Interaction of literature and fine arts in ancient Rus'. Architecture and painting of Ancient Rus'

The development of painting and the architectural temple style of Russia originates in the mists of time. In 988, Kievan Rus, along with the adoption of Christianity, received the enormous cultural heritage of the Byzantine Empire, combining the features of the sparkling splendor of the East and the ascetic simplicity of the West. In the process of synthesis of this multifaceted artistic style and specific original art, the architecture and painting of Ancient Rus' were formed.

Historical background for the development of the original style of architecture and painting of Ancient Rus'

The painting of Ancient Rus' as a monument of pre-Christian culture is unknown to modern scientists, and the sculpture of this era is represented by only a few wooden sculptures of idols. The situation is the same with architectural monuments pre-Christian Rus', most likely due to the fact that they were created from wood and have not survived to this day.

Painting in Rus' began to experience its rapid development in the 10th century, when, after the introduction of the Slavic alphabet into use on the territory of Rus' by Cyril and Methodius, it became possible to exchange experiences between Russian and Byzantine masters, who were invited to Russian cities after 988 by Prince Vladimir.

At the beginning of the 11th century the situation in political and social spheres The ancient Russian state developed in such a way that the pagan religious component began to be forcibly removed by the ruling class from all spheres of public life. Thus, the architecture and painting of Ancient Rus' began its development precisely from the Byzantine heritage that poured into this environment.

Prerequisites for the development of stylistic features of architecture

The architecture and painting of Ancient Rus' as an integral stylistic ensemble appeared under the direct influence of Byzantine architecture, which synthesized the forms of ancient temple buildings, gradually forming the type of cross-domed church known since the 10th century, which was very different from early Christian basilicas. By transferring the domes to the semicircular rigid ribs of the quadrangular base of the temple, using the latest developed “sailing” system for supporting the dome and easing its pressure on the walls, Byzantine architects achieved maximum expansion of the internal space of the temple and created high-quality new type Christian temple building.

The design features described above apply to temples based on the so-called “Greek cross”, which is five squares located at the same distance from each other.

Much later - in the 19th century - the so-called "pseudo-Byzantine" style of temple buildings was formed in Russia, in which squat domes are located on low drums surrounded by a window arcade, and the interior of the temple represents a single area, not divided by pylons and cross vaults.

Prerequisites for the development of stylistic features of painting

The painting of Ancient Rus' as an independent type of artistic decoration of churches took shape after invited Byzantine masters brought their icon-painting experience to this territory. Therefore, numerous wall paintings and frescoes of the first Christian churches of the pre-Mongol period are indistinguishable in Russian and Byzantine origin.

In theoretical terms, the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, the works of which belong to the brushes of Byzantine masters, perfectly illustrates the iconography and painting of Ancient Rus'. The temple itself has not survived, but its interior decoration is known from a description recorded in the 17th century. The invited icon painters remained in the monastery and began learning their craft. Reverends Alypius and Gregory were the first Russian masters to emerge from this school of icon painting.

Thus, the art, iconography, painting of Ancient Rus' traces its theoretical and methodological continuity from the ancient knowledge of eastern masters.

Specifics of the architectural and construction type of residential and temple buildings in Ancient Rus'

The culture of Ancient Rus', painting, iconography and architecture of which constitute a single ensemble, had little impact on the architecture of public and residential buildings, which continued to be built either by standard tower buildings or fortresses. Byzantine architectural norms did not imply any practical protection of the complex of buildings or each of them separately from enemy attacks. the painting and architecture of which can be shown using the example of Pskov and Tver monastery buildings, is focused on their structural security, the lightness of the domed parts of the building with maximum thickening of the load-bearing structures.

Cult ancient Russian painting

The culture of Ancient Rus', whose painting progressed under the comprehensive influence of Byzantine art, finally took shape by the end of the 15th century, having absorbed all its brightest specific qualities and assimilated with the original ancient Russian artistic techniques. And although some types of fine arts, such as artistic sewing and wood carving, were known to ancient Russian masters, they received their widest distribution and development in the bosom of religious art precisely after the arrival of Christianity in Rus'.

The Orthodox culture of Ancient Rus', whose painting is represented not only by temple frescoes and icon painting, but also by facial embroidery and carvings reflecting symbols of faith and used in everyday life by lay people, left its mark on the interior decoration of buildings and the decoration of their facades.

Variety and composition of colors

Monasteries and icon-painting workshops of Ancient Rus' were places of concentration scientific achievements and experiments in chemistry, as they made paints by hand from various ingredients.

