All unconditioned reflexes. Development of unconditioned reflexes in the embryonic period

Unconditioned reflexes are constant innate reactions of the body to certain influences from the external world, carried out through the nervous system and do not require special conditions for their occurrence.

All unconditioned reflexes, according to the degree of complexity and severity of the body’s reactions, are divided into simple and complex; depending on the type of reaction - to food, sexual, defensive, orientation-exploratory, etc.; depending on the animal’s attitude to the stimulus - into biologically positive and biologically negative. Unconditioned reflexes arise mainly under the influence of contact irritation: food unconditioned reflex - when food enters and is exposed to the tongue; defensive - when pain receptors are irritated. However, the emergence of unconditioned reflexes is also possible under the influence of such stimuli as the sound, sight and smell of an object. Thus, the sexual unconditioned reflex occurs under the influence of a specific sexual stimulus (sight, smell and other stimuli emanating from a female or male). The approximate exploratory unconditioned reflex always occurs in response to a sudden, little-known stimulus and usually manifests itself in turning the head and moving the animal towards the stimulus. Its biological meaning lies in the examination of a given stimulus and the entire external environment.

Complex unconditioned reflexes include those that are cyclical in nature and are accompanied by various emotional reactions (see). Such reflexes are often referred to as (see).

Unconditioned reflexes serve as the basis for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Violation or distortion of unconditioned reflexes is usually associated with organic lesions of the brain; the study of unconditioned reflexes is carried out to diagnose a number of diseases of the central nervous system (see Pathological reflexes).

Unconditioned reflexes (specific, innate reflexes) are innate reactions of the body to certain influences of the external or internal environment, carried out through the central nervous system and not requiring special conditions for their occurrence. The term was introduced by I.P. Pavlov and means that the reflex certainly occurs if adequate stimulation is applied to a certain receptor surface. The biological role of unconditioned reflexes is that they adapt an animal of a given species in the form of appropriate acts of behavior to constant, habitual environmental factors.

The development of the doctrine of unconditioned reflexes is associated with the research of I. M. Sechenov, E. Pfluger, F. Goltz, S. S. Sherrington, V. Magnus, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, who laid the foundations for the next stage in the development of reflex theory, when it finally became possible to fill with physiological content the concept of a reflex arc, which previously existed as an anatomical and physiological scheme (see Reflexes). The undoubted condition that determined the success of these quests was the full awareness that the nervous system acts as a single whole, and therefore acts as a very complex formation.

The brilliant foresights of I.M. Sechenov about the reflex basis of mental activity of the brain served as a starting point for research, which, developing the doctrine of higher nervous activity, discovered two forms of neuro-reflex activity: unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. Pavlov wrote: “... we must admit the existence of two types of reflex. One reflex is ready-made, with which the animal is born, a purely conductive reflex, and the other reflex is constantly, continuously formed during individual life, with exactly the same pattern, but based on another property of our nervous system - closure. One reflex can be called innate, the other - acquired, and also, accordingly: one - specific, the other - individual. We called the innate, specific, constant, stereotypical unconditional, the other, since it depends on many conditions, constantly fluctuates depending on many conditions, we called conditional...”

The complex dynamics of the interaction of conditioned reflexes (see) and unconditioned reflexes is the basis of the nervous activity of humans and animals. The biological significance of unconditioned reflexes, as well as conditioned reflex activity, lies in the body’s adaptation to various kinds of changes in the external and internal environment. Such important acts as self-regulation of functions are based on the adaptive activity of unconditioned reflexes. The precise adaptation of unconditioned reflexes to the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the stimulus, especially carefully studied in Pavlov’s laboratories using examples of the work of the digestive glands, made it possible to interpret the problem of the biological expediency of unconditioned reflexes materialistically, bearing in mind the exact correspondence of the function to the nature of the irritation.

The differences between unconditioned and conditioned reflexes are not absolute, but relative. Various experiments, in particular with the destruction of various parts of the brain, allowed Pavlov to create a general idea of the anatomical basis of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes: “Higher nervous activity,” wrote Pavlov, “is composed of the activity of the cerebral hemispheres and the nearest subcortical nodes, representing the combined activity of these two most important parts of the central nervous system. These subcortical nodes are... centers of the most important unconditioned reflexes, or instincts: food, defensive, sexual, etc....". Pavlov’s stated views must now be recognized only as a diagram. His doctrine of analyzers (see) allows us to believe that the morphological substrate of unconditioned reflexes actually covers various parts of the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, meaning the afferent representation of the analyzer from which this unconditioned reflex is evoked. In the mechanism of unconditioned reflexes, an important role belongs to feedback about the results and success of the action performed (P.K. Anokhin).

In the early years of the development of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, individual students of Pavlov, who were studying salivary unconditioned reflexes, asserted their extreme stability and immutability. Subsequent studies showed the one-sidedness of such views. In Pavlov's own laboratory, a number of experimental conditions were found under which unconditioned reflexes changed even during one experiment. Subsequently, facts were presented indicating that it is more correct to talk about the variability of unconditioned reflexes than about their immutability. Important points in this regard are: the interaction of reflexes with each other (both unconditioned reflexes with each other, and unconditioned reflexes with conditioned ones), hormonal and humoral factors of the body, the tone of the nervous system and its functional state. These questions acquire particular importance in connection with the problem of instincts (see), which a number of representatives of the so-called ethology (the science of behavior) try to present as unchanged, independent of the external environment. Sometimes it is difficult to determine specific factors of variability of unconditioned reflexes, especially if it concerns the internal environment of the body (hormonal, humoral or interoceptive factors), and then some scientists fall into the error of speaking about spontaneous variability of unconditioned reflexes. Such adeterministic constructions and idealistic conclusions lead away from the materialistic understanding of the reflex.

