History of culture and art. A Brief History of Russian Culture

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

It is from this cultural and historical period that the history of human civilization begins, man is formed, society emerges, and such forms of human spirituality as religion, morality, and art are born.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

Main features of culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious ideas and the cult of the dead. Characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary memos: “Texts of the Pyramids”, “Book of the Dead”, “Texts of the Sarcophagi”, “Song of the Harper”.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers and artists from various European countries began to take episodes from ancient times as the subjects of their works. Greek mythology. Some works of outstanding artists are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities. Italian artists Renaissance -

Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. The outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto took the plot from the images of ancient Greek mythology for his wonderful statue of Perseus Cellini.

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

Greek culture entered the arena of history earlier than Roman culture and developed in the territory that occupied the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the coasts of Asia Minor, the Aegean and Ionian seas and the adjacent islands. Moreover, researchers note that civilization on Greek soil arose, as it were, twice with a fairly large time gap.

The Greeks actively adopted scientific and technical advances other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era itself ancient civilization:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period(V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture, the development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture of classical Greece

At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths reflected the struggle of the people against external enemies, for political equality and social justice.

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. Leading place occupy temples Doric order. The heroic character of classical art is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

Great sculptor Myron, who worked in Athens in the mid-5th century, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of fine art. This is his bronze “Discobolus”, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their totality made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.

For the Greek painter, realistic depiction of nature became a top priority. The famous artist Polygnotus (who worked between 470 and 440) was responsible for an innovation in this area that now seems to us perhaps naive, but which then revolutionized painting.

... "16. These theories are based on the idea that the artistic world created by one people is incomprehensible to another, that it is inaccessible due to psychological and historical barriers. The history of the development of the musical culture of Khakassia completely proves the inconsistency of these views. Without inventing the purely national genres of Khakass opera, Khakass ballet or symphony, but being enriched by known experience...

Approximately 10% of Russian scientific works are competitive in the global market of scientific products. 4. The artistic and spiritual life of the country in the 80-90s During the years of perestroika, fundamental changes took place in the relationship of artistic culture with the authorities and society. On the one hand, literature and art got rid of ideological dictates, on the other - artistic...

Redistribution of power between the federal center and the constituent entities of the Federation, socio-economic changes of the last decade. As a result of these processes, the role of regional (subjects of the Federation) and municipal budgets in supporting the activities of cultural and art institutions has increased. Over the past decade, the share of financial revenues from regional budgets for...

They would confirm not only the development of culture and art in antiquity and antiquity, but would also specifically indicate the development physical culture in the period from 15,000 BC. until the 6th century AD 1. Reflection of the development of physical culture in the art of the ancients in the period from 15,000 BC. until the 6th century AD 1.1 Archaeological finds confirming the development of physical culture until the 5th millennium BC...

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, and scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

The main features of the culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious beliefs and the cult of the dead. It is characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary memos: “Texts of the Pyramids”, “Book of the Dead”, “Texts of the Sarcophagi”, “Song of the Harper”.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers and artists from various European countries began to take episodes from ancient Greek mythology as the plots of their works. Some works of outstanding Italian artists of the Renaissance are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities -

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

The Greeks actively adopted the scientific and technical achievements of other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture and the development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture of classical Greece

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order. The heroic character of classical art is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

The great sculptor Myron, who worked in Athens in the mid-5th century, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of fine art. This is his bronze “Discobolus”, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their totality made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.

8. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome

Heir Hellenic civilization becomes Rome. Unlike Athens, Rome did not create a high culture during the period of its formation and prosperity as a city-country. Roman mythology was more primitive than Greek. Only under the influence of the Greeks did images of gods begin to be made and temples were built. The Greek gods were taken as an example.

9. Interaction of Byzantine and Old Russian culture

IN last years Historians, philosophers, philologists, and art historians are actively developing a wide range of topics on the problem of dialogue of cultures. Among them is the question of stylistic correlation ancient Russian art. The thesis that the Eastern Christian civilization that developed in Byzantium had great significance and a long period of influence on the formation and development of the cultures of the Slavic peoples is considered generally accepted today. The study of the perception and processing of this heritage - especially in the field of art - is necessary to understand many processes and phenomena that took place both in Byzantium itself and in the countries adjacent to it.

Research on Byzantine-Russian contacts in the artistic and aesthetic field has been carried out by domestic and foreign science for more than two centuries, during which a significant amount of information has been accumulated about Byzantine reminiscences in Russian medieval art. The range of opinions is quite wide. Until recently, there have been debates around the terminology to denote the cultural relations of Byzantium and Rus' (influence, transplantation, mimesis, dialogue, etc.), due to the polysemanticism of concepts typical of humanitarian knowledge. Scientists are determining the intensity of this process in specific chronological periods, the degree of Byzantine influence on ancient Russian architecture, painting, iconography, arts and crafts.

10. Fundamentals of the worldview of Byzantium and its role in the development of culture

Byzantine culture absorbed the ancient heritage and culture of the peoples who inhabited it. However, the influence of antiquity was emasculated by the church and despotism. In Byzantium there was folk culture: epics, fables, folk songs, pagan festivals. Difference Byzantine culture from the west - weak cultural influence barbarians.

The centers of Byzantine culture are Constantinople, provincial centers, monasteries, feudal estates. Through Byzantium, which existed until the 12th century. the most cultural state Europe, they have reached us Roman law, ancient literary sources lost in the West. Greek scientists and artists made a significant contribution to the world cultural process and its development. Byzantine craft technology, architecture, painting, literature, natural science, civil canon law contributed to the formation medieval culture other peoples.

11. Basic forms of Byzantine art

1. Architecture.

2. Temple painting (mosaic, fresco).

3. Iconography

4. Book miniature.

12. Historical conditions formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages

The condition for the formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages was Christianity in the form of capitalism. This was no longer the primitive Christianity characteristic of the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

13. Formation of artistic principles of medieval art

Religion refers to female beauty more than wary. In Christianity, physical beauty is traditionally recognized as illusory and deceptive, and inquisitors generally saw in a beautiful female face almost as sure a sign of witchcraft as flying on a broomstick.

Meanwhile, the attitude towards female beauty in itself in Judaism is perhaps even more strict than in Christianity. Listening to women's singing and admiring a woman's face is prohibited. And in the Talmud you can find many statements like the following: “Whoever passes money from hand to hand to a woman with the intention of looking at her will not escape hell, even if he is full of Torah and good deeds, like Mosherabeinu” (Iruvin 18).

But still, in continuation of the previously touched upon topic of “Day of Love,” I would like to talk today about an “unpopular” alternative approach. I would like to consider the question of whether there is a positive side to female beauty. religious meaning, and if so, what is it?

The cult of female beauty is essentially known only to one single culture - European. This cult, if not born, was at least formed under the skies of Provence in the work of the troubadours, who discovered the so-called “courtly love,” i.e. - selfless admiration for the Lady. This cult, of course, made sense only in the broader context of knightly service.

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, and scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

Literary memos: “Texts of the Pyramids”, “Book of the Dead”, “Texts of the Sarcophagi”, “Song of the Harper”.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

The Greeks actively adopted the scientific and technical achievements of other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture and the development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture of classical Greece

8. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome

Rome becomes the heir to Hellenic civilization. Unlike Athens, Rome did not create a high culture during the period of its formation and prosperity as a city-country. Roman mythology was more primitive than Greek. Only under the influence of the Greeks did images of gods begin to be made and temples were built. The Greek gods were taken as an example.

