Literature of Latin America. Magic realism in the works of G
“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez, “The City and the Dogs” by Mario Vargas Llosa, “The Aleph” by Jorge Luis Borges - these and other masterpieces of Latin American literature of the last century are in this selection.Dictatorships, coups, revolutions, terrible poverty of some, and fantastic wealth of others, and at the same time the exuberant fun and optimism of ordinary people - this is how you can briefly describe most of the countries of Latin America in the 20th century. And we shouldn’t forget about the amazing synthesis of different cultures, peoples and beliefs.
The paradoxes of history and the riotous color inspired many writers of this region to create genuine literary masterpieces that enriched world culture. We will talk about the most striking works in our material.
"Captains of the Sand" Jorge Amado (Brazil)
One of the main novels of Jorge Amado, the most famous Brazilian writer of the 20th century. “Captains of the Sand” is the story of a gang of street children who engaged in theft and robbery in the state of Bahia in the 1930s. It was this book that formed the basis of the legendary film “Generals of the Sand Quarries,” which acquired cult status in the USSR.
"The Invention of Morel". Adolfo Bioy Casares (Argentina)
The most famous book by the Argentine writer Adolfo Bioy Casares. A novel that deftly balances on the brink of mysticism and science fiction. The main character, fleeing persecution, ends up on a distant island. There he meets strange people who pay absolutely no attention to him. Watching them day after day, he learns that everything that happens on this piece of land is a holographic movie recorded a long time ago, virtual reality. And it is impossible to leave this place... while the invention of a certain Morel is working.
"Señor President." Miguel Angel Asturias (Guatemala)
The most famous novel by Miguel Angel Asturias, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Literature. In it, the author depicts a typical Latin American dictator - Señor President. In this character, the writer reflects the whole essence of cruel and senseless authoritarian rule, aimed at self-enrichment through oppression and intimidation of ordinary people. This book is about a man for whom ruling a country means robbing and killing its inhabitants. Remembering the dictatorship of the same Pinochet (and other no less bloody dictators), we understand how accurate this artistic prophecy of Asturias turned out to be.
"Kingdom of the Earth". Alejo Carpentier (Cuba)
One of the most famous works of the greatest Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier. In the historical novel “Earthly Kingdom,” he talks about the mysterious world of the Haitians, whose lives are inextricably linked with the mythology and magic of Voodoo. In fact, he put this poor and mysterious island on the literary map of the world, in which magic and death are intertwined with fun and dancing.
"Aleph". Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina)
The most famous collection of stories by the outstanding Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. In "Aleph" he addressed the motives of search - the search for the meaning of life, truth, love, immortality and creative inspiration. Masterfully using symbols of infinity (especially mirrors, libraries (which Borges loved so much!) and labyrinths), the author not only gives answers to questions, but makes the reader think about the reality around him. The point is not so much in the search results, but in the process itself.
"The Death of Artemio Cruz." Carlos Fuentes (Mexico)
The central novel of one of the most famous Mexican prose writers of the last century. It tells the life story of Artemio Cruz, a former revolutionary and ally of Pancho Villa, and now one of the richest tycoons in Mexico. Having come to power as a result of an armed uprising, Cruz begins to frantically enrich himself. To satisfy his greed, he does not hesitate to resort to blackmail, violence and terror against anyone who gets in his way. This book is about how, under the influence of power, even the highest and best ideas die out, and people change beyond recognition. In fact, this is a kind of answer to Asturias’ “Señor President”.
"Game of Hopscotch" Julio Cortazar (Argentina)
One of the most famous works of postmodern literature. In this novel, the famous Argentine writer Julio Cortazar tells the story of Horacio Oliveira, a man in a difficult relationship with the world around him and pondering the meaning of his own existence. In “The Hopscotch Game,” the reader himself chooses the plot of the novel (in the preface, the author offers two reading options - according to a plan he specially developed or according to the order of the chapters), and the content of the book will depend directly on his choice.
"The City and the Dogs" Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru)
“The City and the Dogs” is an autobiographical novel by the famous Peruvian writer, winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature, Mario Vargas Llosa. The book takes place within the walls of a military school, where they are trying to make “real men” out of teenage children. The methods of education are simple - first, break and humiliate a person, and then turn him into a thoughtless soldier living according to the rules. After the publication of this anti-war novel, Vargas Llosa was accused of treason and aiding Ecuadorian emigrants. And several copies of his book were solemnly burned on the parade ground of the Leoncio Prado cadet school. However, this scandal only added to the popularity of the novel, which became one of the best literary works of Latin America of the 20th century. It has also been filmed many times.
"One Hundred Years of Solitude." Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia)
The legendary novel by Gabriel García Márquez, a Colombian master of magical realism and winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature. In it, the author tells the 100-year history of the provincial town of Macondo, located in the middle of the jungle of South America. This book is recognized as a masterpiece of Latin American prose of the 20th century. In fact, Marquez managed to describe the entire continent with all its contradictions and extremes.
“When I want to cry, I don’t cry.” Miguel Otero Silva (Venezuela)
Miguel Otero Silva is one of Venezuela's greatest writers. His novel “When I Want to Cry, I Don’t Cry” is dedicated to the lives of three young people - an aristocrat, a terrorist and a bandit. Despite the fact that they have different social backgrounds, they all share the same destiny. Everyone is in search of their place in life, and everyone is destined to die for their beliefs. In this book, the author masterfully paints a picture of Venezuela under military dictatorship, and also shows the poverty and inequality of that era.
The victory over fascism entailed disruptions and the collapse of the colonial system in a number of formerly dependent countries of the African continent and Latin America. Liberation from military and economic domination and mass migrations during the Second World War led to an increase in national self-awareness. Liberation from colonial dependence in the second half of the 20th century led to the emergence of new literary continents. As a result of these processes, such concepts as the new Latin American novel, modern African prose and ethnic literature in the USA and Canada entered into reading and literary usage. Another important factor was the growth of planetary thinking, which did not allow for the “silence” of entire continents and the exclusion of cultural experience.
It is noteworthy that in the 1960s. In Russia, the so-called “multinational prose” is emerging - writers from among the indigenous peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Siberia.
The interaction of traditional literatures with new realities has enriched world literature and given impetus to the development of new mythopoetic images. Around the mid-1960s. It became clear that ethnic literatures, previously doomed to extinction or assimilation, could survive and develop in their own way within the dominant civilizations. The most striking phenomenon of the relationship between the ethnocultural factor and literature was the rise of Latin American prose.
Even in the first half of the 20th century, the literature of Latin American countries could not compete with the countries of Europe (and even the East), because were mostly aesthetic epigones. However, starting from the second half of the 20th century, many young writers began to build their creative path, focusing on local traditions. Having absorbed the experience of the European experimental school, they were able to develop an original national literary style.
For the 1960-70s. This is the period of the so-called “boom” of the Latin American novel. During these years, the term “magical realism” spread in European and Latin American criticism. In a narrow sense, it denotes a certain movement in Latin American literature of the second half of the 20th century. In a broad sense, it is understood as a constant of Latin American artistic thinking and a general property of the culture of the continent.
The concept of Latin American magical realism is intended to highlight and distinguish it from European mythology and fantasy. These features were clearly embodied in the first works of Latin American magical realism - the story by A. Carpentier “The Dark Kingdom” (1949) and the novel by M.A. Asturias "The Corn People" (1949).
In their heroes, the personal element is muted and does not interest the writer. The heroes act as carriers of collective mythological consciousness. It is this that becomes the main object of the image. At the same time, writers replace their view of a civilized person with that of a primitive person. Latin American realists highlight reality through the prism of mythological consciousness. As a result of this, the depicted reality undergoes fantastic transformations. Works of magical realism are built on the interaction of artistic resources. “Civilized” consciousness is comprehended and compared with the mythological one.
