" (Ibid.). In the artistic representation of the struggle of the working class, Marx and Engels saw one of most important tasks new realistic art.

V.I. Lenin in the historical conditions of the early 20th century. developed the views of Marx and Engels on the art of the proletariat, the art of the future. In his famous article “Party Organization and Party Literature,” published in 1905, at the height of the first Russian revolution, Lenin tore off the mask of imaginary freedom from bourgeois art. Lenin called for “hypocritically free literature, but in reality connected with the bourgeoisie, to be opposed to truly free literature openly connected with the proletariat” ( V. I. Lenin, Complete Works, vol. 12, p. 104.). "It will be, -

Lenin wrote, free literature, because it is not self-interest or career, but the idea of socialism and sympathy for the working people that will recruit more and more forces into its ranks. This will be free literature, because it will serve not the jaded heroine, not the bored and obese “top ten thousand,” but millions and tens of millions of workers who make up the color of the country, its strength, its future” (Ibid. ). In his article, Lenin not only formulated the demands put forward by the party of the revolutionary proletariat in the field of artistic culture, but also thoroughly substantiated the principles of the new realistic art.

Lenin saw the fundamental features of the new stage in the development of realism in partisanship and nationality literature and art, in the close connection of writers and artists with the cause of the working class, in the consciously and openly set task of educating the reader and viewer in the spirit of the struggle for the socialist revolution, for communism.

The assessment of reality from the perspective of the proletariat and the mastery by writers and artists of an advanced materialist worldview immeasurably enriched the criterion of life's truth in art. The method of socialist realism, based on the Marxist-Leninist theory of reflection, opened up for artists the possibility of figurative knowledge of life in its deepest, truly objective content, in its revolutionary development.

The problem of the emergence of the method of socialist realism under the dominance of bourgeois ideology has not yet been fully studied. There is no doubt, however, that both in literature and in the visual arts, elements of a new worldview and a new artistic method arose even before the victory of the socialist revolution as an aesthetic reflection and comprehension in art of the heroic struggle of the working class.

This first stage in the history of the art of socialist realism can be most clearly seen in Russia, where at the end of the 19th century. The center of the world revolutionary movement has shifted. Here, at the head of the working class, which took upon itself the great mission of being the first to deal a crushing blow to capitalism, a new type of party became the leader, expressing the fundamental interests of the proletariat. Already the Russian revolution of 1905, carried out under the hegemony of the proletariat, left a deep mark on the history of Russian (and not only Russian) artistic culture. It is generally accepted that M. Gorky’s story “Mother,” created in 1906, was the first work of socialist realism in literature. The same happened in the visual arts. In this area of Russian artistic culture, as we will see below, many artists can be named

with their art they took an active part in the revolution, consciously speaking on the side of the people, on the side of the proletariat.

The new stage in Russian realistic art was reflected primarily in its ideological orientation works of art, in the appeal of advanced masters of Russian art to acute revolutionary themes, to the image of a proletarian who stood up to fight for his rights. However, the innovation of the nascent creative method even then it was not limited to plot and theme. Under the influence of the ideas of revolution in Russian realistic art from the very beginning of the 20th century. appeared qualitatively new approach to the image of a person, to the revelation of his individuality and public role, a new life-affirming aesthetic ideal began to take shape, and the language of artistic forms was enriched.

An important feature of the development of Russian artistic culture was that critical realism, which reached its peak in Russian fine art in the 1870s and 1880s, retained the strength of its democratic tendencies at the turn of the new century. Thus, Russian critical realism in relation to the emerging socialist realism turned out to be not only a predecessor, valuable for its artistic traditions, but also a living and, moreover, a strong ally who actively fought against reactionary bourgeois tendencies and cleared the way for a new stage of realistic art.

Leading artists of Russia, among whom was one of the greatest masters of world art of the early 20th century. - Valentin Serov, often without realizing it, laid the foundations for a new socialist stage of artistic culture. It would be appropriate to recall that Lenin precisely at this time - on the eve of the socialist revolution,

Developing inter national culture democracy and the world labor movement,” pointed out that from each national culture we take “its democratic and socialist elements, we take them only and unconditionally in opposition to the bourgeois culture, the bourgeois nationalism of each nation” (V.I.