In parchment and icon painting, masters mostly used the same paints. They were cinnabar, lapis lazuli, ocher, and others. Thus, painting remained true to its practical skills; Byzantine painting was not able to completely replace local methods of obtaining paints.

However, each specific painting technique had and still has its own favorite techniques and methods - both for making the paint itself and for applying it to the surface.

According to the Novgorod icon-painting original of the 16th century, the greatest preference among the masters was cinnabar, azure, white, and green. The names of these colors also appeared in the original for the first time - yellow, red, black, green.

Whitewash, as the most popular paint, was most often used in color mixtures and served to apply gaps and “whiten” other paints. Whitewash was produced in Kashin, Vologda, Yaroslavl. The method of their manufacture was to oxidize lead strips with acetic acid and then wash the resulting white color.

The main component of “facial writing” in icon painting to this day is ocher.

The painting of Ancient Rus', as well as its Byzantine standard, assumed the use of a variety of coloristic materials in painting holy images.

One of the main widely used paints was cinnabar, a sulphide of mercury. Cinnabar was mined at the most famous Russian Nikitin deposit in Europe. The production of paint took place in the process of grinding cinnabar with water, followed by dissolving in it the accompanying pyrite and pyrite in the ore. Cinnabar could be replaced by cheaper red lead, obtained by burning white lead.

Blue, like white, was intended for writing spaces and obtaining tones of other colors. In the past, the main source of lapis lazuli was from deposits in Afghanistan. However, since the 16th century, a large number of ways to obtain blue pigment from lapis lazuli have appeared.

Along with these basic paints, Russian icon painting used cormorant, scarlet, prazelen, greenery, verdigris, krutik (“blue”), cabbage roll, sankir (brownish tones), gaff, refft, and game. The terminology of the ancient painter designated all colors in different words.

Artistic style of ancient Russian icon painting

In each territorially integral state association, a certain consolidation of artistic and aesthetic norms occurs, which subsequently lose some connection with the standard model. Such a separate and self-developing sphere of national-cultural manifestation is the painting of Ancient Rus'. Ancient painting, more than other areas of art, is subject to technical and visual change, so it is worth mentioning separately its features, which are closely related to architecture and writing methods.

The Mongol invasion destroyed most of the iconographic and fresco monuments of Ancient Rus', undermining and stopping the process of writing new works. However, it is possible to reconstruct a certain picture of the past from surviving documents and scanty archaeological remains.

From them it is known that in the era of the pre-Mongol invasion, Ancient Rus' had a significant influence on icon painting with its technical techniques - laconic composition and gloomy, restrained color - however, by the 13th century this color began to give way to bright warm colors. Thus, by the 13th century, the Byzantine icon painting technique was undergoing a process of refraction and assimilation with such ancient Russian national artistic techniques as freshness and brightness of colors, rhythmic compositional structure and spontaneity of color expression.

During this era, the most famous masters worked, bringing the painting of Ancient Rus' to the present - this list can be briefly represented by Metropolitan Peter of Moscow, Archbishop Theodore of Rostov, Reverends Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny.

Features of Old Russian fresco painting

Fresco painting in Rus' did not exist before the advent of Christianity and was completely borrowed from Byzantine culture, in the process of assimilation and development somewhat modifying the existing Byzantine techniques and techniques.

To begin with, it is worth saying that the culture of Ancient Rus', whose painting previously existed in the form of mosaics, modified the use of plaster preparatory materials, using a mosaic limestone base for the fresco, and by the end of the 14th century there was a transition from ancient Byzantine techniques of writing and making materials to new native Russian techniques of fresco painting.

Among the radically changed processes for the manufacture of bases and paints, one can highlight the appearance of plaster, created exclusively on the basis of pure limestone, first diluted for strength with quartz sand and marble chips. In the case of Russian painting, the plaster fresco base - gesso - was made by keeping lime in a mixture for a long time. vegetable oils and glue.

Old Russian facial sewing

After 988, with the advent of Byzantine traditions in the painting of Ancient Rus', ancient painting became widespread in the area of cult ritual, especially in facial embroidery.

This was greatly facilitated by the Tsarina’s workshops, which functioned under the patronage of the Grand Duchesses Sophia Paleologus, Solomonia Saburova, Tsarina Anastasia Romanova and Irina Godunova.

Face embroidery as religious painting of Ancient Rus' has many common compositional and graphic features with the icon. However, face sewing is collective work, with a clear distribution of the roles of the creators. The icon painter depicted a face, inscriptions and fragments of clothing on the canvas, the herbalist depicted plants. embroidered neutral color; face and hands - with silk threads in flesh tones, including ties located along lines along the contours of the face; clothing and surrounding objects were embroidered either with gold and silver threads or multi-colored silk.