I. P. Pavlov repeatedly emphasized the importance of systematization and classification of unconditioned reflexes, which serve as the foundation for the rest of the nervous activity of the body. The existing stereotyped division of reflexes into food, self-preservation, and sexual ones is too general and inaccurate, he pointed out. A detailed systematization and careful description of all individual reflexes are necessary. Speaking about systematization along with classification, Pavlov meant the need for a broad study of individual reflexes or their groups. The task should be recognized as both very important and very difficult, especially since Pavlov did not distinguish such complex reflexes as instincts from the series of unconditioned reflex phenomena. From this point of view, it is especially important to study the already known and find new and complex forms of reflex activity. Here we must pay tribute to this logical direction, which in a number of cases obtains facts of undoubted interest. However, the ideological basis of this trend, which fundamentally denies the reflex nature of instincts, remains completely unacceptable.

An unconditioned reflex “in its pure form” can manifest itself one or several times after the birth of an animal, and then in a fairly short time it is “overgrown” with conditioned and other unconditioned reflexes. All this makes it very difficult to classify unconditioned reflexes. Until now, it has not been possible to find a single principle for their classification. For example, A.D. Slonim based his classification on the principle of balancing the organism with the external environment and maintaining a constant composition of its internal environment. In addition, he identified groups of reflexes that do not ensure the preservation of an individual, but are important for the preservation of the species. The classification of unconditioned reflexes and instincts proposed by N. A. Rozhansky is extensive. It is based on biological and environmental characteristics and the dual (positive and negative) manifestation of the reflex. Unfortunately, Rozhansky’s classification suffers from a subjective assessment of the essence of the reflex, which is reflected in the names of some reflexes.

Systematization and classification of unconditioned reflexes should provide for their ecological specialization. Given the ecological adequacy of the stimuli and the biological training of the effector, a very subtle differentiation of unconditioned reflexes appears. The speed, strength, and the very possibility of forming a conditioned reflex depend not so much on the physical or chemical characteristics of the stimulus, but on the ecological adequacy of the stimulus and the unconditioned reflex.

The problem of the emergence and development of unconditioned reflexes is of great interest. I. P. Pavlov, A. A. Ukhtomsky, K. M. Bykov, P. K. Anokhin and others believed that unconditioned reflexes arise as conditioned, and subsequently become fixed in evolution and become innate.

Pavlov pointed out that new emerging reflexes, while maintaining the same living conditions in a number of successive generations, apparently continuously transform into permanent ones. This is probably one of the operating mechanisms for the development of an animal organism. Without recognizing this position, it is impossible to imagine the evolution of nervous activity. Nature cannot allow such wastefulness, said Pavlov, that each new generation would have to start everything from the very beginning. Transitional forms of reflexes that occupied an intermediate position between conditioned and unconditioned were found with great biological adequacy of the stimuli (V.I. Klimova, V.V. Orlov, A.I. Oparin, etc.). These conditioned reflexes did not fade away. See also Higher nervous activity.

Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes are characteristic of the entire animal world.

In biology, they are considered as the result of a long evolutionary process and represent the response of the central nervous system to external environmental influences.

They provide a very quick response to a particular stimulus, thereby significantly saving the resources of the nervous system.

Classification of reflexes

In modern science, such reactions are described using several classifications that describe their features in different ways.

So, they come in the following types:

Conditional and unconditional - depending on how they are formed.
Exteroceptive (from “extra” - external) - reactions of external receptors of the skin, hearing, smell and vision. Interoreceptive (from “intero” - inside) - reactions of internal organs and systems. Proprioceptive (from “proprio” - special) - reactions associated with the sensation of one’s own body in space and formed by the interaction of muscles, tendons and joints. This is a classification based on receptor type.
Based on the type of effectors (zones of reflex response to information collected by receptors), they are divided into: motor and autonomic.
Classification based on specific biological role. There are species aimed at protection, nutrition, orientation in the environment and reproduction.
Monosynaptic and polysynaptic - depending on the complexity of the neural structure.
Based on the type of influence, excitatory and inhibitory reflexes are distinguished.
And based on where the reflex arcs are located, they are divided into cerebral (various parts of the brain are included) and spinal (neurons of the spinal cord are included).

What is a conditioned reflex

This is a term denoting a reflex formed as a result of the fact that simultaneously for a long time a stimulus that does not cause any reaction is presented with a stimulus that causes some specific unconditioned reflex. That is, the reflex response eventually extends to an initially indifferent stimulus.

Where are the centers of conditioned reflexes located?

Since this is a more complex product of the nervous system, the central part of the neural arc of conditioned reflexes is located in the brain, specifically in the cerebral cortex.

Examples of conditioned reflexes

The most striking and classic example is Pavlov’s dog. The dogs were presented with a piece of meat (this caused the secretion of gastric juice and salivation) along with the inclusion of a lamp. As a result, after a while, the process of activating digestion started when the lamp was turned on.