Lenin, Complete Works, vol. 24, p. 121. ). In the complex and contradictory struggle of tendencies characteristic of every national culture in the era of imperialism, Lenin identified a clear line that separated progressive from reactionary, and unconditionally classified not only socialist, but also democratic elements of culture as progressive.

The successive connection between democratic critical realism and socialist art, which is especially clear in the artistic culture of Russia, is not, however, a feature inherent only in Russian national art. artistic process. In Western Europe, especially in France, the emergence of art that reflected the struggle of the proletariat dates back to the middle of the 19th century and is associated with the name of one of largest representatives critical realism- Honore Daumier. In the second half of the 19th century. The highest achievement of realistic art in Western Europe was the work of the Belgian sculptor Constantin Meunier. In his works, the main hero of our time was the man of industrial labor - the proletarian. Meunier's work, in its content and ideological and artistic orientation, had already outgrown the framework of critical realism.

Representatives of socialist realism in modern French artistic culture clearly see the connection between the new realistic art and its great predecessors. Louis Aragon writes about this, analyzing the work of Gustave Courbet and calling on everyone “who seeks to establish themselves as

true realists, in a new understanding of the word.” Elsewhere, Aragon directly points out that critical realism “constitutes a necessary and very valuable stage towards socialist realism, which would not be possible without it.”

However, we should not forget that historical conditions The development of realism in Western European art developed differently than in Russia. The crisis of realism in the second half of the 19th century, on the one hand, and the strengthening of consistently anti-realistic trends in the dominant bourgeois culture, on the other, created, as we already know from the first book of this volume, a more complex situation than in Russia for the emergence of socialist realism in the visual arts and made its connection with the critical realism of the past less direct.

Although the elements of socialist art originated in the depths of capitalist society, the final formation of the art of socialist realism and its development became possible only with the victory of the socialist revolution, with the creation of a new social order. Great October Revolution in Russia, which opened the socialist era in the history of mankind, was a turning point in the history of fine arts. For the first time in the life of society, an opportunity was created free development art that openly serves the interests of the proletariat, the interests of the people. “Art,” said V.I. Lenin, “belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them.

It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, raise them. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them" ( “Lenin on culture and art”, M., 1956, p. 520.). A remarkable program for the development of Soviet art that has served for many years was the plan for monumental propaganda created by Lenin in 1918. The Communist Party invariably helps the formation of the socialist ideology of Soviet artists and promotes their ideological and creative growth.

New socialist art was born and grew as folk and party art. Of course, an appeal to the life of the people and an understanding of the tasks of their struggle were also inherent in pre-revolutionary democratic realistic art. Artists of critical realism, in particular the Russian Peredvizhniki, in their work reflected many important aspects of contemporary folk life. However, the art of socialist realism represents an incomparably higher level of national artistic creativity. The nationality of socialist art is based on the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the people as the creator of history.

In the works of M. Gorky, who showed decisive role revolutionary struggle of the working class in development modern society, the nationality of Russian literature for the first time acquired a clearly defined socialist character. After the victory of the proletarian revolution, under the conditions of the construction of socialism, the people's art acquired an unprecedentedly broad basis. The barriers that previously separated the artist from the people have disappeared forever. Art began to express the interests of the people, their aesthetic tastes and ideals. Closely connected with the people, as if emanating from their life, art is at the same time addressed to the people, serves a powerful tool artistic education the broad masses of working people in the spirit of communism. Under these conditions, the artist fully realizes himself as part of the people, whose interests have become the dictates of his soul and heart.

The art of socialist realism addresses true heroes modernity, embodies artistic images their high moral and spiritual traits.

The deep nationality of the art of socialist realism is inseparable from its partisanship, since the Communist Party expresses the fundamental interests of the working people building a classless society. The partisanship of socialist art is characterized by something unprecedented in the history of art. ideological content, affirming a truly humanistic communist ideal, which the artist consciously serves. That is why the art of socialist realism from its very inception was, in the words of Lenin, the happiness of the common proletarian cause,” part of the “party cause.” In the process of building socialism in the USSR

strengthened and became unbreakable bond partisanship and nationality in Soviet fine arts. With the complete elimination of the remnants of the exploiting classes and the growth of the ideological, moral and political unity of socialist society in

USSR, the partisanship of Soviet art, while remaining strictly class-proletarian in origin, began to express the advanced ideological and aesthetic aspirations of everything Soviet people, united by the great goal of building communism.