For greater strength, canvas or cloth was placed under the embroidered fabric, under which a second lining of soft fabric was attached.

The double-sided embroidery on banners and banners was especially complex. In this case, the silk and gold threads were pierced through.

Face embroidery has a wide range of applications - large shrouds and airs decorated the temple, were placed under icons, covered the altar, and were used on banners. In many cases, paintings with the faces of saints were attached to the gates of a temple or palace, as well as inside reception halls.

Territorial variability of ancient Russian art

The culture of Ancient Rus' - painting, iconography, architecture - has some territorial variability, affecting both the decoration of churches and the architectural and construction features of buildings.

For example, the art of Ancient Rus', the painting of which involves the use of either mosaics or frescoes as decorations for the interior decoration of churches, is perfectly illustrated by the example of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kyiv. Here there is a free combination of both mosaic and fresco painting; when examining the temple, two layers of soil were revealed. In the Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Bolshiye Vyazemy, all plaster bases are made of pure lime without fillers. And in the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronievsky Monastery, blood albumin was identified as a connecting link in the plaster gesso.

Thus, we can conclude that the peculiarity and uniqueness of ancient Russian art lies in its territorial orientation and individual personal preferences and the ability of Russian artists to convey the color and character of an idea in accordance with its national norms.

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Culture of Moscow Rus'

The culture of Moscow Rus' means the period of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. From the second half of the 14th century. The rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). This event was an important step towards liberating the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Old centers of economic life and culture are being revived and new ones are developing. The leading role of Moscow is being determined, attracting more and more new residents due to its central location in northeastern Rus' and the presence of convenient river and overland trade routes. Moscow is leading the fight for the unification of Russian lands. The purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes determined the victory of Moscow in the struggle for the role of the leader and political center of the united Russian state; the Moscow princes accepted the title of Grand Dukes of All Rus'. The influence of Moscow as one of the cultural centers.

1. The rise of culture during the formation of a unified Russian state

A turning point for the historical cultural development Russian lands began at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. The formation of a unified Russian state was completed, extensive urban planning began, and international trade relations were established. The country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The formation of the Russian nationality was completed. This significantly affected the formation of cultural processes.

The formation of a centralized state headed by the Moscow princes and the elimination of feudal fragmentation revived the economic, political and cultural life of the country. Russian culture of this period develops in close connection with the tasks of state unification of the country, in the fight against the remnants of the Golden Horde and its western neighbors.

Literature

The struggle of Russian people against foreign invaders has become the theme of a number of literary works. Among them are the chronicle “The Tale of Batu’s capture of the city of Vladimir”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”. They tell about the death of Russian cities, as well as the courage and courage of Russian soldiers.

The literary monument of that time was “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” which tells in poetic form about the Battle of the Neva, the Battle of the Ice, the relationship of Alexander Nevsky (c. 1220-1263) with the Golden Horde and the death of the prince. His exploits are sung for the glory of the Russian land.

The Tale of the City of Kitezh tells how, after the death of the defenders, the city of Kitezh became invisible so that it would not be captured by enemies. Only occasionally does the city appear as a reflection in Lake Svetloyar, and the ringing of city bells can be heard.

The most outstanding work of that time, “Zadonshchina” (from the place of the battle - “beyond the Don”), is dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo field over the Golden Horde. It was written in the genre of a historical story by the Ryazan resident Safoniy at the end of the 14th century. The author glorifies the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo, Prince Dmitry, compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The victory on the Kulikovo field is revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land. The author of “Zadonshchina” calls on the Russian people to unite.

Architecture

Architecture was widely developed primarily in Novgorod and Pskov - cities less dependent on the Mongol khans.

In the XIV - XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers of economic and political life, as well as the development of art.

The traditions of Russian architecture of this time were based on the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongol period. Novgorod builders used masonry from local rough-hewn stone, limestone slabs and partly brick - in vaults, drums and window openings. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power. This feature of Novgorod art was noted by academician I. E. Grabar (1871-1960): “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

New searches and traditions of old architecture manifested themselves in temple construction - in the form of the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Voloto-eom Pole (1352), destroyed during the Great Patriotic War). They reflected the transition to a new style in the second half of the 14th century. Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream (1360--1361) and the Church

Transfiguration Church on Ilyin Street (1374). A characteristic feature of this style is the elegant external decoration of temples. Their facades are decorated with decorative niches and sculptural crosses. Many niches are decorated with fresco paintings. The Church of the Transfiguration, located in the commercial side of Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed, single-domed, four-pillar church.