A familiar example from life is the feeling of cheerfulness from the smell of coffee. Caffeine does not yet have a direct effect on the nervous system. He is outside the body - in a circle. But the feeling of vigor is triggered only by the smell.

Many mechanical actions and habits are also examples. We rearranged the furniture in the room, and the hand reaches in the direction where the closet used to be. Or a cat who runs to the bowl when he hears the rustling of a box of food.

The difference between unconditioned reflexes and conditioned ones

They differ in that unconditional ones are innate. They are the same for all animals of one species or another, as they are inherited. They are quite unchanged throughout the life of a person or animal. From birth and always occur in response to receptor irritation, and are not produced.

Conditional ones are acquired throughout life, with experience in interaction with the environment. Therefore, they are quite individual - depending on the conditions under which it was formed. They are unstable throughout life and can fade away if they do not receive reinforcement.

Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes - comparison table

The difference between instincts and unconditioned reflexes

Instinct, like reflex, is a biologically significant form of animal behavior. Only the second is a simple short response to a stimulus, and instinct is a more complex activity that has a specific biological goal.

The unconditioned reflex is always triggered. But instinct is only in a state of biological readiness of the body to trigger this or that behavior. For example, mating behavior in birds is triggered only during a certain period of the year when chick survival may be maximum.

What is not typical for unconditioned reflexes?

In short, they cannot change during life. They do not differ between different animals of the same species. They cannot disappear or stop appearing in response to a stimulus.

When conditioned reflexes fade

Extinction occurs as a result of the fact that the stimulus (stimulus) ceases to coincide in time of presentation with the stimulus that caused the reaction. Need reinforcements. Otherwise, without reinforcement, they lose their biological significance and fade away.

Unconditioned reflexes of the brain

These include the following types: blinking, swallowing, vomiting, orientation, maintaining balance associated with hunger and satiety, braking movement in inertia (for example, during a push).

The disruption or disappearance of any type of these reflexes can be a signal of serious disturbances in brain function.

Pulling your hand away from a hot object is an example of which reflex

An example of a painful reaction is pulling your hand away from a hot kettle. This is an unconditional look, the body's response to dangerous environmental influences.

Blink reflex - conditioned or unconditioned

The blink reaction is an unconditional type. It occurs as a result of dry eye and to protect against mechanical damage. All animals and humans have it.

Salivation in a person at the sight of a lemon - what is the reflex?

This is a conditional view. It is formed due to the fact that the rich taste of lemon provokes salivation so often and strongly that simply looking at it (and even remembering it) triggers a response.

How to develop a conditioned reflex in a person

In humans, unlike animals, the conditioned appearance is developed faster. But for all, the mechanism is the same - joint presentation of stimuli. One, causing an unconditioned reflex, and the other, an indifferent one.

For example, for a teenager who falls off a bicycle while listening to some specific music, later unpleasant feelings that arise while listening to the same music can become the acquisition of a conditioned reflex.

What is the role of conditioned reflexes in the life of an animal

They enable an animal with rigid, unchanging unconditioned reactions and instincts to adapt to conditions that are constantly changing.

At the level of the entire species, this is the ability to live in the largest possible areas with different weather conditions, with different levels of food supply. In general, they provide the ability to react flexibly and adapt to the environment.

Conclusion

Unconditioned and conditioned responses are extremely important for the survival of the animal. But it is in interaction that they allow us to adapt, reproduce and raise the healthiest offspring possible.

1. Introduction3
2. Physiology of unconditioned reflexes3
3. Classification of unconditioned reflexes5
4. The importance of unconditioned reflexes for the body7
5. Conclusion7

References8

Introduction

Unconditioned reflexes are hereditarily transmitted (innate), inherent to the entire species. They perform a protective function, as well as the function of maintaining homeostasis.

Unconditioned reflexes are an inherited, unchangeable reaction of the body to external and internal signals, regardless of the conditions for the occurrence and course of reactions. Unconditioned reflexes ensure the body's adaptation to constant environmental conditions. They are a species behavioral characteristic. The main types of unconditioned reflexes: food, protective, orienting.

An example of a defensive reflex is the reflexive withdrawal of the hand from a hot object. Homeostasis is maintained, for example, by a reflex increase in breathing when there is an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. Almost every part of the body and every organ is involved in reflex reactions.

Physiology of unconditioned reflexes

An unconditioned reflex is an innate response of the body to irritation with the obligatory participation of the central nervous system (CNS). In this case, the cerebral cortex does not directly participate, but exercises its highest control over these reflexes, which allowed I.P. Pavlov to assert the presence of a “cortical representation” of each unconditioned reflex. Unconditioned reflexes are the physiological basis:

1. Human species memory, i.e. congenital, inherited, constant, common to the entire human species;

2. Lower nervous activity (LNA). NND from the point of view of unconditioned reflexes is an unconditioned reflex activity that provides the body with the unification of its parts into a single functional whole. Another definition of NND. NND is a set of neurophysiological processes that ensure the implementation of unconditioned reflexes and instincts.

The simplest neural networks, or arcs (according to Sherrington), involved in unconditioned reflexes, are closed in the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord, but can also be closed higher (for example, in the subcortical ganglia or in the cortex). Other parts of the nervous system are also involved in reflexes: the brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex.