9. Interaction of Byzantine and Old Russian culture

In recent years, historians, philosophers, philologists, and art historians have been actively developing a wide range of topics on the problem of dialogue of cultures. Among them is the question of the stylistic correlation of ancient Russian art. The thesis that the Eastern Christian civilization that developed in Byzantium had great significance and a long period of influence on the formation and development of the cultures of the Slavic peoples is considered generally accepted today. The study of the perception and processing of this heritage - especially in the field of art - is necessary to understand many processes and phenomena that took place both in Byzantium itself and in the countries adjacent to it.

10. Fundamentals of the worldview of Byzantium and its role in the development of culture

Byzantine culture absorbed the ancient heritage and culture of the peoples who inhabited it. However, the influence of antiquity was emasculated by the church and despotism. In Byzantium there was a folk culture: epics, fables, folk songs, pagan festivals. The difference between Byzantine culture and Western culture is the weak cultural influence of the barbarians.

The centers of Byzantine culture are Constantinople, provincial centers, monasteries, feudal estates. Through Byzantium, which existed until the 12th century. the most cultural state in Europe, Roman law and ancient literary sources that were lost in the West have reached us. Greek scientists and artists made a significant contribution to the world cultural process and its development. Byzantine craft technology, architecture, painting, literature, natural science, and civil canon law contributed to the formation of the medieval culture of other peoples.

11. Basic forms of Byzantine art

1. Architecture.

2. Temple painting (mosaic, fresco).

3. Iconography

4. Book miniature.

12. Historical conditions for the formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages

13. Formation of artistic principles of medieval art

Religion is more than wary of female beauty. In Christianity, physical beauty is traditionally recognized as illusory and deceptive, and inquisitors generally saw in a beautiful female face almost as sure a sign of witchcraft as flying on a broomstick.

But still, in continuation of the previously touched upon topic of “Day of Love,” I would like to talk today about an “unpopular” alternative approach. I would like to consider the question of whether there is a positive religious meaning in female beauty, and if so, what is it.

The chivalric ideal is perhaps the most valuable spiritual find European culture. This is what the Europeans really succeeded in doing. As Maurois wittily noted: “A gentleman, a real gentleman, is the most attractive type in the evolution of mammals.” So, it is quite appropriate to consider the ideals of chivalry as ideals that are not just spiritual, but also religiously meaningful. But it is worth noting that they are inextricably linked with the worship of the Lady. Huizing writes in “Autumn of the Middle Ages”: “The connection of the knightly ideal with the high values of religious consciousness - compassion, justice, loyalty - is in no way something artificial and superficial. But it is not this connection that contributes to the transformation of chivalry primarily into some beautiful form, into a type of life. And even the rooting of chivalry in military courage could not have elevated it to such a degree if female love had not been that blazing heat that brings living warmth to this complex unity of feelings and ideas.”

So, the knightly ideal is characterized by an equally respectful attitude towards weapons and female beauty. The solution to this connection is quite simple: Strength and Beauty (i.e., inspiring Weakness) are separated in the chivalric ideal, just as legislative and executive powers are separated in democracies. They presuppose each other and exist at the expense of each other.

Strength only gains spiritual ground because it serves not itself, but another, obviously weak subject. But it is a woman who is ideally suited for the role of this subject. In chivalry, in any case, this is exactly what happened: in it, Strength became beautiful, and Beauty became strong.

15. Renaissance Realism

The Renaissance is characterized by interest in man, love of nature, beauty, thirst for knowledge, discoveries (magellan and Columbus's voyages around the world, discovery

America), the flourishing of natural sciences, art, literature, the formation and development of a new realist artistic method in art. Renaissance realism had many similarities with ancient realism. These are clear, calm forms, harmonious proportions, clear divisions of the whole into parts, organic relationships between the decorative and structural systems, and an impeccable sense of proportion.

However, the art of the Renaissance was formed on a new, more difficult stage development of human society and was the new art of its time, reflecting, first of all, faith in the human mind.

16. The art of the masters of the Italian Renaissance

With classical completeness, the Renaissance was realized in Italy, in Renaissance culture which distinguishes between periods of pre-Renaissance phenomena at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. (Proto-Renaissance), Early Renaissance (15th century), High Renaissance (end of the 15th - 1st quarter of the 16th centuries), Late Renaissance(16th century). During the Early Renaissance, the Florentine school, architects (F. Brunelleschi, L.B. Alberti, B. Rossellino, etc.), sculptors (L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, A. Rossellino) became the focus of innovation in all types of art , Desiderio da Settignano, etc.), painters (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, Andrea del Castagno, Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Sandro Botticelli, etc.) who created a plastically integral concept of the world with internal unity, which gradually spread throughout Italy (creativity Piero della Francesca in Urbino, Vittore Carpaccio, F. Cossa in Ferrara, A. Mantegna in Mantua, Antonello da Messina and the brothers Gentile and Giovanni Bellini in Venice). During the High Renaissance, when the struggle for humanistic Renaissance ideals acquired an intense and heroic character, architecture and fine art were marked by the breadth of social sound, synthetic generality and the power of images full of spiritual and physical activity. In the buildings of D. Bramante, Raphael, Antonio da Sangallo, perfect harmony, monumentality and clear proportionality reached their apogee; humanistic fullness, bold flight of artistic imagination, breadth of reality are characteristic of the work of the greatest masters of fine art of this era - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Titian.

18. French classical drama. Innovation by J.-B, Moliere

Classical drama is a drama that developed in European countries during the Baroque era and is based on the uniquely interpreted poetics of ancient tragedy. The first attempts at classical French tragedy appeared in the middle of the 16th century. The school of young playwrights and theorists, known as the Pleiades, planted national art on French soil in the forms of ancient tragedy and comedy. They define tragedy as a work in which there are “choruses, dreams, ghosts, gods, moral maxims, lengthy remarks, short answers, a rare historical or pathetic event, an unhappy ending, high style, poetry, a time not exceeding one day.”

Here we see such an atavism as a chorus, but in further development it quickly disappears, but two other unities are added to the unity of time. Early examples of classical French tragedy are provided by Jodelle, who, with his “Captive Cleopatra,” in Ronsard’s apt expression, “was the first to make Greek tragedy sound French,” Grevin, who opposed any reconciliation with the mystery repertoire, Garnier, Hardy de Viau, Franche-Comté , Meret, Montchretien et al.

Most prominent representatives classical tragedy in those forms that were described above are the playwrights Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) and Jean Racine (1639-1699). The early Corneille in his “Cide” (1636) does not yet observe unity and builds a tragedy according to a scenario reminiscent of mystery plays. It is characteristic that in its content this tragedy still retains elements of feudal (and not just absolutist-noble) ideology.

The play was a huge success, against which the French Academy armed itself, protesting against it at the instigation of the all-powerful Cardinal Richelieu. The Academy's attack on The Cid articulated very clearly the requirements for classical tragedy. “The Cid” was followed by other tragedies by Corneille: “Horace”, “Cinna”, “Polyeuctus”, “Pompey”, “Rodogune”, which, together with the works of Racine, for a long time strengthened the glory of French tragedy.