Church of Fyodor Stratilates Novgorod

Simultaneously with the temple construction, large-scale civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. Together with the Germans, Novgorod craftsmen built the Faceted Chamber (1433) for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Gentlemen. The Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was founded in Novgorod, which was subsequently rebuilt several times.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. According to chronicles in the 15th century. 22 stone churches were built there. The entire architecture of the city bore the appearance of a fortress, the style of the buildings was harsh and laconic, they were almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The total length of the walls of the large Kremlin of the 16th century. was almost nine kilometers.

Pskov builders created a special system of covering buildings with mutually intersecting arches, which subsequently made it possible to free the temple from pillars. Pskov craftsmen gained universal fame in Rus'; they had a great influence on Moscow construction.

The beginning of stone construction in Moscow dates back to the second quarter of the 14th century. The largest work of this time was the construction of the white stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin (until the 14th century it was called Detinets) is the central part of ancient Russian cities, surrounded by fortress walls with towers. The Kremlin includes a complex of defensive, palace and church buildings. Usually the Kremlin was located on high places, on the banks of a river or lake and was the core of the city.

The Moscow Kremlin is the oldest central part of Moscow on Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of the Moscow River. In 1366--1367. by decree of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy), walls and towers were erected from white stone1 1 Limestone brought from the village of Myachkovo near Moscow.. In 1365, the white stone Cathedral of the Miracle of the Archangel Michael was built, and the chapel Church of the Annunciation was erected near the southeastern wing. Subsequently, new temple and civil buildings were built on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin.

Construction was also carried out in other cities - Kolomna, Serpukhov, Zvenigorod. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna. It was a six-pillar city cathedral, raised on a high basement, with a gallery.

The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral on Gorodok in Zvenigorod (c. 1400), the Nativity Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1410-1427) .

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome “cubicity” and create a new, upward-facing composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

Painting

Russian painting XIV-XV centuries. just like architecture, it became a natural continuation of the painting of the pre-Mongol period. Icon painting became especially widespread. Since wooden churches were erected in Rus', which were not suitable for wall painting, icons served as a substitute for wall painting. Novgorod icon painting in the 14th century. developed slowly. The icons, as a rule, showed the image of one saint. But if several saints were painted, they were all depicted strictly from the front and were not connected with each other. This technique enhanced the impact. The icons of this period of the Novgorod school are characterized by a laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, and high technique. From the end of the 14th century. The icon occupies a leading place in Novgorod painting and becomes the main type of fine art.

Pskov icon painting differed from Novgorod in its interpretation of the plot, types of faces, and boldness of composition. The figures on the Pskov icons are heavier and motionless.

Along with icon painting, fresco (from Italian fresco - freshness) - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water - became widespread along with icon painting. In the XIV century. frescoes receive new features: composition, spatial character, landscape is introduced, and the psychologism of the image is enhanced. These innovations were especially evident in the famous Novgorod frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field - “The Annunciation”, “Healing of the Blind”, etc.

Among the artists of the XIV - XV centuries. A special place is occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405), originally from Byzantium. In his wanderings, he walked around the cities of Byzantium, Crimea, and then Rus'. In Rus' his talent manifested itself with greatest force. The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner.

In the work of Theophanes the Greek in Rus', two periods are distinguished: Novgorod and Moscow. In the first, he acts as a bold innovator, a rebel, creating works of rare spirituality. In the Moscow period, Theophanes the Greek appears as a man who has acquired calmness and balance.

In Novgorod, Theophanes the Greek painted the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1378). These paintings have survived in fragments. The characteristics of the depicted saints are marked by strict individuality; each figure lives a separate life, filled with internal movement. The master embodied in his characters the spirituality of man, his inner strength.

In Moscow, Theophanes the Greek paints the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395 --1396). He also painted the Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin (1399). In 1405, together with Elder Prokhor of Gorodets and Andrei Rublev, the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. The work of Theophanes the Greek has been preserved - part of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral, where he used boards more than two meters high and one meter wide.

The art of Theophanes the Greek determined the development of the Moscow school of painting in these years.