Throughout the 20th century, Latin America moved towards a flourishing of artistic creativity. A wide variety of trends have developed on the continent. Realism actively developed, an elitist-modernist (with echoes of European existentialism) and then a postmodernist direction arose. Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cartazar Octavio Paz developed techniques and methods of “stream of consciousness” borrowed from Europe, the idea of the absurdity of the world, “alienation”, and playful discourse.
Elite Latin American writers - Octavio Paz, Juan Carlos Onetti, Mario Vergas Llos - had a conversation with themselves, trying to identify personal uniqueness. They sought national identity within the confines of well-established European storytelling techniques. This gave them very limited fame.
The task of the “magical realists” was different: they directly addressed their message to humanity, combining the national and the universal in a unique synthesis. This explains their phenomenal success around the world.
The poetics and artistic principles of Latin American magical realism were formed under the influence of European avant-gardeism. The general interest in primitive thinking, magic, and primitive art that gripped Europeans in the first third of the 20th century stimulated the interest of Latin American writers in Indians and African Americans. In the bosom of European culture, the concept of the fundamental difference between pre-rationalistic thinking and civilized thinking was created. This concept will be actively developed by Latin American writers.
From the avant-garde artists, mainly the surrealists, Latin American writers borrowed some principles of the fantastic transformation of reality. The European abstract “savage” acquired ethnocultural concreteness and clarity in the works of magical realism.
The concept of different types of thinking was projected into the area of cultural and civilizational confrontation between Latin America and Europe. The European surreal dream was replaced by a real-life myth. At the same time, Latin American writers relied not only on Indian and South American mythology, but also on the traditions of American chronicles of the 16th and 17th centuries. and their abundance of miraculous elements.
The ideological basis of magical realism was the writer’s desire to identify and affirm the originality of Latin American reality and culture, which is combined with the mythological consciousness of an Indian or African American.
Latin American magical realism had a significant impact on European and North American literature, and especially on the literature of the Third World.
In 1964, Costa Rican writer Joaquín Gutiérrez wrote in an article “On the Eve of the Great Bloom” reflected on the fate of the novel in Latin America: “Speaking of the characteristic features of the Latin American novel, we should first of all point out that it is relatively young. A little more than a hundred years have passed since its inception, and in Latin America there are countries where the first novel appeared only in our century. During the three-hundred-year colonial period of Latin American history, not a single novel was published - and, as far as we know, not written!... Over the past twenty years, the Latin American novel has moved forward with great momentum... While remaining Latin American, our novel has recently become more universal. And I think we can safely predict that he is on the eve of an era of great prosperity... A colossal novelist has not yet appeared in our literature, but we are not trailing behind. Let’s remember what we said at the beginning - that our romance dates back a little over a hundred years - and let’s wait some more time.”.
These words became prophetic for the Latin American novel. In 1963, the novel “Hopscotch” by Julio Cortazar appeared, in 1967, “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez, which became a classic of Latin American literature.
Topic: Japanese literature.
In 1868, events took place in Japan called the “Meiji Restoration” (translated as “enlightened rule”). There was a restoration of the power of the emperor and the fall of the system of samurai rule of the shogunate. These events led Japan to follow the path of the European powers. Foreign policy is changing sharply, the “opening of doors” is announced, the end of external isolation that has lasted more than two centuries, and the implementation of a number of reforms. These dramatic changes in the life of the country were reflected in the literature of the Meiji period (1868-1912). During this time, the Japanese went from being overly enthusiastic about everything European to disappointment, from boundless delight to despair.
A distinctive feature of the traditional Japanese method is the author's indifference. The writer describes everything that comes into view in everyday reality, without giving judgment. The desire to depict things without introducing anything from oneself is explained by the Buddhist attitude towards the world as non-existent, illusory. One's own experiences are described in the same way. The essence of the traditional Japanese method lies precisely in the author’s non-involvement in what is being discussed, the author “follows the brush,” the movement of his soul. The text contains a description of what the author saw or heard, experienced, but there is no desire to understand what is happening. There is no traditional European analyticism in them. The words of Daiseku Suzuki about Zen art can be attributed to all classical Japanese literature: “They sought to convey with their brush what moves them from within. They themselves were not aware of how to express the inner spirit, and expressed it with a cry or a blow of the brush. Maybe this is not art at all, because there is no art in what they did. And if there is, it is very primitive. But is it? Could we succeed in “civilization,” in other words, in artifice, if we strived for artlessness? This was precisely the goal and basis of all artistic quests.”
In the Buddhist worldview, which underlies Japanese literature, there could be no desire to explore human life, to understand its meaning, because the truth lies on the other side of the visible world and is inaccessible to understanding. It can only be experienced in a special state of mind, in a state of highest concentration, when a person merges with the world. In this system of thinking there was no idea of creating the world; Buddha did not create the world, but understood it. Therefore, man was not looked at as a potential creator. From the point of view of Buddhist theory, a living being is not a being living in the world, but a being experiencing the world. In this system of values, a method of analysis that presupposes separation could not appear. Hence the indifferent attitude towards what is depicted, when the writer feels himself both a participant and a spectator of the events described.
Therefore, traditional Japanese literature is not characterized by torment, lamentation, and doubt. There are no internal struggles in it, no desire to change fate, challenge fate, all that permeates European literature, starting from ancient tragedy.
For many centuries, the aesthetic ideal has been embodied in Japanese poetry
Yasunari Kawabata (1899-1975)- classic of Japanese literature. In 1968, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for “writing that expresses with great force the essence of Japanese thought.”
Yasunari Kawabata was born in Osaka into the family of a doctor. He lost his parents early, and then his grandfather, who raised him. He lived with relatives, feeling bitterly about being an orphan. During my school years I dreamed of becoming an artist, but my passion for literature turned out to be stronger. His first writing experience was “The Diary of a Sixteen-Year-Old,” which conveyed sentiments of sadness and loneliness.
His student years were spent at the University of Tokyo, where Kawabata Yasunari studied English and Japanese philology. At this time, an acquaintance with the works of the greatest Japanese and European writers and Russian literature took place. After graduating from university, he works as a reviewer, publishing reviews of published books. During these years, he was part of a group of “neosensualist” writers who were sensitive to new trends in the literature of European modernism. One of Kawabata Yasunari’s stories “Crystal Fantasy” (1930) was often called “Joycean”; in its structure and style of writing, the influence of the author of “Ulysses” was felt. The story is a stream of memories of the heroine, her whole life emerges in a series of “crystalline” moments flashing in her memory. Reproducing the stream of consciousness, conveying the work of memory, Kawabata was largely guided by Joyce and Proust. Like other writers of the 20th century, he did not ignore modernist experiments. But at the same time, he remains an exponent of the originality and originality of Japanese thinking. Kawabata maintains strong ties to the national Japanese tradition. Kawabata wrote: " Having become fascinated by modern Western literature, I sometimes tried to imitate its images. But I am fundamentally an Eastern person and have never lost sight of my own path ».
The poetics of Kawabata Yasunari's works are characterized by the following traditional Japanese motifs:
Spontaneity and clarity of conveying a heartfelt feeling for nature and man;
Merging with nature
Close attention to detail;
The ability to reveal enchanting beauty in everyday and small things;
Laconism in reproducing the nuances of mood;
Quiet sadness, wisdom bestowed by life.
All this allows you to feel the harmony of existence with its eternal secrets.