The arcs of unconditioned reflexes are formed at the time of birth and remain throughout life. However, they can change under the influence of illness. Many unconditioned reflexes appear only at a certain age; Thus, the grasping reflex characteristic of newborns fades away at the age of 3-4 months.

There are monosynaptic (involving the transmission of impulses to the command neuron through one synaptic transmission) and polysynaptic (involving the transmission of impulses through chains of neurons) reflexes.

Approximate unconditioned reflexes, occurring with the direct participation of the cerebral cortex, are physiological mechanisms of human cognitive activity and involuntary attention. In addition, the extinction of orientation reflexes constitutes the physiological basis of addiction and boredom. Habituation is the extinction of an orienting reflex: if a stimulus is repeated many times and has no particular meaning for the body, the body stops responding to it, and addiction develops. So, a person living on a noisy street gradually gets used to the noise and no longer pays attention to it.

Instincts are a form of innate behavior. Their physiological mechanism is a chain of innate unconditioned reflexes, into which, under the influence of individual life conditions, links of acquired conditioned reflexes can be “woven together.”

Rice. 1. Scheme of organization of instinctive behavior: S - stimulus, P - reception, P - behavioral act; the dotted line is the modulating influence, the solid line is the activity of the modulating system as an evaluative authority.

Reflection as the essence of the psyche occurs at different levels. There are three levels of brain activity: specific, individual and socio-historical. Reflection at the species level is carried out by unconditioned reflexes.

The concept of “drive and drive reflex” by the Polish physiologist and psychologist J. Konorski played a significant role in the development of the theoretical foundations of the organization of behavior. According to the theory of Yu. Konorsky, brain activity is divided into executive and preparatory, and all reflex processes fall into two categories: preparatory (incentive, drive, motivational) and executive (consummatory, consummatory, reinforcing).

Executive functioning involves many specific responses to many specific stimuli, so this activity is provided by the cognitive or gnostic system, which includes the stimulus recognition system. Preparatory activity is associated with less specific reactions and is more controlled by the internal needs of the body. It is anatomically and functionally different from the system responsible for perception and cognitive activity, learning, and is called by Yu. Konorsky the emotive, or motivational system.

The cognitive and emotive systems are served by different brain structures.

Most unconditioned reflexes are complex reactions that include several components. So, for example, with an unconditioned defensive reflex caused in a dog by strong electrodermal irritation of the limb, along with defensive movements, breathing also increases and increases, cardiac activity accelerates, vocal reactions appear (squealing, barking), the blood system changes (leukocytosis, thrombocytosis and etc.). The food reflex also distinguishes between its motor (grasping food, chewing, swallowing), secretory, respiratory, cardiovascular and other components.

So, the most complex unconditioned reflexes are an innate holistic behavioral act, a systemic morphophysiological formation that includes stimulating and reinforcing components (preparatory and executive reflexes). Instinctive behavior is realized by external and internal determinants by “evaluating” the relationships between significant components of the environment and the internal state of the organism, determined by the actualized need.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes

The entire set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes formed on their basis is usually divided into a number of groups according to their functional significance. The main ones are nutritional, defensive, sexual, statokinetic and locomotor, orientation, maintaining homeostasis and some others. Food reflexes include reflex acts of swallowing, chewing, sucking, salivation, secretion of gastric and pancreatic juice, etc. Defensive reflexes are reactions to eliminate damaging and painful stimuli. The group of sexual reflexes includes all reflexes associated with sexual intercourse; This group also includes the so-called parental reflexes associated with feeding and nursing the offspring. Statokinetic and locomotor reflexes are reflex reactions of maintaining a certain position and movement of the body in space. Reflexes that support the preservation of homeostasis include thermoregulatory, respiratory, cardiac and those vascular reflexes that help maintain a constant blood pressure, and some others. The orienting reflex occupies a special place among unconditioned reflexes. This is a reflex to novelty.

It occurs in response to any fairly quickly occurring fluctuation in the environment and is expressed externally in alertness, listening to a new sound, sniffing, turning the eyes and head, and sometimes the whole body towards the emerging light stimulus, etc. The implementation of this reflex provides better perception of the acting agent and has important adaptive significance. This reaction is innate and does not disappear with complete removal of the cerebral cortex in animals; it is also observed in children with underdeveloped cerebral hemispheres - anencephals. The difference between the orienting reflex and other unconditioned reflex reactions is that it fades away relatively quickly with repeated applications of the same stimulus. This feature of the orientation reflex depends on the influence of the cerebral cortex on it.

Rice. 1. Comparison of the most complex unconditioned reflexes (instincts) of higher animals with human needs: double arrows - phylogenetic connections of the most complex reflexes of animals with human needs, dotted - the interaction of human needs, solid - the influence of needs on the sphere of consciousness

The importance of unconditioned reflexes for the body

The meaning of unconditioned reflexes:

♦ maintaining a constant internal environment (homeostasis);

♦ maintaining the integrity of the body (protection from damaging environmental factors);

♦ reproduction and preservation of the species as a whole.

Conclusion

Unconditioned reflexes, the formation of which is completed in postnatal ontogenesis, are genetically predetermined and strictly adjusted to certain environmental conditions corresponding to a given species.