The significance of Moliere in the history of world drama is truly enormous.

Bringing together the best traditions of French in his creativity folk theater with advanced ideas of humanism, Moliere created the new kind dramas - " high comedy", a genre that for its time was a decisive step towards realism.

After the Catholic reaction destroyed great theater Italian and Spanish Renaissance, and the Puritan English revolution razed the theaters of London from the face of the earth and anathematized Shakespeare, Moliere again raised the banner of humanism and returned nationality and ideological spirit to the European theater.

He boldly outlined the path for the entire subsequent development of drama and not only brought together two great cultural eras- the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, but also anticipated many of the fundamental principles of critical realism. Moliere's strength lies in his direct appeal to his modernity, in the merciless exposure of its social deformities, in the deep revelation of dramatic conflicts the main contradictions of the time, in the creation of bright satirical types that embody major vices contemporary noble-bourgeois society.

19. Becoming classical music. Great composers of the 17th and 18th centuries

Monteverdi. D. Frescobaldi`. A. Corelli. A. Vivaldi. A. Scarlatti. D. B. Pergolesi. Dynasties of violin makers.

MUSIC OF ITALY

J.B. Lully. J.F. Rameau. F. Couperin.

MUSIC OF FRANCE

G.Purcell.

MUSIC OF ENGLAND

G. Schutz. D. Buxtehude. G. F. Handel. J.S.Bach.

MUSIC OF GERMANY

M.S.Berezovsky. D.S. Bortnyansky. E.I.Fomin.

MUSIC OF RUSSIA

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, polyphony, which dominated the music of the Renaissance, began to give way to homophony (from the Greek “homos” - “one”, “identical” and “phone” - “sound”, “voice”). Unlike polyphony, where all voices have equal rights, in homophonic polyphony there is one, performing main topic, and the rest play the role of accompaniment (accompaniment). The accompaniment is usually a system of chords (harmonies). Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic-harmonic.

Works appeared that were written on religious texts or subjects, but were not intended for mandatory performance in church. (Such works are called spiritual, since the word “spiritual” has a broader meaning than “ecclesiastical.”) The main spiritual genres of the 17th-18th centuries. - cantata and oratorio. The importance of secular music increased: it was heard at court, in the salons of aristocrats, and in public theaters (the first such theaters were opened in the 17th century). A new type of musical art has emerged - opera.

Instrumental music is also marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably the instrumental concerto. The violin, harpsichord, and organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them provided an opportunity to demonstrate the talent of not only the composer, but also the performer. What was valued above all was virtuosity (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and an artistic value for many musicians.

Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also played instruments masterfully and were engaged in teaching activities. The artist’s well-being largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to obtain a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses) or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music with service for a secular patron.

21. Artistic movements of the 18th century and their characteristic features

An artistic direction is a fundamental commonality of artistic phenomena over a long period of time.

Baroque is a movement in European architecture and art of the late 16th-18th centuries, which is characterized by:

Grandiosity, pomp and dynamics;

Pathetic elation;

Intensity of feelings;

Addiction to spectacular spectacles;

Combining the illusory and the real;

Strong contrasts of scale and rhythm, materials and textures, light and shadow.

They strived to express the idea of a harmonious structure of society based on the eternal “laws of reason”

22. “Enlightenment” absolutism in Russia. Cultural reforms of Peter 1 and Catherine 2

Domestic history - one of the main national shrines of any country - has turned into a subject of fierce disputes and conflicts in Russia, often associated with opposing assessments of past events, both long-standing and those of the last twenty years. When, in a tense atmosphere of mutual irritation of opponents (not to say - deep mutual alienation, even contempt and hatred) you resort to the terms of disease, diagnosis, syndrome, etiology, you risk receiving accusations of blasphemy, from all sides. Accounting for social stratification. Under Catherine II, the rights of the nobles regarding estates and peasants expanded, but thereby aggravated the enslavement and hardships of the peasantry. The single parameter of “freedom” is not able to capture this “subtlety”. Arithmetic addition of the values of indicators for different social strata can only obscure the picture (like the notorious “average hospital temperature of patients”).

23. Romanticism as an artistic movement

Romanticism, an ideological and artistic movement that arose in European and American culture at the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century, as a reaction to the aesthetics of classicism. It initially developed (1790s) in philosophy and poetry in Germany, and later (1820s) spread to England, France and other countries. He predetermined the latest development of art, even those directions that opposed it.

New criteria in art are freedom of expression, increased attention to the individual, unique traits of a person, naturalness, sincerity and relaxedness, which replaced the imitation of classical models of the 18th century. The Romantics rejected the rationalism and practicalism of the Enlightenment as mechanistic, impersonal and artificial. Instead, they prioritized emotional expression and inspiration. Feeling free from the decaying system of aristocratic rule, they sought to express their new views and the truth they had discovered. Their place in society has changed. They found their readership among the growing middle class, ready to emotionally support and even worship the artist - a genius and prophet. Restraint and humility were rejected. They were replaced by strong emotions, often reaching extremes. Some romantics turned to mysterious, enigmatic, even terrible, folk beliefs and fairy tales. Romanticism was partly associated with democratic, national and revolutionary movements, although the "classical" culture of the French Revolution actually slowed the arrival of Romanticism in France.

24. 19th century critical realism in fiction

Realism - (from Latin realis, material) - an artistic method in the art of literature. The history of realism in world literature is unusually rich. The very idea of it changed at different stages of artistic development, reflecting the persistent desire of artists for a truthful depiction of reality.

A new type of realism emerged in the 19th century. This critical realism. It differs significantly from the Renaissance and from the Enlightenment. Its flourishing in the West is associated with the names of Stendhal and Balzac in France, Dickens, Thackeray in England, and in Russia - A. Pushkin, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov.

Critical realism portrays in a new way the relationship between man and environment. Human character is revealed in organic connection with social circumstances. Subject of deep social analysis the inner world of man has become, critical realism therefore simultaneously becomes psychological. Romanticism, which sought to penetrate the secrets of the human “I,” played a large role in the preparation of this quality of realism.

25. Russian theater and drama of the 18th-19th centuries

Ballet penetrates into Russia and begins to spread even under Peter I in the beginning. XVIII century In 1738, at the request of the French dance master Jean-Baptiste Lande, the first school in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg ballet dance(now the A. Ya. Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet).

The national identity of Russian ballet began to take shape at the beginning of the 19th century thanks to the work of the French choreographer S.-L. Didlo. Didelot strengthens the role of the corps de ballet, the connection between dance and pantomime, and asserts the priority of women's dance.

A real revolution in ballet music was made by Tchaikovsky, who introduced into it continuous symphonic development, deep figurative content, and dramatic expressiveness. The music of his ballets “Swan Lake” (1877), “Sleeping Beauty” (1890), “The Nutcracker” (1892) acquired, along with symphonic music, the ability to reveal the internal flow of the action, to embody the characters of the characters in their interaction, development, and struggle. In choreography, Tchaikovsky's innovation was embodied by choreographers Marius Petipa and L. I. Ivanov, who laid the foundation for the symphonization of dance. The tradition of symphonizing ballet music was continued by Glazunov in the ballets “Raymonda” (1898), “The Young Lady Servant” (1900), and “The Seasons” (1900).