The originality of Kawabata Yasunari’s poetic prose was manifested in the stories “The Dancer from Izidu” (1926), “Snow Country” (1937), “A Thousand Cranes” (1949), “Lake” (1954), in the novels “The Moan of the Mountain” (1954), "Old Capital" (1962). All works are imbued with lyricism and a high level of psychologism. They describe Japanese traditions, customs, features of life and behavior of people. For example, in the story “A Thousand Cranes” the ritual of tea drinking, the “tea ceremony”, which is important in the life of the Japanese, is reproduced in every detail. The aesthetics of the tea ritual, as well as other customs that are always written out in detail, by no means isolate Kawabata from the problems of the modern era. He survived two world wars, the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by atomic bomb explosions, and the Japanese-Chinese wars in his memory. Therefore, traditions associated with the concept of peace, harmony and beauty, and not with the exaltation of military power and samurai valor, are especially dear to him. Kawabata protects the souls of people from the cruelty of confrontation
Kawabata's work developed under the influence of Zen aesthetics. In accordance with the teachings of Zen, reality is understood as an indivisible whole, and the true nature of things can only be comprehended intuitively. It is not analysis and logic, but feeling and intuition that bring us closer to revealing the essence of phenomena, the eternal mystery. Not everything can be expressed in words and not everything needs to be said to the end. A mention or a hint is enough. The charm of understatement has an impressive power. These principles, developed over the centuries in Japanese poetry, are also realized in the work of Kawabata.
Kawabata sees the beauty of the ordinary, his life surroundings. He depicts nature, the world of plants, and scenes of everyday life in a lyrical way, with the insightful wisdom of humanity. The writer shows the life of nature and the life of man in their commonality, in continuous interpenetration. This reveals a feeling of belonging to the absolute of nature, the universe. Kawabata has the ability to recreate the atmosphere of reality, for this he accurately selects authentic colors and smells of his native land.
One of the central aspects of the aesthetics of Japanese art is the idea of the sad charm of things. The beautiful in classical Japanese literature has an elegiac tone, poetic images are imbued with a mood of sadness and melancholy. In poetry, as in a traditional garden, there is nothing superfluous, nothing unnecessary, but there is always imagination, a hint, a certain incompleteness and surprise. The same feeling arises when reading Kawabata’s books; the reader discovers the author’s complex attitude towards his characters: sympathy and sympathy, mercy and tenderness, bitterness, pain. Kawabata's work is full of traditional Japanese contemplation, humor, and a subtle understanding of nature and its impact on the human soul. It reveals the inner world of a person striving for happiness. One of the main themes of his work is sadness, loneliness, and the impossibility of love.
In the most ordinary, in a small detail of boring everyday life, something essential is revealed, revealing a person’s state of mind. Details are constantly in the focus of Kawabata's vision. However, his objective world does not suppress the movement of character; the narrative contains psychological analysis and is distinguished by great artistic taste.
Many chapters of Kawabata’s works begin with lines about nature, which seem to set the tone for the subsequent narrative. Sometimes nature is just the background against which the characters’ lives unfold. But sometimes it seems to take on an independent meaning. The author seems to encourage us to learn from her, to comprehend her unknown secrets, seeing in communication with nature unique ways of moral and aesthetic improvement of man. Kawabata's work is characterized by a sense of the grandeur of nature and the sophistication of visual perception. Through images of nature, he reveals the movements of the human soul, and therefore many of his works are multifaceted and have hidden subtext. Kawabata's language is an example of Japanese style. Brief, succinct, deep, it has imagery and impeccable metaphor.
The poetry of the rose, high literary skill, humanistic thought about caring for nature and man, for the traditions of national art - all this makes Kawabata’s art an outstanding phenomenon in Japanese literature and in the global art of words.
Latin American literature- this is the literature of Latin American countries, forming a single linguistic and cultural region (Argentina, Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil, Peru, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, etc.). The emergence of Latin American literature dates back to the 16th century, when during colonization the language of the conquerors spread across the continent. In most countries the Spanish language has become widespread, in Brazil - Portuguese, in Haiti - French. As a result, the beginning of Latin American Spanish-language literature was laid by the conquerors, Christian missionaries, and, as a consequence, Latin American literature at that time was secondary, i.e. had a clear European character, was religious, preaching or was of a journalistic nature. Gradually, the culture of the colonialists began to interact with the culture of the indigenous Indian population, and in a number of countries with the culture of the black population - the mythology and folklore of slaves taken from Africa. The synthesis of various cultural models continued even after the beginning of the 19th century. As a result of liberation wars and revolutions, the independent republics of Latin America were formed. It was at the beginning of the 19th century. refers to the beginning of the formation of independent literatures in each country with their inherent national specifics. As a result, the independent oriental literatures of the Latin American region are quite young. In this regard, there is a distinction: Latin American literature is 1) young, existing as an original phenomenon since the 19th century, based on the literature of settlers from Europe - Spain, Portugal, Italy, etc. and 2) ancient literature of the indigenous inhabitants of Latin America: Indians ( Aztecs, Incas, Maltecs), who had their own literature, but this original mythological tradition has now practically broken off and is not developing.
The peculiarity of the Latin American artistic tradition (the so-called “artistic code”) is that it is synthetic in nature, formed as a result of the organic combination of the most diverse cultural layers. Mythological universal images, as well as reinterpreted European images and motifs in Latin American culture are combined with original Indian and own historical traditions. A variety of heterogeneous and at the same time universal figurative constants are present in the work of most Latin American writers, which constitutes a single foundation of individual artistic worlds within the Latin American artistic tradition and forms a unique image of the world, which has been formed over the course of five hundred years since Columbus’s discovery of the New World. The most mature works of Marquez and Fuentos are based on cultural and philosophical opposition: “Europe - America”, “Old World - New World”.
The literature of Latin America, existing mainly in Spanish and Portuguese, was formed through the interaction of two different rich cultural traditions - European and Indian. Native American literature in some cases continued to develop after the Spanish conquest. Of the surviving works of pre-Columbian literature, most were written down by missionary monks. Thus, to this day, the main source for the study of Aztec literature remains the work of Fray B. de Sahagún, “History of Things of New Spain,” created between 1570 and 1580. Masterpieces of Mayan literature written shortly after the conquest have also been preserved: the collection of historical legends and cosmogonic myths “Popol Vuh” and the prophetic books “Chilam Balam”. Thanks to the collecting activities of the monks, examples of “pre-Columbian” Peruvian poetry that existed in the oral tradition have reached us. Their work in the same 16th century. supplemented by two famous chroniclers of Indian origin - Inca Garcilaso de La Vega and F. G. Poma de Ayala.
The primary layer of Latin American literature in Spanish consists of diaries, chronicles and messages (so-called reports, i.e. reports on military operations, diplomatic negotiations, descriptions of military operations, etc.) of the pioneers and conquistadors themselves. Christopher Columbus outlined his impressions of the newly discovered lands in his “Diary of his First Voyage” (1492-1493) and three letters-reports addressed to the Spanish royal couple. Columbus often interprets American realities in a fantastic way, reviving numerous geographical myths and legends that filled Western European literature from antiquity to the 14th century. The discovery and conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico is reflected in five letters-reports of E. Cortes sent to Emperor Charles V between 1519 and 1526. A soldier from Cortes's detachment, B. Diaz del Castillo, described these events in The True History of the Conquest of New Spain (1563), one of the best books of the Conquest era. In the process of discovering the lands of the New World, in the minds of the conquistadors, old European myths and legends, combined with Indian legends ("The Fountain of Eternal Youth", "Seven Cities of Sivola", "Eldorado", etc.) were revived and reinterpreted. The persistent search for these mythical places determined the entire course of the conquest and, to some extent, the early colonization of the territories. A number of literary monuments of the Conquest era are represented by detailed testimonies of participants in such expeditions. Among works of this kind, the most interesting are the famous book “Shipwrecks” (1537) by A. Cabeza de Vaca, who, during eight years of wandering, was the first European to cross the North American continent in a westerly direction, and “The Narrative of the New Discovery of the Glorious Great River Amazon” by Fray G. de Carvajal.