Soviet art grew based on the traditions of realism of the 19th and early 20th centuries. and waging a decisive struggle against the manifestations of bourgeois ideology and its remnants - against formalism and naturalism, which led artists away from reality, devoid of a life-affirming humanistic ideal, alien and incomprehensible to the people. In contrast to these trends, Soviet fine art, from the first years of its development, is closely connected with the revolution, “affirms being as an act, as creativity” (Gorky). Soviet art became an active fighter for socialism, reflected the most important phenomena building a new life and a deep cultural revolution.

Already in the 20s and especially in the 30s. Soviet writers, artists, playwrights and musicians created a considerable number of works that carry in their figurative content high, life-affirming aesthetic ideals, marked by mature features of the method of socialist realism.

The experience accumulated by Soviet artistic culture allowed in the mid-30s. give a detailed definition of a new creative method in literature and art. “Socialist realism,” says the Charter of the Union of Soviet Writers, adopted at the First All-Union Congress Soviet writers in 1934 - demands from the artist a truthful, historically specific depiction of reality in its revolutionary! development. At the same time, truthfulness and historical specificity artistic image reality must be combined with the task of ideological transformation and education of the working people in the spirit of socialism.” It further emphasizes that “socialist realism provides artistic creativity with an exceptional opportunity to express creative initiative, to choose a variety of forms, styles and genres,” and in conclusion it is said that the victories of socialism “create limitless possibilities qualitative and quantitative growth creative forces and the flowering of all forms of art and literature."

An important feature of Soviet fine art, as well as culture in general, is its multinational character, which was clearly evident already in the 20s and 30s. The flourishing of the art of previously oppressed peoples, occurring on the basis of a new ideology, as well as the development of national and world artistic traditions, became a vivid demonstration of the forces of socialism, capable of not only breaking the centuries-old chains of oppression, but also reviving peoples

to a new life. The art of socialist nations, with all the diversity of paths and national forms of its revival and development, is united by a common content and creative method; multinational Soviet art contributes to the moral and political cohesion of the peoples of the USSR.

The high ideological and artistic level of Soviet fine art helped it become a powerful weapon fight against fascism, defeat the enemy in sharp artistic images, educate workers in the spirit of selfless love for the Motherland, arousing the admiration of friends and allies abroad.

Strengthening and development of socialist realism in Soviet art of the 20s - early 40s. was a phenomenon whose significance went far beyond the borders of the USSR. As already mentioned in the first book of this volume, in the art of a number of countries of Western Europe, ASIA and America, in the context of the emerging general crisis of capitalism caused by the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, democratic realistic movements experienced a great rise. A particularly significant contribution to progressive fine art was made by those artists from capitalist countries whose work, reflecting the rise of the class struggle of the proletariat and inspired by the successes of socialist construction in the USSR, was imbued with advanced revolutionary ideas. Despite all the complexity and often contradictory nature, the work of these artists bore the features of a socialist worldview and elements of socialist realism. Progressive artists from capitalist countries sought to establish connections with the USSR, with Soviet art, and were influenced by the young socialist culture. However, in general, the 20s - early 40s. were a time when Soviet art developed rather isolated in the difficult conditions of capitalist encirclement and the rise of fascism in Western Europe.

A new stage in the history of socialist art began in the second half of the 40s, since the formation of the world system of socialism - a new type of economic, political and cultural relations between countries. A characteristic feature of the new period in the history of artistic culture was the expansion of the sphere of influence of socialist art, the establishment of its principles in countries that had taken the path of building socialism, and the increasing of its role in the struggle of progressive forces against reactionary bourgeois ideology.

Along with the the most important feature A new stage was the further qualitative growth of the art of socialist realism, due to the struggle of Soviet society to build a communist society. New stage in the development of socialist art is characterized by the deepening of its humanistic foundations, the desire to comprehensively embrace with its influence the person of socialist society in its multifaceted creative activity, actively influence the formation of an aesthetic ideal in the spirit of the struggle for communism. This requires art to be highly ideological, bright and strong. artistic skill, enriching the means of realistically reflecting reality in all its diversity.