Congenital reflexes are characterized by a stereotypical species-specific sequence of implementation of a behavioral act. They arise at their first need, with the appearance of a “specific” stimulus for each of them, thereby ensuring the steady performance of the most vital functions of the body, regardless of random, transient environmental conditions. A characteristic feature of unconditioned reflexes is that their implementation is determined by both internal determinants and an external stimulus program.

As noted by P.V. Simonov, the definition of an unconditioned reflex as hereditary, unchangeable, the implementation of which is machine-like and independent of the achievements of its adaptive goal, is usually exaggerated. Its implementation depends on the existing functional state of the animal and correlates with the currently dominant need. It may fade or intensify.

Satisfying a variety of needs would have been impossible if, in the process of evolution, a specific overcoming reaction, the freedom reflex, had not arisen. Pavlov considered the fact that an animal resists coercion and attempts to limit its motor activity much deeper than just a type of defensive reaction. The freedom reflex is an independent active form of behavior for which an obstacle serves as no less an adequate stimulus than food for food search, pain for a defensive reaction, and a new and unexpected stimulus for an orienting reflex.

Bibliography

1. Bizyuk. A.P. Fundamentals of neuropsychology. Textbook for universities. Publishing house Rech. - 2005
2. Danilova, A.L. Krylova Physiology of higher nervous activity. - Rostov n/a: “Phoenix”, 2005. - 478
3. Psychophysiology /ed. Alexandrova Yu.I. St. Petersburg, publishing house "Peter" 2006
4. Tonkonogiy I.M., Pointe A. Clinical neuropsychology. 1st edition, Publisher: PETER, PUBLISHING HOUSE, 2006
5. Shcherbatykh Yu.V. Turovsky Ya.A. Anatomy of the central nervous system for psychologists: Textbook. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 128 p.

Features of unconditioned reflexes

In the specialized literature, in conversations between specialist dog handlers and amateur trainers, the term “reflex” is often used, but there is no common understanding of the meaning of this term among dog handlers. Now many people are interested in Western training systems, new terms are being introduced, but few people fully understand the old terminology. We will try to help systematize ideas about reflexes for those who have already forgotten a lot, and to gain these ideas for those who are just beginning to master the theory and methods of training.

A reflex is the body's response to a stimulus.

(If you have not read the article on irritants, be sure to read that first and then move on to this material). Unconditioned reflexes are divided into simple (food, defensive, sexual, visceral, tendon) and complex reflexes (instincts, emotions). Some researchers to B. r. also include indicative (orientative-exploratory) reflexes. The instinctive activity of animals (instincts) includes several stages of animal behavior, and the individual stages of its implementation are sequentially connected with each other like a chain reflex. The question of the mechanisms of closure of B. r. insufficiently studied. According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the cortical representation of B. r., each unconditional stimulation, along with the inclusion of subcortical structures, causes excitation of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex. Studies of cortical processes using electrophysiological methods have shown that an unconditioned stimulus comes to the cerebral cortex in the form of a generalized flow of ascending excitations. Based on the provisions of I.P. Pavlov about the nerve center as a morphofunctional set of nerve formations located in various parts of the central nervous system, the concept of the structural and functional architecture of B. r. The central part of the arc of the B. river. does not pass through any one part of the central nervous system, but is multi-storey and multi-branched. Each branch passes through an important part of the nervous system: the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, midbrain, and cerebral cortex. The higher branch, in the form of the cortical representation of one or another BR, serves as the basis for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Evolutionarily more primitive species of animals are characterized by simple B. r. and instincts, for example, in animals in which the role of acquired, individually developed reactions is still relatively small and innate, albeit complex forms of behavior predominate, the dominance of tendon and labyrinthine reflexes is observed. With the complication of the structural organization of the c.s.s. and the progressive development of the cerebral cortex, complex unconditioned reflexes and, in particular, emotions acquire a significant role. Study of B. r. is important for the clinic. So, in conditions of pathology of the central nervous system. B. reflexes may appear, characteristic of the early stages of onto- and phylogenesis (sucking, grasping, Babinsky, Bekhterev, etc. reflexes), which can be considered as rudimentary functions, i.e. functions that existed previously, but were suppressed in the process of phylogenesis by the higher sections of the central nervous system. When the pyramidal tracts are damaged, these functions are restored due to the resulting disconnection between the phylogenetically ancient and later developed sections of the central nervous system.

Unconditioned reflexes

An unconditioned reflex is an innate response of the body to a stimulus. Each unconditioned reflex manifests itself at a certain age and in response to certain stimuli. In the very first hours after its birth, the puppy is able to find its mother’s nipples and suck milk. These actions are provided by innate unconditioned reflexes. Later, a reaction to light and moving objects, the ability to chew and swallow solid food begins to appear. At a later age, the puppy begins to actively explore the territory, play with littermates, exhibit an indicative reaction, an active defensive reaction, a pursuit and prey reaction. All these actions are based on innate reflexes, varying in complexity and manifested in different situations.

According to the level of complexity, unconditioned reflexes are divided into:

simple unconditioned reflexes

reflex acts

behavior reactions

· instincts

Simple unconditioned reflexes are elementary innate reactions to stimuli. For example, withdrawing a limb from a hot object, blinking an eyelid when a speck gets into the eye, etc. Simple unconditioned reflexes to the corresponding stimulus always appear and cannot be changed or corrected.