Another body of Spanish texts from this period consists of chronicles created by Spanish and sometimes Indian historiographers. The humanist B. de Las Casas was the first to criticize the conquest in his History of the Indies. In 1590, the Jesuit J. de Acosta published the Natural and Moral History of the Indies. In Brazil, G. Soares de Souza wrote one of the most informative chronicles of this period - “Description of Brazil in 1587, or News of Brazil.” The Jesuit J. de Anchieta, the author of chronicle texts, sermons, lyric poems and religious plays (auto), also stands at the origins of Brazilian literature. The most significant playwrights of the 16th century. there were E. Fernandez de Eslaya, author of religious and secular plays, and J. Ruiz de Alarcón. The highest achievements in the genre of epic poetry were the poem “The Greatness of Mexico” (1604) by B. de Balbuena, “Elegies on the Illustrious Men of the Indies” (1589) by J. de Castellanos and “Araucana” (1569-1589) by A. de Ersilly-i- Zúñiga, which describes the conquest of Chile.
During the colonial period, Latin American literature was oriented towards literary trends popular in Europe (i.e. in the metropolis). The aesthetics of the Spanish Golden Age, particularly the Baroque, quickly permeated the intellectual circles of Mexico and Peru. One of the best works of Latin American prose of the 17th century. - the chronicle of the Colombian J. Rodriguez Fraile “El Carnero” (1635) is more artistic in style than a historiographical work. The artistic attitude was even more clearly evident in the chronicle of the Mexican C. Sigüenza y Góngora “The Misadventures of Alonso Ramírez,” a fictional story of a shipwrecked sailor. If the prose writers of the 17th century. were unable to reach the level of full-fledged artistic writing, stopping halfway between a chronicle and a novel, then the poetry of this period reached a high degree of development. The Mexican nun Juana Ines de La Cruz (1648-1695), a major literary figure of the colonial era, created unsurpassed examples of Latin American baroque poetry. In Peruvian poetry of the 17th century. philosophical and satirical orientation dominated over the aesthetic, as manifested in the works of P. de Peralta Barnuevo and J. del Valle y Caviedes. In Brazil, the most significant writers of this period were A. Vieira, who wrote sermons and treatises, and A. Fernandez Brandon, author of the book “Dialogue on the Splendors of Brazil” (1618).
The process of formation of Creole identity by the end of the 17th century. acquired a distinct character. A critical attitude towards colonial society and the need for its reconstruction are expressed in the satirical book of the Peruvian A. Carrieo de La Vandera, “The Guide of the Blind Wanderers” (1776). The same educational pathos was asserted by the Ecuadorian F. J. E. de Santa Cruz y Espejo in the book “New Lucian from Quito, or Awakener of Minds,” written in the genre of dialogue. Mexican H.H. Fernandez de Lisardi (1776-1827) began his career in literature as a satirist poet. In 1816, he published the first Latin American novel, Periquillo Sarniento, where he expressed critical social ideas within the picaresque genre. Between 1810-1825 The War of Independence broke out in Latin America. During this era, poetry achieved the greatest public resonance. A notable example of the use of the classicist tradition is the heroic ode “Song of Bolivar, or Victory at Junin” by the Ecuadorian H.H. Olmedo. A. Bello became the spiritual and literary leader of the independence movement, who strove in his poetry to reflect Latin American issues in the traditions of neoclassicism. The third of the most significant poets of that period was H.M. Heredia (1803-1839), whose poetry became a transitional stage from neoclassicism to romanticism. In Brazilian poetry of the 18th century. the philosophy of enlightenment was combined with stylistic innovations. Its largest representatives were T.A. Gonzaga, M.I. da Silva Alvarenga and I.J. yes Alvarenga Peixoto.
In the first half of the 19th century. Latin American literature was dominated by the influence of European romanticism. The cult of individual freedom, the rejection of Spanish tradition and a renewed interest in American themes were closely associated with the growing self-awareness of developing nations. The conflict between European civilizational values and the reality of the American countries that have recently thrown off the colonial yoke is entrenched in the opposition “barbarism - civilization”. This conflict was most acutely and deeply reflected in Argentine historical prose in the famous book by D.F. Sarmiento, Civilization and Barbarism. The Life of Juan Facundo Quiroga" (1845), in the novel "Amalia" by J. Marmol (1851-1855) and in the story "The Massacre" by E. Echeverria (c. 1839). In the 19th century In Latin American culture, many romantic works were created. The best examples of this genre are “Maria” (1867) by the Colombian H. Isaacs, the novel by the Cuban S. Villaverde “Cecilia Valdez” (1839), dedicated to the problem of slavery, and the novel by the Ecuadorian J. L. Mera “Cumanda, or Drama among the Savages” ( 1879), reflecting the interest of Latin American writers in Indian themes. In connection with the romantic fascination with local color, an original movement arose in Argentina and Uruguay - gauchi literature (from gáucho). The gaucho is a natural man ("man-beast") who lives in harmony with the wild. Against this background is the problem of “barbarism - civilization” and the search for the ideal of harmony between man and nature. An unsurpassed example of Gauchist poetry was the lyric-epic poem by the Argentinean J. Hernandez “Gaucho Martin Fierro” (1872). The theme of the gaucho found its full expression in one of the most famous works of Argentine prose - the novel Don Segundo Sombra by Ricardo Guiraldez (1926), which presents the image of a noble gaucho teacher.
In addition to Gauchista literature, Argentine literature also contains works written in the special genre of tango. In them, the action is transferred from the pampa and selva to the city and its suburbs and as a result a new marginal hero appears, the heir of the gaucho - a resident of the outskirts and suburbs of a big city, a bandit, a cumanec compadrito with a knife and a guitar in his hands. Peculiarities: the mood of anguish, changes in emotions, the hero is always “out” and “against”. One of the first to turn to the poetics of tango was the Argentine poet Evarcito Carriego. The influence of tango on Argentine literature of the first half of the twentieth century. significantly, representatives of various movements experienced his influence, the poetics of tango manifested itself especially clearly in the work of the early Borges. Borges himself calls his early work “the mythology of the suburbs.” In Borges, the previously marginal hero of the suburbs turns into a national hero, he loses his tangibility and turns into an archetypal image-symbol.
The founder and largest representative of realism in Latin American literature was the Chilean A. Blest Gana (1830-1920), and naturalism found its best embodiment in the novels of the Argentinean E. Cambaceres “Whistling the Rogue” (1881-1884) and “Without a Purpose” (1885).
The largest figure in Latin American literature of the 19th century. became the Cuban H. Marti (1853-1895), an outstanding poet, thinker, and politician. He spent most of his life in exile and died while participating in the Cuban War of Independence. In his works, he affirmed the concept of art as a social act and denied any forms of aesthetics and elitism. Martí published three collections of poetry—Free Poems (1891), Ismaelillo (1882), and Simple Poems (1882). His poetry is characterized by intensity of lyrical feeling and depth of thought with external simplicity and clarity of form.