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by innovative searches, the desire to overcome stereotypes, conventions academic ballet XIX century. In his ballets, the choreographer of the Bolshoi Theater A. A. Gorsky sought to achieve consistency in the development of dramatic action, historical authenticity, tried to strengthen the role of the corps de ballet as a mass character, and to overcome the separation of pantomime and dance. M. M. Fokin made a major contribution to Russian ballet art by significantly expanding the range of ideas and images in ballet, enriching it with new forms and styles. His productions of the ballets “Chopiniana”, “Petrushka”, “Firebird” and others for the “Russian Seasons” brought fame to Russian ballet abroad. The miniature “The Dying Swan” (1907) created by Fokin for Anna Pavlova gained worldwide fame. In 1911-13, on the basis of the Russian Seasons, a permanent troupe, Diaghilev's Russian Ballets, was formed. After Fokine left the troupe, Vaslav Nijinsky became its choreographer. His most famous production was the ballet “The Rite of Spring” to the music of Stravinsky.

26. “Itinerants” and “The Mighty Handful”

The Peredvizhniki, artists who were part of the Russian artistic association- “Association of Mobile art exhibitions" The partnership was formed in 1870 in St. Petersburg on the initiative of I.N. Kramskoy, G.G. Myasoedova, N.N. Ge and V. G. Perov in contrast official center art - St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. I.N. Kramskoy became the ideological leader of the new association. The paintings characteristic of the Wanderers were distinguished by their great power of psychologism and social generalization, high skill in typification, and the ability to represent entire classes and estates through individual images and subjects. The leading genres in the art of the Wanderers are the initiators) I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, V.E. Makovsky, I.M. Pryanishnikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, V.M. Maksimov, K.A. Savitsky, A.M. and V.M. Vasnetsov, A.I. Kuindzhi, V.D. Polenov, N.A. Yaroshenko, I.I. Levitan, V.A. Serov and others. Participants in the Partnership’s exhibitions were M.M. Antokolsky, V.V. Vereshchagin, A.P. Ryabushkin and others. A major role in the development of the art of the Wanderers was played by the democratic critic V.V. Stasov; P.M. Tretyakov, purchasing works by the Peredvizhniki for his gallery, provided them with important material and moral support.

The Peredvizhniki made a great contribution to Russian history everyday genre and a portrait. At various times, the Itinerants included (in addition to art. But this contribution could have been much greater if their worldview had not been clouded by social bias, accusation and vulgar aesthetics, which spiritually impoverished talented Russian artists, washing away the national soil from under them By the end of the 19th century, the Peredvizhniki movement was fading away, and they themselves gradually became members of the very Academy of Arts that they had previously fought against.

“The Mighty Handful” (Balakirev circle, New Russian Music School) is a creative community of Russian composers that formed in the late 1850s and early 1860s.

The name of the circle was given by its ideologist - critic V.V. Stasov. The "Mighty Handful" included:

Balakirev, Miliy Alekseevich (leader) Borodin, Alexander Porfirievich Cui, Caesar Antonovich Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreevich.

By the mid-1870s, the Mighty Handful ceased to exist as a cohesive group. Activity " Mighty bunch"became an era in the development of Russian and world musical art.

27. The role of the intelligentsia in the formation of national identity

For many decades, both those in power and the masses of the people, each of them separately, or even together, treated with undisguised contempt both the intelligentsia as a whole and individual intellectuals. In essence, the word intellectual has become a dirty word. At the same time, the people and the government cannot live without a state that unites the nation. In turn, the state cannot exist without the state idea.

Even if formulated generally, it is understood more or less equally by everyone.

So, a nation state cannot exist without national identity. National self-awareness is impossible without a national intelligentsia. This implies the need for the existence of a sound intelligentsia in a healthy state.

28. Variety artistic movements late 19th - early 20th century

Convention of style;

Classicism is an artistic movement in European art of the 17th-19th centuries. Artists of classicism:

Ancient art was recognized as the highest example;

They relied on the traditions of the High Renaissance;

They sought to express the idea of a harmonious structure of society based on the eternal “laws of reason.”

Naturalism is a movement in literature and art of the last third of the 19th century, which strived for an objectively accurate and dispassionate reproduction of observed reality. The object of naturalism is character in its conditioning by physiological nature and environment.

It is believed that naturalism reproduces reality without its ideological comprehension, artistic generalization, critical evaluation and selection.

Primitivism is a movement in the fine arts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; conscious, programmatic appeal to works of primitive, medieval, folk and children's creativity.

Symbolism is an artistic movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Symbolism is characterized by:

The dualism of the ideal and the material;

Contrasting the social and the individual;

The rapprochement of the spiritual and moral with the religious.

For symbolism, the secret, hidden side of a particular phenomenon is important.

29. Culture of the Russian “Silver Age”

SILVER AGE – 1) a term which, according to the prevailing tradition in Russian criticism of the 20th century. traditions designate the art (primarily literature) of Russia at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. or the beginning of the 20th century, 2) the period in Roman literature from 18 to 133 AD, marked by notable literary achievements (Juvenal, Martial, Petronius, Tacitus, etc.), which was preceded by a “golden age”. In Russian literature difficult fate This concept was determined by the vagueness of its meaning both in terms of the time frame and in terms of the circle of specific authors. Usually, without any special reservations, the literature of Russian modernism, or even symbolism and Acmeism (including the whole range of names from Balmont, Bryusov, Blok and Bely to Gumilyov, Akhmatova, Mandelstam) is called the Silver Age. This also includes authors from the Russian diaspora, whose work is also considered in line with modernism (see LITERATURE OF THE RUSSIAN ABROAD). There is another approach, which seeks to consider the entire border era as a single whole, in the complex interrelation of not only different literary movements, but also all phenomena cultural life this period (art, philosophy, religious and political movements). This idea of the “Silver Age” has been widespread in recent decades both in Western and domestic science.

30. Diversity and complexity of movements at the end of the 20th century

Modernism is a movement in art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by:

A break with the historical experience of artistic creativity;

The desire to establish new principles of art;

Convention of style;

Continuous renewal of artistic forms.

Modernism unites many relatively independent ideological and artistic movements: expressionism, cubism, constructivism, imagism, surrealism, abstract art, pop art.

37. Adoption of Christianity in Ancient Rus'

As mentioned above, having become a prince in Kyiv, Vladimir carried out a kind of pagan reform, obviously trying to raise the ancient folk beliefs to the level of state religion. But the attempt to transform paganism into a state religion with the cult of Perun at its head, apparently, did not satisfy Vladimir, although the people of Kiev willingly supported the most extreme manifestations of the bloody cult of the warlike god.

According to legend, the first preacher of Christianity in our area was Andrew the First-Called - one of the twelve apostles, the brother of the Apostle Peter, the first called by Jesus Christ. He preached Christianity to the Balkan and Black Sea peoples and was crucified by order of the Roman magistrate on a cross shaped like the letter “X” (St. Andrew’s Cross). Already in the “Tale of Bygone Years” it is said that Andrew the First-Called of Korsun, in his missionary work, reached the places where Kiev and Novgorod were to emerge in the future and blessed these places (and at the same time had the opportunity to marvel at the Russian custom of whipping oneself with brooms in the bathhouse). Subsequently, Kievan Rus (and Russia in the future) turned St. Andrew the First-Called into the patron of Russian statehood.