Reflex acts- actions determined by several simple unconditioned reflexes, always performed in the same way and regardless of the dog’s consciousness. Basically, reflex acts ensure the vital functions of the body, therefore they always manifest themselves reliably and cannot be corrected.

Some examples of reflex acts:

Breath;

Swallowing;

Belching

When training and raising a dog, you should remember that the only way to prevent the manifestation of one or another reflex act is to change or remove the stimulus that causes it. So, if you want your pet not to defecate while practicing obedience skills (and he will still do this if necessary, despite your prohibition, because this is a manifestation of a reflex act), then walk the dog before training. In this way, you will eliminate the corresponding stimuli that cause a reflex act that is undesirable for you.

Behavioral reactions are the dog’s desire to carry out certain actions, based on a complex of reflex acts and simple unconditioned reflexes.

For example, the fetch reaction (the desire to pick up and carry objects, play with them); active-defensive reaction (the desire to show an aggressive reaction to a person); olfactory-search reaction (the desire to search for objects by their smell) and many others. Please note that the response of a behavior is not the behavior itself. For example, a dog has a strong innate active-defensive reaction of behavior and at the same time is physically weak, small in stature, and throughout its life it constantly received negative results when trying to carry out aggression against a person. Will she behave aggressively and will she be dangerous in a particular situation? Most likely no. But the animal’s innate aggressive tendency must be taken into account, and this dog may well be able to attack a weak opponent, for example, a child.

Thus, behavioral reactions are the cause of many of the dog's actions, but in a real situation their manifestation can be controlled. We gave a negative example showing unwanted behavior in a dog. But attempts to develop the desired behavior in the absence of the necessary reactions will end in failure. For example, it is useless to train a search dog from a candidate who lacks an olfactory-search reaction. A dog with a passive-defensive reaction (a cowardly dog) will not make a guard.

Instincts are innate motivation that determines long-term behavior aimed at satisfying certain needs.

Examples of instincts: sexual instinct; the instinct of self-preservation; hunting instinct (often transformed into prey instinct), etc. An animal does not always perform actions dictated by instinct. A dog may, under the influence of certain stimuli, exhibit behavior that is in no way related to the implementation of one or another instinct, but in general the animal will strive to realize it. For example, if a female dog in heat appears near the training area, the behavior of the male dog will be determined by sexual instinct. By controlling the male, using certain stimuli, you can make the male work, but if your control weakens, the male will again strive to realize sexual motivation. Thus, unconditioned reflexes are the main motivating force that determines the behavior of an animal. The lower the level of organization of unconditioned reflexes, the less controllable they are. Unconditioned reflexes are the basis of a dog’s behavior, so careful selection of an animal for training and determination of abilities for a particular service (work) is extremely important. It is believed that the success of using a dog effectively is determined by three factors:

Selecting a dog for training;

Training;

Proper use of the dog

Moreover, the importance of the first point is estimated at 40%, the second and third - 30% each.

The behavior of animals is based on simple and complex innate reactions - the so-called unconditioned reflexes. An unconditioned reflex is an innate reflex that is persistently inherited. An animal does not need training to exhibit unconditioned reflexes; it is born with reflex mechanisms ready for their manifestation. For the manifestation of an unconditioned reflex it is necessary:

· firstly, the irritant that causes it,

· secondly, the presence of a certain conductive apparatus, i.e., a ready-made nerve pathway (reflex arc), ensuring the passage of nerve stimulation from the receptor to the corresponding working organ (muscle or gland).

If you pour a weak concentration of hydrochloric acid (0.5%) into your dog’s mouth, he will try to throw the acid out of his mouth with energetic movements of his tongue, and at the same time liquid saliva will flow, protecting the oral mucosa from damage by the acid. If you apply painful stimulation to a dog’s limb, it will certainly pull it back and press its paw. These reactions of a dog to the irritating effect of hydrochloric acid or to painful stimulation will manifest themselves with strict regularity in any animal. They certainly appear under the action of the corresponding stimulus, which is why they were called I.P. Pavlov's unconditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes are caused both by external stimuli and by stimuli coming from the body itself. All acts of activity of a newborn animal are unconditioned reflexes that ensure the existence of the organism for the first time. Breathing, sucking, urination, feces, etc. - all these are innate unconditioned reflex reactions; Moreover, the irritations that cause them come mainly from the internal organs (a full bladder causes urination, the presence of feces in the rectum causes straining, leading to stool eruption, etc.). However, as the dog grows and matures, a number of other, more complex unconditioned reflexes appear. Such unconditioned reflexes include, for example, the sexual reflex. The presence of a bitch near a male dog in a state of heat (in a void) causes an unconditional reflex sexual reaction on the part of the male dog, which manifests itself in the form of a sum of rather complex, but at the same time natural actions aimed at performing sexual intercourse. The dog does not learn this reflex reaction; it naturally begins to manifest itself in the animal during puberty, in response to a specific (albeit complex) stimulus (bitch and heat) and therefore should also be classified as a group of unconditioned reflexes. The whole difference between, for example, the sexual reflex and withdrawing a paw during painful stimulation lies only in the varying complexity of these reflexes, but they are not fundamentally different from each other. Therefore, unconditioned reflexes can be divided according to the principle of their complexity into simple and complex. However, it must be borne in mind that a whole series of simple unconditioned reflex acts are involved in the manifestation of a complex unconditioned reflex. For example, the food unconditioned reflex reaction of even a newly born puppy is carried out with the participation of a number of simpler unconditioned reflexes - acts of sucking, swallowing movements, reflex activity of the salivary glands and stomach glands. In this case, one unconditional reflex act is a stimulus for the manifestation of the next, i.e. a chain of reflexes occurs, so they speak of the chain nature of unconditioned reflexes. Academician I.P. Pavlov drew attention to some basic unconditioned reflexes of animals, pointing out at the same time that this issue was still very insufficiently developed.