In the last years of the 19th century. Modernism made itself known in Latin America. Formed under the influence of the French Parnassians and Symbolists, Spanish-American modernism gravitated towards exotic imagery and proclaimed the cult of beauty. The beginning of this movement is associated with the publication of the collection of poems "Azure" (1888) by the Nicaraguan poet Ruben Dari"o (1867-1916). Among his many followers, the Argentinean Leopold Lugones (1874-1938), author of the symbolist collection "Golden Mountains" (1897) stands out ), Colombian J. A. Silva, Bolivian R. Jaimes Freire, who created the landmark book “Barbarian Castalia” (1897) for the entire movement, Uruguayans Delmira Agustini and J. Herrera y Reissig, Mexicans M. Gutierrez Najera, A. Nervo and S. Diaz Miron, the Peruvians M. Gonzalez Prada and J. Santos Chocano, the Cuban J. del Casal. The best example of modernist prose was the novel “The Glory of Don Ramiro” (1908) by the Argentinean E. Laretta. In Brazilian literature, the new modernist self-awareness found its highest expression in the poetry of A. Gonçalves Di'as (1823-1864).
At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. The genre of the story, short novel, and short story (household, detective) has become widespread, but has not yet reached a high level. In the 20s XX century the so-called the first novel system. The novel was represented mainly by the genres of social-everyday and socio-political novels; these novels still lacked complex psychological analysis and generalization, and as a result, the novel prose of that time did not produce significant names. The largest representative of the realistic novel of the second half of the 19th century. became J. Machshado de Assis. The deep influence of the Parnassian school in Brazil was reflected in the work of the poets A. de Oliveira and R. Correia, and the influence of French symbolism marked the poetry of J. da Cruz i Sousa. At the same time, the Brazilian version of modernism is radically different from the Spanish American one. Brazilian modernism arose in the early 1920s at the intersection of national sociocultural concepts with avant-garde theories. The founders and spiritual leaders of this movement were M. di Andradi (1893-1945) and O. di Andradi (1890-1954).
The deep spiritual crisis of European culture at the turn of the century forced many European artists to turn to the countries of the “third world” in search of new values. For their part, Latin American writers who lived in Europe absorbed and widely disseminated these trends, which largely determined the nature of their work after returning to their homeland and the development of new literary trends in Latin America.
Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral (1889-1957) was the first Latin American writer to receive the Nobel Prize (1945). However, against the background of Latin American poetry of the first half of the 20th century. her lyrics, simple thematically and in form, are perceived rather as an exception. Since 1909, when Leopold Lugones published the collection “Sentimental Lunarium”, the development of L.-A. poetry took a completely different path.
In accordance with the fundamental principle of avant-gardeism, art was considered as a creation of a new reality and was opposed to an imitative (here - mimesis) reflection of reality. This idea formed the core of creationism, a movement created by the Chilean poet Vincente Huidobro (1893-1948) after his return from Paris. Vincent Huydobro was actively involved in the Dada movement. He is called the forerunner of Chilean surrealism, while researchers note that he did not accept the two foundations of the movement - automatism and the cult of dreams. This direction is based on the idea that the artist creates a world different from the real one. The most famous Chilean poet was Pablo Neruda (1904, Parral -1973, Santiago. Real name - Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basualto), Nobel Prize laureate in 1971. Sometimes they try to interpret the poetic legacy (43 collections) of Pablo Neruda as surreal, but this is a controversial issue. On the one hand, there is a connection with the surrealism of Neruda’s poetry, on the other hand, he stands outside of literary groups. In addition to his association with surrealism, Pablo Neruda is known as an extremely politically engaged poet.
In the mid-1930s. declared himself the greatest Mexican poet of the 20th century. Octavio Paz (b. 1914), Nobel Prize laureate (1990). His philosophical lyrics, built on free associations, synthesize the poetics of T. S. Eliot and surrealism, Indian mythology and Eastern religions.
In Argentina, avant-garde theories were embodied in the ultraist movement, which saw poetry as a collection of catchy metaphors. One of the founders and largest representative of this movement was Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986). In the Antilles, the Puerto Rican L. Pales Matos (1899-1959) and the Cuban N. Guillen (1902-1989) stood at the head of Negrism, a continent-wide literary movement designed to identify and approve the African-American layer of Latin American culture. The Negrist movement was reflected in the work of the early Alejo Carpentier (1904, Havana - 1980, Paris). Carpentier was born in Cuba (his father is French). His first novel, Ekue-Yamba-O! was begun in Cuba in 1927, written in Paris and published in Madrid in 1933. While working on the novel, Carpentier lived in Paris and was directly involved in the activities of the surrealist group. In 1930, Carpentier, among others, signed Breton’s pamphlet “The Corpse.” Against the backdrop of the surrealist fascination with the “wonderful,” Carpentier explores the African worldview as the embodiment of an intuitive, childish, naive perception of life. Soon Carpenier was ranked among the “dissidents” among the surrealists. In 1936, he facilitated the departure of Antonin Artaud to Mexico (he stayed there for about a year), and shortly before World War II he himself returned to Cuba, to Havana. Under the rule of Fidel Castro, Carpentier enjoyed a distinguished career as a diplomat, poet and novelist. His most famous novels are The Age of Enlightenment (1962) and The Vicissitudes of Method (1975).
The work of one of the most original Latin American poets of the 20th century was formed on an avant-garde basis. - Peruvian Cesar Vallejo (1892-1938). From his first books - "Black Heralds" (1918) and "Trilse" (1922) - to the collection "Human Poems" (1938), published posthumously, his lyrics, marked by purity of form and depth of content, expressed a painful sense of man's loss in the modern world , a mournful feeling of loneliness, finding solace only in brotherly love, focus on the themes of time and death.
With the spread of avant-gardeism in the 1920s. Latin American dramaturgy was guided by the main European theatrical trends. The Argentinean R. Arlt and the Mexican R. Usigli wrote a number of plays in which the influence of European playwrights, in particular L. Pirandelo and J.B. Shaw, was clearly visible. Later in L.-A. The influence of B. Brecht prevailed in the theater. From modern l.-a. Among the most prominent playwrights are E. Carballido from Mexico, the Argentinean Griselda Gambaro, the Chilean E. Wolff, the Colombian E. Buenaventura and the Cuban J. Triana.
The regional novel, which developed in the first third of the 20th century, was focused on depicting local specifics - nature, gauchos, latifundists, provincial politics, etc.; or he recreated events in national history (for example, the events of the Mexican Revolution). The largest representatives of this trend were the Uruguayan O. Quiroga and the Colombian H. E. Rivera, who described the cruel world of the selva; Argentinean R. Guiraldes, continuer of the traditions of Gauchista literature; the founder of the Mexican novel of the revolution, M. Azuela, and the famous Venezuelan prose writer Romulo Gallegos (was president of Venezuela in 1947-1948). Rómulo Gallegos is known for his novels Dona Barbara and Cantaclaro (according to Márquez, Gallegos's best book).
Along with regionalism in prose of the first half of the 19th century. Indianism developed - a literary movement designed to reflect the current state of Indian cultures and the peculiarities of their interaction with the world of white people. The most representative figures of Spanish-American indigenism were the Ecuadorian J. Icaza, author of the famous novel “Huasipungo” (1934), the Peruvians S. Alegria, creator of the novel “In a Big and Alien World” (1941), and J.M. Arguedas, who reflected the mentality of modern Quechuas in the novel “Deep Rivers” (1958), the Mexican Rosario Castellanos and the Nobel Prize winner (1967) Guatemalan prose writer and poet Miguel Angel Asturias (1899-1974). Miguel Angel Asturias is known primarily as the author of the novel “Señor President.” Opinions about this novel are divided. For example, Marquez believes that this is one of the worst novels created in Latin America. In addition to large novels, Asturias also wrote smaller works, for example, “Legends of Guatemala” and many others, which made him worthy of the Nobel Prize.
The “new Latin American novel” began in the late 1930s. twentieth century, when Jorge Luis Borges in his work achieves a synthesis of Latin American and European traditions and comes to his own original style. The foundation for uniting various traditions in his work is universal human values. Gradually, Latin American literature acquires the features of world literature and becomes less regional; its focus is on universal, human values, and as a result, novels become more and more philosophical.