In Kyiv, Christianity had been known for a long time, as well as its basic dogmas, which were very well adapted to the needs of the feudal state. The first information about Christianity among the Rus dates back to 860-870, but by the middle of the 10th century, the gradual establishment of Christianity in the state system was already felt. If, when concluding an agreement with the Greeks in 911, Russian ambassadors swear only by the pagan Perun, then the agreement of 944 is sealed with a double oath to both Perun and the Christian god. The already mentioned above Church of St. Elijah in the chronicle is called the “cathedral,” that is, the main one, which suggests the presence of other Christian churches. Christianity represented a significant political and cultural force in Europe and the Middle East at that time. Belonging to the Christian religion facilitated trade relations with Byzantium and introduced them to writing and extensive literature. For Rus', the Christianization of Bulgaria (864) and the invention of Slavic writing by Cyril and Methodius (mid-9th century) were of greatest importance. By the middle of the 10th century. In Bulgaria, significant religious literature had already been created, which facilitated the penetration of Christianity into Rus'. Prince Igor was a pagan: he did not take the oath in the Elias Church, but “he came to the hill where Perun stood and laid down his weapons and shields and gold”; and he was buried by Olga according to pagan rites under a huge mound. But among the boyars and their ambassadors to the emperors of Byzantium there were already some Christians.

Igor's widow, Princess Olga, converted to Christianity in 955, traveling to Constantinople. Perhaps she intended to make Christianity the state religion, but here the contradiction generated by the Byzantine church-political concept immediately became sharply apparent: the emperor of the empire was, in the eyes of the Orthodox Greeks, the viceroy of God and the head of both the state and the church. From this a conclusion was drawn that was very beneficial for Byzantium - any people who accepted Christianity from the hands of the Greeks became a politically dependent people or state. Kievan Rus, which calmly looked at Christian beliefs, preferred such equal relations with Byzantium that would be determined by mutual benefit, the balance of power and would not impose on Rus' any additional obligations associated with the unconvincing divinity of the emperor. In any case, Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, Olga’s successor at baptism, “named her daughter,” that is, subordinate to him, and not an equal “sister.”

38. Formation of Old Russian culture

The rich heritage was a powerful basis for the formation of ancient Russian culture Eastern Slavs. The Eastern Slavs (a mixture of various racial lines, Indo-European Aryan, Turkic) stood out as an independent branch of the Slavs in the 6th century and even then considered themselves as part of the European world. In the 7th-8th centuries. They developed a basic complex of craft and agricultural tools, determined the main types of production activities, and accumulated practical knowledge about nature. The pagan religion served to consolidate and transfer accumulated experience, labor skills and useful observations.

40. The originality of ancient Russian icon painting and architecture

Old Russian art is a precious contribution to the treasury of world culture. His masterpieces, created many centuries ago, excite and delight with the grandeur of their images, the beauty of color, and inspired poetry. The time of brilliant prosperity and power of Kievan Rus lasted until Mongol invasion. Both in monumental painting and icon painting there were ideas of glorifying the unity and power of the Russian land, the courage and spiritual strength of man, a sense of the joy and beauty of life. Various museums in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Vladimir and Yaroslavl house about three dozen icons of the pre-Mongol period. At the dawn of this century, the first cleared icons literally stunned many art connoisseurs. The famous French painter Matisse, arriving in Moscow in 1911, was also stunned by the beauty ancient Russian painting. “This is truly folk art,” he said. – Here is the primary source of artistic quests. Everywhere there is the same brightness and manifestation of great strength of feelings.”

And so, the global significance of ancient Russian painting was discovered and recognized more than half a century ago. However, its systematic study, with the identification of various directions and schools, began only after October revolution, when searches for monuments of ancient icon painting were organized throughout the country along with their discovery, i.e. exemption from later entries.

In the X-XI centuries. Kievan Rus was called the country of cities: there were almost three hundred of them. Defensive structures, residential buildings, princely chambers, monasteries and cathedrals were built in the cities.

The oldest stone buildings that have survived to this day are temples from the mid-11th century. Russia was then ruled by Yaroslav the Wise, the capital of the state was Kyiv. In this city, on the site of the victorious battle between the Kievites and the Pechenegs, Yaroslav the Wise ordered the foundation of the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in 1037. For that era, this was construction on an unprecedented scale. The height of the grandiose cathedral, built in the Byzantine tradition, was 55 m, and the length was 37 m. Next to the main dome, 12 more rose (thirteen domes symbolized Jesus Christ and the twelve apostles).

The inside of the cathedral is decorated with colorful mosaics and frescoes. According to chroniclers, there were no buildings in Europe at that time that could compare with the Kyiv Sofia.

For several centuries, Novgorod the Great was the “second capital” (after Kyiv). In 1045-1050 By order of Prince Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, one of the most famous cathedrals of Ancient Rus' was erected - Sophia of Novgorod, which became a symbol of the city. She in to a lesser extent associated with the Byzantine tradition. We can say that in terms of expressiveness and brevity of its appearance and decoration it is akin to the harsh northern nature.

Wooden architecture occupies a special place in the history of Russian architecture. Russian craftsmen knew how to build simple, comfortable huts (they used to say not “build”, but “cut”, because they worked with only one tool - an ax). They were decorated with beautiful carvings. Boyars' towers and royal palaces were also built from wood, for example the palace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. One of the most famous wooden buildings is the Transfiguration Church on Kizhi Island (Lake Onega). This is an octagonal tower with a whole bunch of decorative domes. It seems that this church came to us from a fairy tale.

41. Folklore in ancient Russian literature. Literary monuments Kievan Rus

In particular, folklore often served as material for establishing ritual and magical concepts and ideas generated by the traditional agrarian and agricultural occupation of the population of Rus'. The nature and boundaries of such a study were revealed by ethno-folkloristic and linguo-ethnographic works carried out by a group of researchers led by Academician N. I. Tolsty1. The study of Russian folklore and the folklore of related Slavic peoples in these works forms part of a vast field of knowledge and sometimes goes into the comprehension of folk mentality as the basis of ancient culture. It is significant that these studies develop the highly valued traditions of science in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, when folkloristics did not yet represent an independent discipline and was part of cultural studies, ethnography, and often linguistics (especially in the field of etymological research). The direction of this study, like any other, reveals boundaries, especially noticeable when it came to solving general problems of medieval studies.

42. Origins of Ukrainian theater

The Ukrainian theater derives its roots from the buffoons of Kievan Rus, the aesthetic ideas of the Baroque associated with school performances of the Kiev-Mohyilny Academy and the figurative and philosophical parables of Grigory Skovoroda.

45. Russian-Ukrainian printing, pioneer printers

Ivan Fedorov was born around 1510. There is no exact information about the date and place of his birth; he was from Petkovichi, on the border of modern Minsk and Brest regions.

He studied at the University of Krakow (1529-1532), received a bachelor's degree. From the 1530s, apparently, he belonged to the entourage of Metropolitan Macarius. Together with Macarius he came to Moscow, where he took the position of deacon in the Kremlin Church of St. Nicholas of Gostunsky.

In 1553, John IV ordered the construction of a special house for a printing house in Moscow, but the enterprise was opened only in 1563. The first Russian printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets began working at the printing house.