· Firstly, animals have an unconditioned food reflex aimed at providing the body with food,

· secondly, the sexual unconditioned reflex, aimed at the reproduction of offspring, and the parental (or maternal) reflex, aimed at preserving the offspring,

· thirdly, defensive reflexes associated with protecting the body.

Moreover, there are two types of defensive reflexes

· actively (aggressively) defensive reflex underlying malice, and

· passive defensive reflex underlying cowardice.

These two reflexes are diametrically opposed in the form of their manifestation; one is aimed at attack, the other, on the contrary, at running away from the stimulus that causes it.

Sometimes in dogs, active and passive defensive reflexes appear simultaneously: the dog barks, rushes, but at the same time tucks its tail, rushes about, and runs away at the slightest active action from the irritant (for example, a person).

Finally, animals have a reflex associated with the constant familiarization of the animal with everything new, the so-called orienting reflex, which ensures the animal’s awareness of all the changes occurring around it and underlies constant “reconnaissance” in its environment. In addition to these basic complex unconditioned reflexes, there are a number of simple unconditioned reflexes associated with breathing, urination, feces and other functional functions of the body. Finally, each animal species has a number of its own, unique to it, complex unconditioned reflex acts of behavior (for example, complex unconditioned reflexes of beavers associated with the construction of dams, houses, etc.; unconditioned reflexes of birds associated with the construction of nests, spring and autumn flights, etc.). Dogs also have a number of special unconditioned reflex acts of behavior. So, for example, the basis of hunting behavior is a complex unconditioned reflex, associated in the wild ancestors of the dog with the food unconditioned reflex, which turned out to be so modified and specialized in hunting dogs that it acts as an independent unconditioned reflex. Moreover, this reflex has different expressions in different breeds of dogs. In gundogs, the irritant is mainly the smell of a bird, and very specific birds; chickens (grouse, black grouse), waders (snipe, woodcock, great snipe), rails (crake, marsh hen, etc.). In hound dogs, the sight or smell of a hare, fox, wolf, etc. Moreover, the very form of unconditional reflex acts of behavior in these dogs is completely different. A gun dog, having found a bird, makes a stand over it; a hound dog, having caught the trail, chases the animal along it, barking. Service dogs often have a pronounced hunting reflex aimed at pursuing the animal. The question of the possibility of changing unconditioned reflexes under the influence of the environment is extremely important. A demonstrative experiment in this direction was carried out in the laboratory of Academician I.P. Pavlova.

Two litters of puppies were divided into two groups and raised in dramatically different conditions. One group was raised in the wild, the other in isolation from the outside world (indoors). When the puppies grew up, it turned out that they differed sharply from each other in behavior. Those who were brought up in freedom did not have a passive defensive reaction, while those who lived in isolation had it in a pronounced form. Academician I.P. Pavlov explains this by the fact that all puppies at a certain age of their development exhibit a reflex of primary natural caution to all new stimuli. As they become more familiar with the environment, this reflex gradually slows down and switches into an orienting reaction. Those puppies who, during their development, did not have the opportunity to get acquainted with all the diversity of the outside world, do not get rid of this puppy passive-defensive reflex and remain cowardly for the rest of their lives. The manifestation of an active defensive reaction was studied on dogs raised in kennels, i.e. in conditions of partial isolation, and among hobbyists, where puppies have the opportunity to be more in touch with the diversity of the outside world. A large amount of material collected on this issue (Krushinsky) showed that dogs raised in kennels have a less pronounced active-defensive reaction than dogs raised by private individuals. Growing puppies in nurseries, where access to unauthorized persons is limited, have less opportunity to develop an active defensive reaction than puppies raised by amateurs. Hence the difference in the active-defensive reaction that is observed in dogs, both of these groups, raised in different conditions. The above examples confirm the enormous dependence of the formation of passive and active defensive reactions on the conditions of raising a puppy, as well as the variability of complex unconditional reflex behavior under the influence of the external conditions in which the dog lives and is raised. These examples indicate the need for careful attention to the conditions in which puppies are raised. Isolated or partially isolated conditions for raising puppies contribute to the formation of a dog with a passive-defensive reaction, which is unsuitable for some types of service dogs. Creating the right conditions for raising puppies, which would provide them with constant acquaintance with all the diversity of the outside world and give the puppy the opportunity to demonstrate its active-defensive reaction (the first manifestations of which begin as early as one and a half to two months), helps to raise a dog with a developed active-defensive reaction and lack of passive defensiveness. However, it must be borne in mind that individual dogs raised in the same conditions exhibit differences in the manifestation of defensive reactions, which depends on the innate individual characteristics of the parents. Therefore, when improving the conditions for raising puppies, it is necessary to pay special attention to the selection of parents. Of course, animals with a passive-defensive reaction cannot be used as breeders for producing service dogs. We examined the role of a dog’s individual experience in the formation of complex unconditioned reflex defensive behavior. However, the formation of other unconditioned reflexes in response to certain stimuli is closely dependent on the individual experience of the dog. Let's take the food unconditioned reflex as an example. It should seem obvious to everyone that a dog's food reaction to meat is an unconditioned reflex. However, experiments conducted by one of the students of Academician I.P. Pavlov showed that this is not so. It turned out that dogs raised on a diet devoid of meat, when given a piece of meat for the first time, did not react to it as an edible substance. However, as soon as such a dog put a piece of meat in its mouth once or twice, it swallowed it and after that already reacted to it as a food substance. Thus, the manifestation of a food reflex even to such a seemingly natural irritant as meat requires, albeit a very short, but still individual experience.