The huge and ever-increasing role of art in the construction of communism is evidenced by the party program adopted by the 22nd Congress of the CPSU. It is no coincidence that at the highest forum of our party - at its congress - so much was said about art and its

General History of Art

From the editorial board

Primitive art

Origin of art

The main stages in the development of primitive art

Art of Western Asia (I. Loseva)

Introduction

The most ancient culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th - early 3rd millennium BC)

Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)

Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)

Art of Sumer (23rd - 21st centuries BC)

Art of Babylon (19th - 12th centuries BC)

Art of the Hittites and Mitanni (18th - 8th centuries BC)

Art of Assyria (9th - 7th centuries BC)

Art of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom (7th - 6th centuries BC)

The art of ancient Egypt (M. Mathieu)

Introduction

Formation of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)

Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 - 2400 BC)

Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)

Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th - 15th centuries BC)

The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)

Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th - 2nd centuries BC)

Late Art (11th century - 332 BC)

Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)

General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece

Art of Homeric Greece

Greek Archaic Art

Greek Classical Art (Early 5th - mid 4th century BC)

Art of the Early Classics (The so-called “strict calm” 490 - 450 BC)

High Classical Art (450 - 410 BC)

Late Classical Art (From the end of the Peloponnesian Wars to the rise of the Macedonian Empire)

Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)

Hellenistic Art

The art of ancient Rome (N. Britova)

Art of Ancient Rome

Etruscan art

Art of the Roman Republic

Art of the Roman Empire 1st century. n. e.

Art of the Roman Empire 2nd century. AD

Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. AD

Art of the Roman Empire 3rd - 4th centuries

Art of the Northern Black Sea Coast

Art of Ancient Transcaucasia

Art of Ancient Iran (I. Loseva, M. Dyakonov)

Art of Central Asia

Art of Ancient India

Art of Ancient China

General History of Art

Volume one

From the editorial board

B.V. Weymarn, B.R. Vipper, A.A. Guber, M.V. Dobroklonsky, Yu.D. Kolpinsky, V.F. Levenson-Lessing, K.A. Sitnik, A.N. Tikhomirov, A.D. Chegodaev

Volume three. Renaissance art: art of Italy from the 13th to the 16th centuries, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland of the 15th - 16th centuries.

Volume four. Art of the 17th - 18th centuries in Europe and America: art of Italy 17th - 18th centuries, Spain, Flanders, Holland 17th century, France 17th - 18th centuries, Russia 18th century, England 17th - 18th centuries, USA 18th century, Latin America 17th - 18th centuries and other countries.

The sixth volume will contain a detailed consolidated bibliography on the entire world history of art.

The origin of art - N. A. Dmitrieva.

The main stages in the development of primitive art - V.V. Shleev.

Art of Western Asia - I. M. Loseva.

The Art of Ancient Egypt - M.E-Mathieu.

Aegean art - N. N. Britova.

The Art of Ancient Greece - Yu. D. Kolpinsky.

The art of the Hellenistic era - E. I. Rotenberg.

The Art of Ancient Rome - N. N. Britova.

Art of the Northern Black Sea Coast - N. N. Britova.

The art of Transcaucasia in ancient times - V.V. Shleev.

The Art of Ancient Iran - I. M. Loseva (Achaemenid Iran) and M. M. Dyakonov (Sassanian Iran).

Art of Ancient Central Asia - M. M. Dyakonov.

The Art of Ancient India - N. A. Vinogradova and O. S. Prokofiev.

The art of Ancient China - N. A. Vinogradova.

B.V. Weimarn (art of Western Asia, Iran, Central Asia, China) and E.I. Rotenberg (Roman art) took part in editing some chapters of the first volume.

The selection of illustrations and layout of the volume were made by A. D. Chegodaev and R. B. Klimov with the participation of T. P. Kaptereva, A. G. Podolsky and E. I. Rotenberg.

The maps were made by the artist G. G. Fedorov, the drawings in the text were made by the artists Yu. A. Vasilyev and M. N. Mashkovtsev.