Two years later they finished printing the book “The Apostle.” Immediately after this, persecution of printers by copyists began. Fedorov and Mstislavtsev were forced to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There they were warmly received by Hetman Khodkevich, who founded a printing house on his estate Zabludov. The first book printed at the Zabludovskaya printing house by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavtsev was “The Teaching Gospel” (1568) - a collection of conversations and teachings with interpretation of the Gospel texts. In 1570, Ivan Fedorov published the “Psalter with the Book of Hours,” which was also widely used for teaching literacy.

To continue his printing business, Ivan moved to Lvov and here, in the printing house he founded, he printed the second edition of the Apostle (1574). A few years later, he was invited by Konstantin Ostrogsky to the city of Ostrog, where he printed, on behalf of the prince, the famous “Ostrog Bible,” the first complete Bible in the Slavic-Russian language. On December 5 (15), 1583, the “Drukar Moskvitin” died in poverty on the outskirts of Lvov.

He was buried in Lvov in the St. Onuphrius Monastery. In 1977, the Ivan Fedorov Museum was opened here. In 1990, the monastery fell into the hands of the Basilian monks, who liquidated the museum.

46. The role of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy in the development of science and education in Ukraine in the 16th – 18th centuries

The Kiev-Mohyla Academy not only contributed to the expansion of the broad faiths of the people scientific knowledge, but also the formation of spiritual values. Among the academy's students and students were scientists, poets, and philosophers. The Academy was the center of development of Russian socio-political and philosophical thought.

47. Development of Ukrainian architectural baroque. The role of Ivan Mazepa as a patron of Ukrainian culture

Characterized by moderate ornamentation and simplified forms, it is sometimes seen as a precursor to constructivism. Many examples of Ukrainian Baroque have been preserved, including the ensemble of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, St. Sophia Cathedral, Vydubetsky and St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv.

The best examples of Baroque painting are the church paintings in the Trinity Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. During the Ukrainian Baroque period there was a rapid development of engraving art. A complex system of symbolism, allegories, heraldic signs and magnificent decorations were used. Certain elements of Ukrainian Baroque were borrowed from the related Naryshkin Baroque in Russia.

48. Development of Ukrainian musical art

The most noticeable phenomenon of the musical life of Galicia in the 19th century. there was a diaco-teacher school in Przemysl, opened in 1818 on the initiative of the Greek Catholic Bishop I. Snigursky and which became the basis for the formation of the so-called Przemysl (composer - E.T.) school, to which Ukrainian musicology classifies composer-priests M. Verbitsky, I. Lavrivsky, V. Matyuk.

The eldest on this list and the most significant for musical culture mid-19th Art. there was M. Verbitsky (1815-1870). Being a priest, he at the same time became the founder of the Przemysl school and the pioneer of secular professional musical creativity. The intensification of the activities of the composing school is also associated with the emergence of the cathedral choir in Przemysl (1829), thanks to which a tradition of church-artistic (professional) singing was formed as opposed to the church-folk (elementary, non-professional) performing tradition. Verbitsky's church (professional) music is only part of his heritage, along with musical and theatrical plays, secular choral works, instrumental opuses, romances. Folk song motifs begin to sound in his work, and works of civil, patriotic content appear. For example, the chorus “Ukraine Is Not Yet Dead” became the national spiritual, and since 2003, the national anthem of Ukraine.

49. Humanistic ideas of the philosopher and poet G. Skovoroda

"Kind labor"

Deals with the problem of the struggle of good against evil, which dominates in society. The only way to fight good against evil is to confront it with the good principles that are inherent in human nature. The idea of transforming labor from a way of life into the first need and the highest pleasure.

50. Ukrainian portrait painting of the 18th century

Realistic tendencies were characteristic of portrait painting, which was noted for the presence of different styles. It was the stylistic differences in portraiture that became its specific feature. Among the masters of painting, it is worth noting Iova Kondzelevich and Ivan Rutkovich.

52. Ukrainian icon painting

“King to King”, wood, tempera (late 18th century) – the composition is based on the idea of the Deesis. Here the characteristic features of Ukrainian icon painting and its departure from the Byzantine tradition are clearly visible. This is the approach of the faces of saints to the features of ordinary people, three-dimensionality of the image, warm color, floral ornament as one of the main decorative elements. These common features were manifested in different ways by local folk artists. In the Hutsul region, icons were painted on glass with opaque bright colors, the background was decorated with foil - hence the special festivity.

54. Foundation of the 1st Ukrainian professional theater. Leading figures of the Ukrainian theater

At the beginning of the 19th century, Ukrainian professional theater was born. In 1819, in Poltava, “Natalka Poltavka” was written and staged and performed with the participation of Mikhail Shchepkin by Ivan Kotlyarevsky. The repertoire included plays by Kotlyarevsky, Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, and Shevchenko.

In 1882, in Elizavetgrad, Marko Lukich Kropivnitsky created a professional Ukrainian theater.

55. Revival of national cultural life in Galicia and Bukovina in the 19th century

The Ukrainian clergy paid great attention to cultural and educational issues, whose representatives, led by Canon Ivan Mogilnitsky, founded the “Clerical Society” in 1813. for the purpose of translating, publishing and distributing religious literature in Ukrainian among believers. Active activity This first cultural and educational society in Galicia was directed against the expansion of the Greek Catholic Church, despite the resistance of the Polish clergy, and was of great importance for the preservation of the Ukrainian language.

A huge role in the life of Ukrainians in Galicia was played by the Lviv University, which operated a Russian Institute with a three-year Ukrainian-language course of study. Lectures and works of famous scientists: A. Giltenbrandt, P. Lodia, I. Martynovich and others contributed to the awakening of Ukrainian national consciousness. students.

In the 30s of the 19th century. at the Lviv Seminary students Markiyan Shashkevich (first folk poet Galicia - according to M.S. Grushevsky), Ivan Vagilevich (ethnographer and writer) and Yakov Golovatsky (the first patented professor of the Ukrainian language at Lviv University) created a circle of democratic Ukrainian youth, which was called “Ruska Triitsa” (that was the name of the whole group, where , in addition to three seminarians, included A. Mogiletsky, M. Ustyanovich and others their peers). His educational activities, members of the circle contributed to the awakening of the national consciousness of Ukrainians in Galicia, the spread and development of Ukrainian. language. Influenced by the revival in the 30s Ukrainian literature in Russia, Polish revolutionary ideas. They wrote articles on history, collected Ukrainian songs and thoughts, and published them. When censorship prohibited the publication of the collection “Zorya” in 1834. (“Dawn” - Russian), a new almanac “Rusalka Dnistrov” was compiled, published in 1837. in Pest (Hungary), but immediately after publication the circulation was seized by Galician censorship and only in 1848. he was released from arrest. This was the first serious challenge of a forced Ukrainian. people of Austria's colonial policy. “Rusalka Dnistrova” sowed the first seeds of Ukrainian national revival in Galicia.

European revolutions awakened Galicia. The Poles began to prepare an uprising with the goal of reviving Poland. The Austrian government tried to bring part of the Ukrainian intelligentsia of Galicia closer and use it in the fight against the Polish revolution. movement. The ideas of dividing Galicia into Polish and Ukrainian parts are spreading, introducing in the highest and primary school Ukrainian language, the liberation of Ukrainian peasants from the power of Polish landowners.