To others the most famous master This time there was a great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430), canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. At first he was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then a monk of the Andronikov Monastery1 1 Currently, a museum of ancient Russian culture and art named after Andrei Rublev has been created in the Andronikov Monastery. (then near Moscow), in which he died and was buried. His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting reached its peak. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity and sublime spirituality of images combined with softness and lyricism, the perfection of artistic form. Contemporaries wrote about Rublev this way: “An extraordinary icon painter and surpassing everyone in wisdom.”

Andrei Rublev participated in the creation of paintings and icons of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin (1405), the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408), the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (1425-1427), and the Spassky Cathedral in the Andronikov Monastery (1420). Among the surviving works of Andrei Rublev are frescoes on the theme “ Last Judgment"in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). In contrast to traditional depictions, Andrei Rublev’s images are full of humanity and lack the inherent severity of this topic. The iconostasis in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1424-1426), which Rublev painted with Daniil Cherny, has also been preserved. Some icons belong to Rublev's brushes - “Apostle Paul”, “Archangel Gabriel”.

The art of Andrei Rublev is imbued with sublimely bright moods, a state of spiritual harmony, it reflects a joyful attitude towards the world, calmness, and serenity. A characteristic feature of Andrei Rublev's style is lyrical tranquility; his characters are softer, more humane than those of Theophanes the Greek.

His most famous work, perfect in execution, is the “Trinity” icon (kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery). It was painted for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in the Sergius Monastery. The icon expresses with rare artistic power the humanistic idea of harmony and philanthropy, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The image of God in three persons is represented in the image of three angels, all three figures form a circular composition around the bowl. Mental purity, clarity, expressiveness, golden coloring, and a single rhythm of line embody with great force the idea of harmony and agreement. It was this idea that answered the aspirations of the Russian people of that era. The great art of Andrei Rublev had an impact on Russian culture as a whole. And the 15th century in Rus' became the golden age of Russian painting.

Cultural development of Russian lands in the XIV-XV centuries. actively continued, it became an extremely important stage in the further formation of all-Russian culture.

2. New trends in the development of Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries

Literature and printing

The unification of local cultures marked the beginning of an all-Russian culture, the main features of which were preserved in subsequent centuries. Secular and democratic elements are strengthening in Russian culture. Literary works appear that support the new government policy. The theory of the creation of the Russian state found its expression in the “Tales of the Princes of Vladimir” and “The Tale of Vladimir Monomakh”. They substantiated the hereditary connection of the Russian sovereigns with Byzantium and Kievan Rus; it was argued that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus and, therefore, have the right to all Russian lands. This idea was supported by church leaders, who also linked it with the idea of Moscow as the “third Rome.” In his letters to Grand Duke Vasily III, Abbot of the Pskov Elizarov Monastery Philotheus wrote that the previously existing two world centers of Christianity - Rome and Byzantium - fell due to a departure from “true Christianity.” The rulers of Byzantium betrayed “true”, i.e. Orthodox Christianity, by concluding the Union of Florence1 1 Union (church) - the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches with recognition of the primacy of the Pope while maintaining their rituals and services. (1439) with the Catholic Church. This, according to Philotheus, led to the fall of Byzantium and its conquest by the Turks (1453). But Moscow did not recognize the union, so the role of the world center of Christianity passed to it, it became the “third Rome.” And “there will be no fourth Rome,” as church leaders believe, there can only be “three world kingdoms,” after which the “end of the world” will come. The thesis “Moscow is the third Rome” was supposed to substantiate the global significance of the Russian state, serve to strengthen Orthodox Christianity and elevate the church.

Travel literature, which described the trips of Christian pilgrims to holy places, was further developed. In the 15th century Notes (diaries) of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin appeared, describing his journey to India (1466-1472) - “Walking across the three seas”. This was the first European written work about the economy, customs, and religion of India.

In the first half of the 16th century. The works of Ivan Peresvetov, a nobleman and a talented publicist, appeared: “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, “Predictions of Latin philosophers and doctors about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”, etc. In them he outlined his program of reforms in the country. Peresvetov sees the ideal of government in strong royal power:

A state without a thunderstorm is like a horse without a bridle.

The associate of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrei Kurbsky (1528-1583), the author of many works, including “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow,” advocated limiting the power of the tsar in his writings. An interesting correspondence between Kurbsky and the Tsar about the ways of development of Russia1 1 Fearing disgrace, Andrei Kurbsky fled to Lithuania in 1563..