The index was compiled by N. I. Bespalova and A. G. Podolsky, explanations for the illustrations by E. I. Rotenberg.

Consultations and reviews were carried out by the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Ancient Orient Sector of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the History of Georgian Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, the Institute of Architecture and Art of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Sector of the History of Arts of the Academy Sciences of the Armenian SSR, Institute of Theory and History of Architecture of the USSR Academy of Architecture, Department of Art History of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow State Art Institute. V.I. Surikov and the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture named after. I. E. Repin, State Hermitage Museum, State Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin, Museum of Oriental Cultures, State Museum of Arts of Georgia.

“General History of Art” is a history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied art of all centuries and peoples, from primitive art to the art of our days, inclusive. This material is arranged in six volumes (seven books) as follows:
Volume one. Art of the Ancient World: primitive art, the art of Western Asia, Ancient Egypt, Aegean art, the art of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic art, the art of Ancient Rome, the Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, the ancient art of India and China.

Art as a special area of human activity, with its own independent tasks, special qualities, served by professional artists, became possible only on the basis of the division of labor. Engels says about this: “... the creation of arts and sciences - all this was possible only with the help of an enhanced division of labor, which was based on a large division of labor between the masses engaged in simple physical labor and the privileged few who manage the work, engage in trade, state affairs, and later also science and art. The simplest, completely spontaneously formed form of this division of labor was precisely slavery" (F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, 1951, p. 170).

But since artistic activity is a unique form of knowledge and creative work, its origins are much more ancient, since people worked and in the process of this work learned about the world around them long before the division of society into classes. Archaeological discoveries over the past hundred years have revealed numerous works of visual creativity of primitive man, the age of which is estimated at tens of thousands of years. These are rock paintings; figurines made of stone and bone; images and ornamental patterns carved on pieces of deer antlers or on stone slabs. They are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These are works that appeared long before a conscious idea of artistic creativity could arise. Many of them, reproducing mainly figures of animals - deer, bison, wild horses, mammoths - are so vital, so expressive and true to nature that they are not only precious historical monuments, but also retain their artistic power to this day.

Table of contents
About the book
From the editorial board
Primitive art
Origin of art
The main stages in the development of primitive art
Art of Western Asia (I. Loseva)
Introduction
The most ancient culture of the tribes and peoples of Mesopotamia (4th - early 3rd millennium BC)
Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)
Art of Akkad (24th - 23rd centuries BC)
Art of Sumer (23rd - 21st centuries BC)
Art of Babylon (19th - 12th centuries BC)
Art of the Hittites and Mitanni (18th - 8th centuries BC)
Art of Assyria (9th - 7th centuries BC)
Art of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom (7th - 6th centuries BC)
The art of ancient Egypt (M. Mathieu)
Introduction
Formation of ancient Egyptian art (4th millennium BC)
Art of the Old Kingdom (3200 - 2400 BC)
Art of the Middle Kingdom (21st century - early 19th century BC)
Art of the first half of the New Kingdom (16th - 15th centuries BC)
The art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors (late 15th - early 14th century BC)
Art of the second half of the New Kingdom (14th - 2nd centuries BC)
Late Art (11th century - 332 BC)
Aegean art
Art of Ancient Greece (Yu. Kolpinsky)
General characteristics of the culture and art of Ancient Greece
Art of Homeric Greece
Greek Archaic Art
Greek Classical Art (Early 5th - mid 4th century BC)
Art of the Early Classics (The so-called “strict calm” 490 - 450 BC)
High Classical Art (450 - 410 BC)
Late Classical Art (From the end of the Peloponnesian Wars to the rise of the Macedonian Empire)
Hellenistic art (E. Rotenberg)
Hellenistic Art
The art of ancient Rome (N. Britova)
Art of Ancient Rome
Etruscan art
Art of the Roman Republic
Art of the Roman Empire 1st century. n. e.
Art of the Roman Empire 2nd century. AD
Art of the Roman provinces of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. AD
Art of the Roman Empire 3rd - 4th centuries
Art of the Northern Black Sea Coast
Art of Ancient Transcaucasia
Art of Ancient Iran (I. Loseva, M. Dyakonov)
Art of Central Asia
Art of Ancient India
Art of Ancient China.

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