56. Romanticism of Ukrainian culture

A characteristic feature was the discrepancy between the artist’s subjective dreams and objective reality. The social essence of creativity of this period was indicated by their attitude to the feudal-serf system and to bourgeois relations. Shevchenko (Prichinna, Topolya), representatives of the Russian trinity - Shashkevich, Vagilevich, Golovatsky, Kulish - belonged to the direction of romanticism.

60. Development of Ukrainian culture in the era of socialism

Sovetskaya U. l. developed under the beneficial influence of the liberating ideas of the great Russian literature, especially the socialist ideas of the Russian proletarian literature, its greatest representative, founder, brilliant writer A. M. Gorky. This influence was combined with a critical development of the Ukrainian revolutionary-democratic literary heritage. Sovetskaya U. l. grew stronger and stronger in close cooperation with the literary world fraternal peoples our great Union, making extensive use of the wealth of Soviet folklore in the process of its development. The work of Ukrainian writers - T. Shevchenko, M. Kotsyubinsky, Lesya Ukrainka, I. Franko, and on the other hand, Russian writers - A. Pushkin, N. Nekrasov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, - the live communication of writers with A. M. Gorky and the participation of Ukrainian Soviet writers in the practice of building socialism - all this taken together had a great impact influence on the process of formation of young Ukrainian Soviet literature, on the development of its language, genres and style.

Poetic activity of the largest Ukrainian poet Pavlo Tychina followed the line of overcoming symbolist poetics. Already in 1917-1919, Pavlo Tychina spoke with revolutionary realistic poems (“There are poplars near the fields in the wild”, “The thought of the three winds”, “On the Maidan there is a church”, “How a man fell from a horse”), which took a prominent place in Ukrainian Soviet poetry. Somewhat later, Vladimir Sosyura appeared in print with poems (“Chervona Winter”) and verses (“Vіdplata”, “Before Us”, “Oh Not without Reason”, etc.), written in the style of revolutionary romanticism (collections “Poetry”, 1921, and "Chervona Winter", 1922).

The period of transition to peaceful work to restore the national economy expanded and deepened the process of growth of Soviet literature as a whole; at this time a number of new poets appeared (M. Bazhan, P. Usenko, L. Pervomaisky), prose writers (Yu. Yanovsky, Yu. Smolich, A. Golovko, A. Kopylenko, P. Panch, A. Lyubchenko, I. Senchenko ), S. Vasilchenko continued his work, A. Korneychuk began his literary activity, who later moved to the forefront of playwrights of the Union.

62. Ukrainian cinema

The first steps of cinema in Ukraine are associated with the names of mechanic-designer Timchenko and physicist Lyubimov, who back in 1893 created an apparatus for recreating on the screen the continuous movement of people and objects. Fedetsky filmed and demonstrated newsreels. Since 1907, regular film production began in Ukraine. During this period, newsreels and documentaries were created and theatrical performances were filmed. They take part famous actors M. Sadovsky, M. Zankovetskaya, I. Maryanenko.

63. Connection between Ukrainian and Russian dissidence

Is the history of the dissident movement in the USSR united? Or does it represent a collection of histories of national, religious and other movements? This is not an idle question, since the answer to it largely determines the way we study the history of dissent.

The first answer, lying on the surface, is yes, one. Firstly, many dissidents were based on the same feeling - unwillingness to come to terms with violence and lies; often these people are similar in many ways, although they belong to different nationalities and religions.

Secondly, the forms of dissident activity were the same everywhere - dissemination of samizdat, collection and dissemination of information about repressions, petitions to authorities and international organizations etc.

Thirdly, the dissidents were opposed by the same structures - the CPSU, the KGB, the prosecutor's office, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the courts, whose activities were regulated vertically, and decisions were often made in Moscow at the very top level.

66. National and cultural revival in Ukraine in the 2nd half of the 80-90s of the 20th century

Since the mid-80s, a new stage in the development of Ukrainian culture began. Along with the strategy of renewal, a new revival of spiritual life begins, which manifested itself in the search for “truths.”

In a brief review, we propose to trace the history of Russian culture according to the structural typology of N.A. Berdyaev, developed by him in a series of works on its characteristics, path, fate, etc. In these works, the scientist outlined and defined its several main stages. This historical typology of Berdyaev can be considered as a basis, but with additions related to the events of the last century.

Stage of Slavic-European civilization (X – beginning of the 13th century)

By this period, called Kievan Rus, the foundations of the organization of society have already been formed. There was a written language, the basis of statehood was laid, and legal institutions appeared. All this gave impetus to the further evolution of East Slavic culture. The strengthening of the country and the increase in territories was carried out simultaneously with the Eastern Slavs and neighboring tribes. “Dual faith” - a bizarre symbiosis of paganism and Christianity gives rise to an original picture of existence, combining different religious ideas.

not solving problems, but moving away from them to new lands,
no man's land, God's land,
sense of temporality
no need for deep rooting in one place.

This method of conducting peasant farming in terms of territory and number of participants constituted a large part of ancient Russian culture, which is difficult to study, since it has no written sources.

Artistic culture and history based on written sources

The history of Russia at that time is studied based on the main artifacts related to urban culture: chronicles, writings, architectural monuments, arts and crafts, paintings from treasures and burials. Based on the analysis of artistic written sources, two stylistic directions are distinguished:

monumental historicism
epic lyricism.

Monumental historicism

This style became widespread at the end of the 10th century. and dominated until the beginning of the 12th century. This was a period of familiarization and equal entry of Rus' into Christianity, understanding of its role in the new culture. This is confirmed by the surviving architectural, pictorial and literary evidence of this period. They are characterized by a sublime and majestic mood, they are filled with importance. The style of monumental historicism accurately reflected the spirit of the times of the reign of the Rurik dynasty. For the heroic era of the country, this was the primary style, identical to the Romanesque style for the West. It was equivalent to the state one and corresponded to the demands of the princely environment, the desire of the young country to create its own image, its own principles, and compare itself with the culture and history of the world.

Empirical lyricism

This style is also called secondary; it was formed by the middle of the 12th century. This time is characterized by increased feudal fragmentation. Art became closer to man; it began to highlight the features of individual people, and not just the breadth of the state, as was the case in the previous period.

Chamber forms appeared in architecture; it became more animated, more festive, rather than masculine.
of that period became “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This is an epic and emotional work that reflects the history of Rus', along with the thoughts, emotions, sorrows and joys of a real person.
Temples are being erected everywhere, monasteries are being built, schools of icon painting and crafts are being founded, and the events that take place are recorded in chronicles.

The versatility of the development of artistic culture of that time can be judged by the way writing crystallized and artistic training developed.

Novgorod becomes the center of veneration of Sophia,
Vladimir - Our Lady,
in Chernigov and Ryazan - princely images of Boris and Gleb.

Appanage Rus' - culture of the 13th – 14th centuries

The 13th century went down in history as the beginning of the Golden Horde period. “Tatar Rus'” entered the phase of “moral monumentalism.” Gradually, the fragmentation of the country into appanage principalities was overcome, which helped to free ourselves from the yoke.

The profound changes that occurred by the middle of the 13th century provide grounds for the isolation of this period, since they also had a great influence on the type of Russian culture. Much research has been carried out on that era, and there are different opinions in assessing the consequences of the invasion of the steppe people. Gumilev believed that it saved the country from being subjugated by Europe, which, in his opinion, would have brought much more harm to Russia.