The economic and political achievements of Russia at this time had a noticeable impact on increasing the level of literacy and education, which spread primarily among the feudal lords and merchants. There were also literate peasants. Literacy was taught in private schools, mainly by priests and sextons. In schools they studied the Book of Hours2 2 Book of Hours - a church liturgical book containing psalms, prayers, hymns and other texts of worship., Psalter3 3 Psalter - a collection of psalms, prayer chants included in the Old Testament., and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

In the second half of the 15th century. Russian books and book miniatures have undergone great changes - parchment has been replaced by paper. First of all, this was reflected in the technique and color of the miniatures, which now looked not like enamel or mosaic, but like watercolor. Handwritten books are filled with a huge number of illustrations. For example, the Facial Chronicle had 16 thousand miniatures on historical, military, genre and other topics.

The emergence of printing played a major role in the history of Russian culture. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated; To date, seven such printed monuments are known. A new stage in book printing began in 1563, when a printing house was set up in Moscow using funds from the royal treasury. Book printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov (c. 1510-1583) and Pyotr Mstislavets. March 1

In 1564, the first Russian dated book was printed - "Apostle"1 1 "Apostle" - a liturgical book, including almost the entire New Testament, with the exception of the Gospels., and in 1565 - "Book of Hours" - a collection of daily prayers , which also served as a tool for teaching literacy. It took a year to release “The Apostle,” but “Book of Hours” came out in just two months. Later, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets moved to Ukraine, then to Lithuania. In Moscow, printing was continued by their students - Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezha and his son Andronik Timofeev Nevezha. Until the end of the 16th century. About 20 books of church and religious content were published.

Development various styles ornament and of different nature The appearance of woodcuts - wood engravings - contributed to the introduction of initials and headpieces in books.

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 13-volume collection of church literature "Cheti-Minea" ("Monthly Readings") - biographies of Russian saints, compiled by month in accordance with the days of honoring each saint, written by Metropolitan Macarius.

Generalizing chronicle works are created, for example, the Facial Chronicle Code - a unique The World History from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. Monument to Russian historical literature is also the “Degree Book”, compiled in 1560-1563. based on materials from chronicles, genealogical books, etc. by the confessor of Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavovich) to Ivan IV.

A set of everyday rules and instructions that arose among the boyars and merchants of Novgorod contains “Domostroy” (XVI century). He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family, gave advice on economy, frugality, and housekeeping. Domostroy was compiled with the participation of the statesman and writer priest Sylvester (? - ca. 1566) on the basis of domestic and translated economic and moral works.

Architecture of the late XV-XVI centuries. reflected an increase international role Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture. In construction along with Russian masters

Architecture. The Moscow Kremlin is attended by invited architects from Italy.

The creation of a Russian centralized state with its capital in Moscow was marked by the construction on the site of the old - new Moscow Kremlin, the ensemble of which was finally formed at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. Brickwork and Terracotta2 2 Terracotta is an unglazed ceramic product, generally red-brown and cream in color. replaced the traditional white stone.

At the end of the 15th century, during the reign of Ivan III (1440-1505), the reconstruction of the Kremlin began, in which Russian craftsmen from different cities of the country took part. Ivan III also invited Italian masters, recognized in Europe as masters of fortification - Pietro Antonio Solari (1450-1493), Mark Fryazin (XV century), Aleviz the New (late XV - early XVI century). In 1485-1495, powerful brick walls and towers were erected around the Kremlin. In 1485, Mark Fryazin erected the first tower of the Kremlin - Tainitskaya, so named because a well and a secret passage to the Moscow River were dug under it, supplying Muscovites with water in the event of a siege.

The Kremlin towers (there are 20 of them) and walls are topped with battlements - merlons, repeating the shape of a swallowtail, characteristic of Italian fortress architecture. Merlons, 2-2.5 m high and 65-70 cm thick, served to cover shooters during battle. There are a total of 1045 teeth on the Kremlin walls.

Another improvement introduced by the Italian masters was an increase in the height of the fortress walls, which without battlements ranges from 5 to 19 m (depending on the terrain), and their thickening to 3.5-6.5 m.

At the same time, the Kremlin reached its modern size: its area was 27.5 hectares, the length of the walls was 2235 m.

At the same time, the Kremlin cathedrals were also rebuilt. In 1475 - 1479 Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti built a new Assumption Cathedral - modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, but much larger in size. The temple amazes with the integrity of its proportions, the laconicism of artistic means, and its interior with its height, spaciousness, and abundance of light and air. Russian chronicles wrote about the Assumption Cathedral that “that church is wonderful in its majesty, and height, and lightness, and ringing and space.” The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

Moscow Kremlin. Assumption Cathedral

Pskov craftsmen built the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-- 1489), the house church of the Grand Dukes and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1484-- 1489).