After 1945, a trend progressed associated with the intensification of the national liberation struggle in Latin America, as a result of which the countries of Latin America gained true independence. Economic success of Mexico and Argentina. Cuban People's Revolution of 1959 (leader - Fidel Castro). It was then that a new Latin American literature emerged. For the 60s accounted for so-called the “boom” of Latin American literature in Europe as a logical consequence of the Cuban Revolution. Before this event, people in Europe knew little or nothing about Latin America and perceived these countries as distant, backward countries of the “third world.” As a result, publishing houses in Europe and Latin America itself refused to publish Latin American novels. For example, Márquez, having written his first story, Fallen Leaves, around 1953, was forced to wait about four years for it to be published. After the Cuban revolution, Europeans and North Americans discovered not only previously unknown Cuba, but also, in the wake of interest in Cuba, all of Latin America and with it its literature. Latin American fiction existed long before the boom in it. Juan Rulfo published Pedro Páramo in 1955; Carlos Fuentes presented "The Edge of Cloudless Clarity" at the same time; Alejo Carpentier published his first books long before that. In the wake of the Latin American boom through Paris and New York, thanks to positive reviews from European and North American critics, Latin American readers discovered that they had their own, original, valuable literature.
In the second half of the twentieth century. the local novel system is replaced by the concept of an integral system. Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez coins the term “total” or “integrative novel.” Such a novel should include a variety of issues and represent the syncretism of the genre: a fusion of elements of a philosophical, psychological, and fantasy novel. Closer to the beginning of the 40s. In the twentieth century, the very concept of new prose was theoretically formalized. Latin America is trying to recognize itself as a kind of individuality. New literature includes not only magical realism, other genres are developing: social-everyday, socio-political novel, and non-realistic directions (Argentines Borges, Cortazar), but still the leading method is magical realism. “Magical realism” in Latin American literature is associated with a synthesis of realism and folklore and mythological ideas, and realism is perceived as fantasy, and fabulous, wonderful, fantastic phenomena as reality, even more material than reality itself. Alejo Carpentier: “The multiple and contradictory reality of Latin America itself generates the “wonderful” and you just need to be able to reflect it in the artistic word.”
Since the 1940s. Europeans Kafka, Joyce, A. Gide and Faulkner began to have a significant influence on Latin American writers. However, in Latin American literature, formal experimentation has tended to be combined with social issues and sometimes with overt political engagement. If regionalists and Indianists preferred to depict a rural environment, then in the novels of the new wave an urban, cosmopolitan background predominates. The Argentinean R. Arlt showed in his works the inner failure, depression and alienation of the city dweller. The same gloomy atmosphere reigns in the prose of his compatriots - E. Maglie (b. 1903) and E. Sabato (b. 1911), author of the novel “On Heroes and Graves” (1961). A bleak picture of city life is painted by the Uruguayan J. C. Onetti in the novels “The Well” (1939), “A Brief Life” (1950), “The Skeleton Junta” (1965). Borges, one of the most famous writers of our time, plunged into a self-sufficient metaphysical world created by the play of logic, the interweaving of analogies, and the confrontation between the ideas of order and chaos. In the second half of the 20th century. l.-a. literature presented an incredible wealth and variety of artistic prose. In his stories and novels, the Argentine J. Cortazar explored the boundaries of reality and fantasy. Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa (b. 1936) revealed the internal connection of L.-A. corruption and violence with a “machisto” complex (macho). The Mexican Juan Rulfo, one of the greatest writers of this generation, in the collection of stories “Plain on Fire” (1953) and the novel (story) “Pedro Paramo” (1955), revealed a deep mythological substrate that determines modern reality. Juan Rulfo's novel "Pedro Páramo" Márquez calls, if not the best, not the most extensive, not the most significant, then the most beautiful of all the novels that have ever been written in Spanish. Marquez says about himself that if he had written “Pedro Paramo,” he would not have cared about anything and would not have written anything else for the rest of his life.
The world-famous Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes (b. 1929) dedicated his works to the study of national character. In Cuba, J. Lezama Lima recreated the process of artistic creation in the novel Paradise (1966), while Alejo Carpentier, one of the founders of “magical realism,” combined French rationalism with tropical sensuality in the novel The Age of Enlightenment (1962). But the most “magical” of l.-a. writers is rightfully considered the author of the famous novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967), the Colombian Gabriel García Márquez (b. 1928), Nobel Prize winner in 1982. Such literary works have also become widely known. novels like “The Betrayal of Rita Hayworth” (1968) by the Argentinean M. Puig, “Three Sad Tigers” (1967) by the Cuban G. Cabrera Infante, “The Indecent Bird of the Night” (1970) by the Chilean J. Donoso and others.
The most interesting work of Brazilian literature in the genre of documentary prose is the book “Sertans” (1902), written by journalist E. da Cunha. Contemporary Brazilian fiction is represented by Jorge Amado (b. 1912), the creator of many regional novels marked by a sense of involvement in social problems; E. Verisimu, who reflected city life in the novels “Crossroads” (1935) and “Only Silence Remains” (1943); and the greatest Brazilian writer of the 20th century. J. Rosa, who in his famous novel “Paths of the Great Sertan” (1956) developed a special artistic language to convey the psychology of the inhabitants of the vast Brazilian semi-deserts. Other Brazilian novelists include Raquel de Queiroz (The Three Marys, 1939), Clarice Lispector (The Hour of the Star, 1977), M. Souza (Galves, Emperor of the Amazon, 1977) and Nelida Piñon (Heat things", 1980).
Literature:
Kuteyshchikova V.N., Roman of Latin America in the 20th century, M., 1964;
Formation of national literatures of Latin America, M., 1970;
Mamontov S.P., Diversity and unity of cultures, "Latin America", 1972, No. 3;
Torres-Rioseco A., Great Latin American Literature, M., 1972.
BBK 83.3(2 ros=rus)
Anastasia Mikhailovna Krasilnikova,
postgraduate student, St. Petersburg State University of Technology and Design (St. Petersburg, Russia), e-mail: [email protected]
Latin American literature in Russian book publishing
Latin American literature is popular all over the world, the history of its publication in Russia goes back 80 years, during which time a large amount of editorial experience has been accumulated, which needs to be analyzed. The work examines the reasons for the appearance of the first editions of Latin American literature in the USSR, changes in the choice of authors, circulation, preparation of the publishing apparatus in Soviet times and perestroika, as well as the state of publishing Latin American literature in modern Russia. The results of the work can be used in the preparation of new publications by Latin American authors, and can also become the basis for studying reader interest in Latin American literature in Russia. The paper concludes that readers have a strong interest in Latin American literature and suggests several ways in which its publication can develop.
Key words: Latin American literature, book publishing, publishing history, editing.
Anastasia Mikhailovna Krasilnikova,
Postgraduate Student, St. Petersburg State University of Technology and Design (St. Petersburg, Russia), e-mail: [email protected]
Latin American Literature in Russian Book Publishing
Latin American literature is popular all other the world, history of its publishing in Russia numbers 80 years, during this time the great experience of editing was accumulated, which is needed to be analyzed. The paper deals with the reasons for the appearance of the first publications of Latin American literature in the Soviet Union, changes in the selection of authors, number of printed copies and editing the secondary matter of publications in the Soviet period, as well as the state of publishing Latin American literature in modern Russia. The results of the research could be used in preparing new publications of Latin American authors as well as become a basis for research of the reader's interest in Latin American literature in Russia. The paper concludes that reader's interest in Latin American literature is strong and proposes several ways in which publishing of Latin American literature can develop.
Keywords: Latin American literature, book publishing, history of publishing, editing.