Thus, the above examples show that the manifestation of complex unconditioned reflexes depends on previous life.

Let us now dwell on the concept of instinct.

Instinct is understood as the complex actions of an animal, leading without prior training to its best adaptation to certain environmental conditions. A duckling meeting water for the first time will swim in exactly the same way as an adult duck; a swift chick, flying out of the nest for the first time, has perfect flight techniques; With the onset of autumn, young migratory birds fly south - all these are examples of so-called instinctive actions that ensure the animal’s adaptation to certain and constant conditions of its life. Academician I.P. Pavlov, comparing instincts with complex unconditioned reflexes, pointed out that there is no difference between them. He wrote: “both reflexes and instincts are natural reactions of the body to certain agents, and therefore there is no need to designate them in different words. The word reflex has an advantage, because from the very beginning it was given a strictly scientific meaning.” Can these innate, unconditional reflex acts of animal behavior fully ensure its existence? This question has to be answered in the negative. Despite the fact that unconditioned reflexes are capable of ensuring the normal existence of a newly born animal, they are completely insufficient for the normal existence of a growing or adult animal. This is clearly proven by the experience of removing the cerebral hemispheres of a dog, i.e., the organ that is associated with the possibility of acquiring individual experience. A dog with the hemispheres of the brain removed eats and drinks, if you bring food and water to its mouth, exhibits a defensive reaction when painful irritation, urinates and excretes feces. But at the same time, such a dog is deeply disabled, completely incapable of independent existence and adaptation to living conditions, for such adaptation is achieved only with the help of individually acquired reflexes, the occurrence of which is associated with the cerebral cortex. Unconditioned reflexes are thus the basis, the foundation on which all animal behavior is built. But they alone are still insufficient for the adaptation of higher vertebrate animals to the conditions of existence. The latter is achieved with the help of so-called conditioned reflexes, which are formed during the life of the animal on the basis of its unconditioned reflexes.

In the course of evolutionary and social development, humans have developed a natural system of protection from unfavorable environmental factors, i.e., from dangers. Its basis is the nervous system. Thanks to it, the body communicates with the external environment (light, sound, smell, mechanical influences) and a variety of information about processes inside and outside the body. The body's response to irritation, carried out and controlled by the central nervous system, is called a reflex, and all activity of the nervous system is called a reflex. In the diverse reflex activity there are innate unconditioned reflexes that are inherited and persist throughout the life of the organism.

Unconditioned human reflexes are varied. For example, withdrawing a hand in response to a skin burn, closing the eyes when there is a danger of damaging them, profuse production of tears under the influence of substances that irritate the eyes, etc. These and many other reflexes are called defensive.

The orienting reflex occupies a special place among the unconditioned reflexes in ensuring safety. It appears in response to a new stimulus: a person becomes alert, listens, turns his head, squints his eyes, and thinks. The orienting reflex ensures the perception of an unfamiliar stimulus.

Unconditioned reflexes are a hereditary “program” of behavior. They provide normal interaction only with a stable environment. However, man lives in an extremely changeable, mobile, diverse environment. Unconditioned reflexes as constant connections are not enough to ensure a flexible response in a changing environment. It is necessary to supplement them with temporary flexible connections. Such connections are called conditioned reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of individual experience. Since the acquisition of individual experience is learning, the formation of conditioned reflexes is one of the types of learning.

Conditioned reflexes formed during the learning process allow the body to adapt more flexibly to specific environmental conditions and form the basis for the development of a person’s habits and entire lifestyle.

The adaptive significance of conditioned reflexes is enormous. Thanks to them, a person can take the necessary actions in advance to protect himself, focusing on signs of possible danger, without seeing the danger itself. Conditioned stimuli have a signaling character. They warn of danger.

All immediate sensations, perceptions and corresponding human reactions are carried out on the basis of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. However, in the specific conditions of the social environment, a person orients himself and reacts not only to immediate stimuli. For a person, the signal of any stimulus is the word denoting it, and its semantic content. Words spoken, heard and visible are signals, symbols of specific objects and environmental phenomena. The word man denotes everything that he perceives with the help of his senses.

Words, like other environmental factors (physical, chemical and biological), can be indifferent to human health, can have a beneficial effect, or can cause harm - even death (suicide).