The Italian architect Aleviz Novy built the Archangel Cathedral (1505-- 1508), the appearance of which clearly expressed the secular style of architecture. The main design is traditional: a cross-domed five-domed temple with six pillars supporting vaults. However, c. In the exterior design, the architect moved away from the ancient Russian tradition and used rich architectural decorations (decor) of the Italian Renaissance. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple; the tombs of all the great princes were moved there, starting with Ivan Kalita, and all the great Moscow princes were buried there, and then the tsars until Peter I. The walls of all the temples are decorated with rich paintings.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them is the Princely Palace, consisting of separate buildings connected by passages, porches, and entryways. What remains of this palace is the Chamber of Facets (1487 - 1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Faceted Chamber, which got its name from the decoration of the main facade with blocks of white cut stone, was intended for ceremonial palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors, and served as a throne room. This is a spacious square room (area 500 sq. m, height 9 m) with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which four cross-shaped vaults rest.

The architectural center of the Moscow Kremlin became an outstanding structure - a pillar-shaped church - the bell tower of John Climacus (“Ivan the Great”, 1505-1508; built on in 1600).

Later, the Terem Palace (1635--1636), the Patriarchal Palace (1653--1655) and a number of small churches were built; in 1702-1736 - the building of the Arsenal for storing military trophies; in 1776--1787 - the Senate building, in 1839--1849 - the Grand Kremlin Palace, in 1844--1851 - the Armory for storing a collection of art treasures.

In the 17th century The towers of the Moscow Kremlin received the existing tiered and hipped roofs. Among the towers, the most significant is Spasskaya, on which there is a clock - the Kremlin chimes (a striking clock). Monuments of Russian foundry art are kept on the territory of the Kremlin: “Tsar Cannon” (XVI century) and “Tsar Bell” (XVIII century).

The finished picturesque ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin embodied the ideas of greatness and strength of the united Russian state.

They were built according to the type of the Assumption Cathedral in the 16th century. St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow, the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, etc. Since the end of the 15th century. The capabilities of architects have greatly expanded the use of iron ties instead of wood and the use of lifting mechanisms.

Temple construction continued in other cities. Following the example of Moscow, monumental cathedrals were erected in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov and in large monasteries - Kirill-Belozersky and others.

Posad and patrimonial churches. Fortresses

Another direction in architecture also developed; it was associated with the construction of small townsman and patrimonial churches. By the beginning of the 16th century. Russian architects invented a new system of brick ceilings - a cross vault, resting not on internal pillars, but on external walls. This made it possible to build small pillarless churches, for example, the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo (1574), St. Nicholas in Myasniki (mid-16th century), etc. In the architecture of these churches, secular elements stood out more clearly.

An interesting phenomenon in the history of ancient Russian architecture of the 16th century. became a tent-type temple, in which it was most clearly expressed national identity Russian traditions based on wooden architecture. This was a departure from the Byzantine traditions of the cross-domed church. One of the first and most magnificent monuments of this style was the skyward (about 60 m high) Church of the Ascension (1530-1532) in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, which was a new type of building for Rus' both in shape and height. This temple was built by Vasily III in honor of the birth of the heir to the throne, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery was also built according to the type of tented church, dynamically directed upward. The appearance of this style was the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

Church of the Ascension Kolomenskoye

An outstanding monument of Russian architecture was the Intercession Cathedral (Cathedral of the Intercession “on the ditch”), which received the name St. Basil’s Cathedral - after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its chapels. The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops. The cathedral is a group of nine pillar-shaped churches, placed on a common pedestal - a high basement, and united by internal passages and an external gallery - a walkway. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, around which are located the domes of eight chapels. All of them have the shape of an octagon, coming from the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. 1 An octagon is in Russian architecture a structure or part of it that is octagonal in plan. The picturesque composition and splendor of the exterior decoration, as well as the small area of individual chapels, indicate that the cathedral is a monument-temple designed mainly for external perception.

In the 16th century The construction of fortresses, the so-called fortress construction, gained enormous scope. Kremlins were built in Nizhny Novgorod (1508-1511), Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525-1531), Zaraysk (1534), Serpukhov (1566) and other cities.

In Moscow in 1535-1538. The architect Petrok Maly erected a second line of fortifications, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital - Kitay-Gorod. The third line of stone fortifications of Moscow - the White City (now the Boulevard Ring) was erected in 1585-1593. These works were supervised by city affairs master Fyodor Kon. In 1595--1602. He also built the Smolensk Kremlin, the architecture of which combined technical excellence and elegance of design. The last line of external fortification of Moscow - wooden walls on Zemlyanoy Val (now the Garden Ring), "Skorodom" - was erected at the end of the 16th century. in connection with the raids of the Crimean Tatars.