Latin American literature made itself known to the whole world in the middle of the 20th century. The reasons for the popularity of the “new” Latin American novel are many; In addition to cultural reasons, there were also economic reasons. Only in the 30s. last century, an extensive system of book publishing and, most importantly, book distribution began to emerge in Latin America. Until this moment, if something interesting could have appeared, no one would have known about it: the books were not published, let alone beyond the continent, beyond the borders of a single country.
However, over time, literary magazines and publishing houses began to appear. Thanks to the largest Argentine publishing house, Sudamericana, many authors have gained fame: for example, from this publishing house
The world fame of García Márquez began. One of the channels through which Latin American literature penetrated into Europe was, of course, Spain: “It is appropriate to emphasize here that at this time, despite the activities of the Sudamericana publishing house, it was Spain, or more precisely, Barcelona, that followed all the processes taking place in literature , and served as a showcase for boom authors, most of whom were published by the Seik-Barral publishing house, which occupied a leading position in this sense. Some of the writers lived in this city for a long time: García Márquez, Vargas Llosa, Donoso, Edwards, Bruce Echenique, Benedetti and, finally, Onetti." The role of the Pre-mio Bibliotheca Brive award, established by this Barcelona publishing house, is also important: since in Spain
© A. M. Krasilnikova, 2012
No significant authors appeared at the institute; they tried to choose winners from Spanish-speaking countries (the winners of this prestigious prize were Vargas Llosa, Cabrera Infante, Haroldo Conti, Carlos Fuentos). Many Latin American writers have traveled widely, some of them lived in Europe for quite a long time. So Julio Cortazar lived for 30 years in Paris, and the French publishing house Gallimard also contributed to the spread of Latin American literature.
If with Europe everything is more or less clear: once translated, a book became famous and was translated into other European languages, then with the penetration of Latin American literature into the USSR the situation is much more complicated. European recognition of this or that author was not authoritative for the Soviet Union; rather, on the contrary, approval by ideological enemies could hardly have a positive impact on the publishing fate of the writer in the USSR
However, this does not mean that Latinos were banned. The very first book edition appeared back in 1932 - it was Cesar Vallejo’s novel “Tungsten” - a work in the spirit of socialist realism. The October Revolution attracted the attention of Latin American writers to the Soviet Union: “In Latin America, left-wing communist movements formed independently, practically without emissaries of the USSR, and left-wing ideology took a particularly strong position among the creative intelligentsia.” Cesar Vallejo visited the USSR three times - in 1928, 1929 and 1931, and shared his impressions in Parisian newspapers: “Driven by passion, enthusiasm and sincerity, the poet defends the achievements of socialism with propaganda pressure and dogmatism, as if borrowed from the pages of the newspaper Pravda ".
Another supporter of the Soviet Union was Pablo Neruda, about whom translator Ella Braginskaya said: “Neruda is one of those great dramatic figures of the 20th century.<...>, who became ideological friends of the USSR and in some incomprehensible, fatal way were happy to be deceived, like many of their peers in our country, and saw with us what they dreamed of seeing.” Neruda's books were actively published in the USSR from 1939 to 1989.
sideways, as a rule, they could not be identified with exemplary works of socialist realism, however, the political views of their authors made it possible for translators and editors to publish such works. The memoirs of L. Ospovat, who wrote the first book in Russian about Neruda’s work, are very indicative in this regard: “When asked whether he could be called a socialist realist, the Chilean poet grinned and said understandingly: “If you really need it, then you can.”
If in the 30s and 40s only a few publications appeared, then in the 50s more than 10 books by Latin American writers were published, and then this number increased.
Most of the publications that were prepared in Soviet times are distinguished by high-quality preparation. In relation to Latin American literature, this is important in two aspects. Firstly, Latin American realities, unknown and therefore incomprehensible to the Soviet reader, require commentary. And secondly, Latin American culture as a whole is characterized by the concept of “transculturation”, proposed by the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, “... which does not mean the assimilation of one culture by another or the introduction of foreign elements of another into one of them, but the emergence as a result of cultural interaction of a new culture". In practice, this means that any Latin American author turns in his work to the world cultural heritage: the work of European writers and philosophers, the world epic, religious dogmas, reinterprets it and creates his own world. These references to a variety of works require intertextual commentary.
If intertextual commentary is important in scientific publications, then real commentary is an urgent need for any mass publication. These do not necessarily have to be notes; an introductory article can also prepare readers for getting to know the work.
Soviet publications can be accused of being too ideological, but they were produced very professionally. Famous translators and literary scholars participated in the preparation of the books, who were passionate about what they did, so most of the translations made in Soviet times, although imperfect, are in many ways superior to later ones. The same applies to
comments. Such famous translators as E. Braginskaya, M. Bylinka, B. Dubin, V. Stolbov, I. Terteryan, V. Kuteyshchikova, L. Sinyanskaya and others worked on the publications of Latin American authors.
The works of more than thirty Latin American writers have been translated into Russian and published in separate editions. Most of the authors are represented by two or three books, for example, Augusto Roa Bastos, the author of the famous anti-dictatorship novel “I, Supreme,” published only two books in the Soviet Union: “Son of Man” (M., 1967) and “ I, the Supreme" (M., 1980). However, there are authors who continue to be published today, for example, Jorge Amado's first book was published in 1951, and the last in 2011. His works have been published for sixty years without any significant interruptions. But there are few such authors: Miguel Angel Asturias was published in the USSR and Russia in 1958-2003, Mario Vargas Llosa in 1965-2011, Alejo Carpentier in 1968-2000, Gabriel García Márquez in 1971-2012, Julio Cortazar in 1971-2011, Carlos Fuentes in 1974-2011, Jorge Luis Borges in 1984-2011, Bioy Casares in 1987-2010.
The principles for selecting authors often remain unclear. First of all, of course, the writers of the “boom” were published, but not all of their works, and even not all of their authors, have yet been translated. Thus, the book by Lewis Harss “On the crest of a wave” (Luis Harss Into the mainstream; conversations with Latin-American writers), which is considered to be the first work that shaped the very concept of the “boom” of Latin American literature, includes ten authors. Nine of them have been translated into Russian and published, but the works of João Guimarães Rosa remain untranslated into Russian.
The “boom” itself took place in the 60s, but publications by Latin American writers in the USSR, as already mentioned, began to appear much earlier. The “new” novel was preceded by a long development. Already in the first half of the 20th century. Such venerable writers as Jorge Luis Borges and Jorge Amado worked, anticipating the “boom.” More writers, of course, are published in the 20th century, but not only. Thus, in 1964, poems by the Brazilian poet of the 18th century were translated and published into Russian. Thomas Antonio Gonzaga.
ny prizes awarded to him. Latin American writers include six Nobel Prize winners: Gabriela Mistral (1945), Miguel Angel Asturias Rosales (1967), Pablo Neruda (1971), Gabriel García Márquez (1982), Octavio Paz (1990), Mario Vargas Llosa (2010). All of them have been translated into Russian. However, the work of Gabriela Mistral is represented by only two books; Octavio Paz published four of them. This can be explained, first of all, by the fact that Spanish-language poetry is generally less popular in Russia than prose.
In the 80s, hitherto banned authors who did not share communist views began to appear. In 1984, the first edition by Jorge Luis Borges appeared.
If until the 90s the number of publications by Latin American writers grew steadily (more than 50 books were published in the 80s), then in the 90s there was a noticeable decline in everything: the number of publications sharply decreased, circulation fell, and the printing performance of books deteriorated. In the first half of the 90s, the usual for the USSR circulations of 50, 100 thousand were still possible, but in the second half the circulations were five, ten thousand and remain so to this day.