These events left a significant mark, but the Mongol-Tatar yoke could not radically change the Russian agricultural culture to a nomadic one. But the invasion of the Horde stopped development and caused irreparable damage. Temples were destroyed, libraries and cities were burned, and crafts were in a depressed state. The invasion of nomadic tribes was perceived as God's punishment, a universal disaster, which was unthinkable to resist.

When the yoke was thrown off, the culture and history of Russia became different. The main consequence of the invasion is regression in all areas of life. In the second half of the 13th century, development seemed to freeze. Even in the Novgorod lands, where the Horde did not “reach”, there was gloomy stagnation, accompanied only by the renewal of fortifications.

The atmosphere of the era, people's experiences can be understood by literary sources in the genre of “military stories”, biographies of martyrs for the faith, sermons.

Muscovite Rus' - stage XIV - XVII centuries

The period from the end of the 14th to the 17th century. went down in history as the time of formation of the Eurasian civilization. The emergence of a centralized independent state with power in Moscow formed a different picture in different areas life. This was conducive to the generation of a renewed concept of values and the universe.

The Russian principalities, freeing themselves from the shackles of the yoke, rallied around Moscow, creating a state of a new type. It was a means of defending sovereignty. To this day, the state has extreme significance in the minds of people, which was acquired back in those days.

The interests of the state and power turned out to be higher than personal gain and even more important than laws. The formation of the Moscow kingdom took over the baton of Orthodoxy from Constantinople, which had fallen in those days. The Byzantine state sank into oblivion. Elder Philotheus, in his letters to Vasily III, voiced new messianic aspirations in the concept

Stage-by-stage history of culture great Russia Moscow period

The evolution of Russian culture during the Moscow period can be divided into three stages:

Russian Pre-Renaissance (end of the 14th century - mid-15th century)

This time was marked by the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, and with it came an emotional leap in national self-awareness. During this period, literature, art, and the rise of individuality began to flourish. Vivid examples can be the names of Daniil Cherny. Theophanes the Greek. By these values, the development of Russia can be compared with the Proto-Renaissance and the early Italian Renaissance. The Renaissance bypassed Russian history. All resources were used to create and develop a country with its center in Moscow. The most majestic temples are built there, icons and frescoes are created, books are written.

"Sovereign monumentalism"(second half of the 15th century - 16th century)

It is characterized by the final formation of the Moscow kingdom. The country began to expand towards the eastern aisles, Kazan was taken. Gradually the state turned into a vast Eurasian empire.

In all spheres of the country's life there is a settlement and ordering, for example,

the arrangement of the state is described in the “Degree Book”,
systematization of historical information - in the Personal Chronicle,
religious canons - in “Stoglava”, in “Great Cheti-Menaia”,
family problems - in Domostroy.

A new one appears architectural style– Moscow. The Kremlin and the Assumption Cathedral are being rebuilt; they are a symbol of Russia to this day.

Russian Renaissance or Baroque (XVIIV.)

During this period, also called the “rebellious age,” many events took place. Change of dynasties, Polish intervention, peasant revolts. The culture of this period, despite many dramatic pages in history, is enlightened and alive.

The architecture is rich in color, intricate in shape and decorative.
Paintings are decorative, at the same time realistic features appear in them, objects become more voluminous due to the transfer of chiaroscuro. The first Russian parsuns appeared - a synthesis of portrait and icon.
Heroes with humane traits also appear who live in real life, such as the first Russian novel “The Tale of Savva Grudnitsyn.”

In art and literature, the individual origin and the author's point of view are conveyed.

History of culture and art of Russia (XVIII century - beginning of XX century)

The period of Imperial Russia is the time of the presentation of its new appearance. Russian culture gravitates toward European culture, is influenced by it, but remains original. The gigantic Eurasian civilization is public to the West and East, but retains its independence. This era can be divided into three time periods.

History of culture of the 18th century

This is a time of radical reform. Since the adoption of Christianity, Russia has turned to the West at the behest of the ruler for the second time. Cultural metamorphoses under the reign of Peter I are as contradictory and complex as the innovations of Prince Vladimir.

Peter's movement to Europe was continued by his heirs. Everything became a period of deep transformations affecting different sides. Main feature was the mastery of the results and achievements of European culture, mostly through education. Changes took place under pressure from the top and from within, since the prerequisites for them had already matured in the previous century. Such traits as realism, individuality, and rationality are now dressed in European attire.

The rapidity of reforms led to their uneven assimilation in different strata of society. A split arose between the Europeanized upper classes and the lower classes, mired in the “quagmire of Asiaticism.” In addition to disunity according to social standards, at this time a crack formed between ethnic and national culture. In the future, the efforts of many people will be aimed at bridging this gap.

History of culture of the 19th century

This is the period of its beginnings and knowledge gained in Europe. Their merger gave impetus to further development. This century is called the Russian Golden Age. A huge list of names, discoveries, plans, achievements, and brilliant creations allows us to say that during this period Russia played a significant role in the history of world culture. Then her individuality was most clearly revealed, primary questions were asked and solutions to problems were given. This is a period of searching for cultural community and spirituality.

The main thing about the Silver Age

The turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in the history of Russia is called it. Despite its short duration, it can be distinguished as a separate type. The turning point of time gave this era freedom, an active change of course and trends. An avalanche of fresh ideas, ideas, judgments, and paradigms that had a contradictory orientation swept over the country. Creative life became intense. Unions, associations, circles arose and multiplied, involving big number new members.

In the dialogue between different cultures, the focus also changes: it is not just a retrospective study, but a desire to join and comprehend, plunging into the very depths. Merger different types arts, worldviews, and a desire for unity - was one of the important features of this time. But the period was not monolithic; there were many incompatible ideas, multidirectional movements, demonstrating a degree of freethinking.

History of Russian culture - stage of the 20th century.

1917 - 1991 years of the twentieth century refer to Soviet Russia. This is a difficult and paradoxical time that has yet to be objectively assessed. It reflected the most contradictory features of the national character. Totalitarianism sought to bring culture to a uniform form, but external monolithicity was combined with individual creativity, which is visible in an allegorical form both at the everyday level and in the underground. Towards an assessment of the significance of Russian culture Soviet period It is worth adding that He can be considered as a legacy of pre-revolutionary culture. About 10 million emigrants believed in their mission to preserve and enhance it. This is confirmed by their educational, scientific, and publishing work. Characteristics spiritual life of the Silver Age and the development of these ideas reflected in their works

ON THE. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, B.P. Vysheslavtsev, I.A. Ilyin, N.O. Lossky, G.P. Fedotov, G.V., Florovsky, S.L. Franc.

There remains to be an objective study and assessment of the works of the Russian Abroad as an integral part of all-Russian culture.

Modern stage of history

As Berdyaev predicted, after the “fifth” there is the formation of a “sixth” post-Soviet Russia. The most important achievement here, despite all the obstacles and problems, is:

liberation from the prohibitions of ideology,
addition of previously prohibited works and names,
acquaintance with foreign Russian culture.

The modern progress of Russian culture is explained by the dynamic development of self-knowledge, the search for community, and the disclosure of its role in world culture.

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