In the 90s There is a sharp reassessment of values: there are only a few authors left who continue to be published very actively. Collected works of Marquez, Cortazar, and Borges appear. The first collected works of Borges, published in 1994 (Riga: Polaris), are distinguished by a fairly high level of preparation: it included all the works translated at that time, accompanied by a detailed commentary.
During the period from 1991 to 1998, only 19 books were published, and the same number were published in 1999 alone. 1999 was a harbinger of the 2000s, when there was an unprecedented increase in the number of publications: in the period from 2000 to 2009. Over two hundred books by Latin American authors have been published. However, the total circulation was incomparably less than in the 80s, since the average circulation in the 2000s was five thousand copies.
Marquez and Cortazar are the constant favorites. The work that has been published in Russia more than any other work by a Latin American author is undoubtedly “One Hundred Years of Solitude.” Borges and Vargas Llosa continue to publish quite actively. Popularity by
The latter was facilitated by receiving the Nobel Prize in 2010: in 2011, 5 of his books were immediately published.
Publications of the early 21st century. distinguished by a minimum of preparation: as a rule, there are no introductory articles or comments in books - publishers prefer to publish a “bare” text, devoid of any accompanying apparatus. This is due to the desire to reduce the cost of the publication and reduce the time of its preparation. Another innovation is the publication of the same books in different designs - in different series. As a result, an illusion of choice appears: on the shelf in a bookstore there are several editions of “The Hopscotch Game,” but in reality it turns out that they are the same translation, the same text without an introductory article and without comments. It can be said that large publishing houses (AST, Eksmo) use names and titles known to readers as brands and do not care about wider familiarity of readers with the literature of Latin America.
Another topic that needs to be addressed is the lag of several years in the publication of works. Initially, many writers began to be published in the USSR when they had already become world famous. So “One Hundred Years of Solitude” was published in Argentina in 1967, in the USSR in 1971, and this was Marquez’s first book in Russia. Such a lag is typical for all Latin American publications, but for the USSR this was normal and was explained by the complex organization of book publishing. However, much later, even when the writers were well known in Russia and created new works, the delay in publication remained: Cortazar’s last novel, “Farewell, Robinson,” was written in 1995, but it was published in Russia only in 2001.
At the same time, Marquez’s last novel, “Remembering My Sad Whores,” published in Spanish in 2004, was published in Russia a year later - in 2005. The same thing happened with Vargas Llosa’s novel “Adventures of a Bad Girl,” completed in 2006 . and published in Russia already in 2007. However, the novel by the same author “Paradise on the Other Corner”, written in 2003, was never translated. The interest of publishers in works imbued with eroticism is explained by an attempt to add scandal to the work of writers and to attract the attention of unprepared readers. Often this approach leads to a simplification of problems and incorrect presentation of works.
The fact that interest in Latin American literature continues even without artificial heating on the part of publishers is evidenced by the appearance of books by authors who were not published in the USSR. This is, for example, a writer of the early 20th century. Leopoldo Lugones; two authors who anticipated the emergence of the “new” Latin American novel - Juan José Arreola and Juan Rulfo; poet Octavio Paz and prose writer Ernesto Sabato - authors of the mid-20th century. These books were published both in publishing houses that periodically published Latin American literature (“Amphora”, “ABC”, “Symposium”, “Terra-Book Club”), and in those that had never previously been interested in Latin American writers (“Swallowtail” , “Don Quixote”, “Ivan Limbach Publishing House”).
Today, Latin American literature is represented in Russia by the works of prose writers (Mario Vargas Llosa, Ernesto Sabato, Juan Rulfo), poets (Gabriela Mistral, Octavio Paz, Leopoldo Lugones), playwrights (Emilio Carballido, Julio Cortazar). The vast majority are Spanish-language authors. The only actively published Portuguese-language author is Jorge Amado.
The first publications of Latin American authors in the USSR were caused by ideological reasons - the writers’ loyalty to the communist government, but thanks to this, Soviet readers discovered the world of Latin American literature and fell in love with it, which is confirmed by the fact that Latin Americans continue to be actively published in modern Russia.
During the Soviet years, the best translations and commentaries of Latin American works were created; with perestroika, much less attention was paid to the preparation of publications. Publishing houses were faced with a new problem for them in making money, and therefore the approach to book publishing completely changed, including changes in the publishing of Latin American literature: preference began to be given to mass publications with a minimum of preparation.
Today, print publications compete with the increasingly popular e-books. The text of almost any published work can be downloaded for free from the Internet, so it is unlikely that publishers will be able to exist without changing their strategy in preparing books. One of the ways is to improve printing performance and release expensive exclusive publications. So,
for example, the Vita Nova publishing house released in 2011 a luxurious leather-bound gift edition of “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Marquez. Another way is to release high-quality publications with detailed, conveniently structured
Let's move on to another equally talented literature - Latin American. Edition The Telegraph has created a selection of the 10 best novels by writers from Latin America and works set there. The selection is truly worth summer reading. Which authors have you already read?
Graham Greene "Power and Glory" (1940)
This time, a novel by British writer Graham Greene about a Catholic priest in Mexico in the 1920s and 30s. At the same time, brutal persecution of the Catholic Church by the military organization “Red Shirts” took place in the country. The main character, contrary to the orders of the authorities, under pain of execution without trial or investigation, continues to visit remote villages (his wife and his child live in one of them), serve masses, baptize, confess and give communion to his parishioners. In 1947, the novel was filmed by John Ford.
Ernesto Che Guevara "The Motorcycle Diaries" (1993)
The story is about how a young Che Guevara, a 23-year-old medical student, sets off from Argentina on a motorcycle trip. He returns as a man with a mission. According to his daughter, he returned from there even more sensitive to the problems of Latin America. The journey lasted nine months. During this time he covered eight thousand kilometers. In addition to motorcycles, he traveled by horse, boat, ferry, bus, and hitchhiking. The book is a story of a journey of self-discovery.
Octavio Paz "Labyrinth of Loneliness" (1950)
“Loneliness is the deepest meaning of human existence,”- wrote the Mexican poet Octavio Paz in this famous collection of poems. “A person is always longing and searching for belonging. Therefore, every time we feel like a person, we feel the absence of another, we feel lonely.” And many more beautiful and deep things about loneliness were comprehended by Paz and turned into poetry.
Isabel Allende "House of Spirits" (1982)
Isabel Allende's idea for this novel began when she received news that her 100-year-old grandfather was dying. She decided to write him a letter. This letter became the manuscript of his debut novel "House of Spirits" In it, the novelist created the history of Chile using the example of a family saga through the stories of female heroines. "Five years", Allende says, I was already a feminist, but no one knew this word in Chile.” This novel is written in the best traditions of magical realism. Before becoming a bestseller in the world, it was rejected by several publishers.
Paulo Coelho "Alchemist" (1988)
A book that was included in the Guinness Book of Records for the number of translations by a modern author. The allegorical novel by the Brazilian writer tells the story of the journey of an Andalusian shepherd to Egypt. The main idea of the book is that if you really want something, it will happen.
Roberto Bolaño "Wild Detectives" (1998)
“Born in 1953, the year Stalin and Dylan Thomas died,” Bolaño wrote in his biography. This is the story of the search for a Mexican poet in the 1920s by two other poets - Arturo Bolaño (the prototype of the author) and the Mexican Ulises Lima. For it, the Chilean author received the Romulo Gallegos Prize.
Laura Esquivel "Like water for chocolate" (1989)
“We are all born with a box of matches inside, and since we cannot light them ourselves, we need, as happens during the experiment, oxygen and a candle flame,” writes Esquivel in this charming and realistic Mexican melodrama. The main feature of the work is that the emotions of the main character Tita fall into all the delicious dishes that she prepares.