Monasteries, like fortresses, were fortified with powerful walls and towers. Such were the monasteries of Novodevichy, Simonov, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Trinity-Sergius, Joseph-Volokolamsky in Moscow and its environs, and in the North - Kirillo-Belozersky, Solovetsky, etc.

Painting. Arts and crafts

Painting of the late XV-XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian master Dionysius (c. 1440--1502/03), who possessed enormous power artist and rich creative imagination. He headed a large artel and carried out both princely and church orders. In the 70s XV century Dionysius created paintings and icons in the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky Monastery near Moscow. Together with a group of masters, he painted the walls of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, which have survived in fragments to this day. The images of martyrs who died for the faith he depicted reflect the ideas of defending the Fatherland.

Later, Dionysius worked in the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, in the last years of his life, together with his sons Vladimir and Theodosius, he painted the walls of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary of the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky region (1500-1503), as evidenced by the inscription on the temple. This is a rare case when the frescoes have been preserved almost completely in their original form. About 25 compositions on the theme of the Mother of God were performed - “Cathedral of the Mother of God”, “Praise to the Mother of God”, “Akathist to the Mother of God”1 1 Akathist is a hymn of praise of the Orthodox Church in honor of the Mother of God, Jesus Christ and the saints. etc. Frescoes create a festive mood mainly due to color - delicate halftones: turquoise, pale green, light pink and other tones, united by a bright azure background. The frescoes are multi-figure compositions against the backdrop of landscapes with distant light hills and thin trees.

Dionysius and his students also created the iconostasis of the Nativity Cathedral. The icon “Our Lady Hodegetria” from the iconostasis of this cathedral was painted by Dionysius.

The works of Dionysius - icons and frescoes - are marked by delicate designs, exquisite, light colors, lush decorativeness, they are distinguished by festivity and elegance, and bright joy.

At this time, art in Russia was regulated: art workshops were organized, the church and state established the canons of icon painting, special decisions were made at church councils on the “correctness” of the depiction of individual characters and historical events. So, the Council of 1553-1554. allowed the faces of kings, princes, as well as “existential writing”, i.e. historical subjects, to be depicted on icons.

The range of painting themes is gradually expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portraiture is developing, although images of real persons are still of a conventional nature. Interesting in this regard is the fresco painting of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral (1563-1564). Along with traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors, there are portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc.

Painting of the late XV-XVI centuries. characterized by growing interest in real historical figures and events. These same motives are beginning to penetrate other types of culture.

Decorative and applied arts are being developed. Monuments of the 16th century Russian wood carving: Monomakh throne (1551) of Ivan the Terrible in the Assumption Cathedral, royal doors, carved iconostases. In sewing, instead of silk threads, metal threads are used - gold and silver; pearls and precious stones are widely used. In the 16th century The art of casting is also developing: Russian craftsmen make small utensils and cast bells.

An outstanding monument of applied art is the royal crown - the Monomakh cap, which was used to crown Ivan IV for the first time in the history of Rus' in 1547.

The culture of Muscovite Rus' in the 14th-16th centuries experienced a rise associated with the defeat of the Golden Horde and the creation of a unified Russian state centered in Moscow. This was reflected in the development of all areas of culture - in literature, architecture, painting, decorative and applied arts, as well as in the growth of literacy and enlightenment, which was facilitated by the advent of printing.

The growing importance of Moscow as the center of the united Russian lands was embodied in the construction of a new brick Kremlin - with its walls, towers, cathedrals and civil buildings. The Moscow Kremlin became a symbol of the Russian land, an outstanding monument of not only Russian but also world significance, like St. Basil's Cathedral , ancient Russian monasteries. Outstanding painters Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and master Dionysius wrote their own page in the history of Russian art. New original trends in Russian architecture have emerged

The completion of the formation of the Russian nationality marked the beginning of the creation of an all-Russian culture.

culture russ applied cathedral

Literature

1. Bystroe A.N. World of culture. Fundamentals of cultural studies. Textbook. M., 2000.

2. Burckhardt J. Culture of Italy during the Renaissance / Transl. with him. A.E. Makhov.-2nd ed., revised. M., Intrada, 2001.

3. Van Dyck T. Language. Cognition. Communication. M., 1989.

4. Questions of theory and history of culture. Ivanovo, 1995.

5. Gurevich P.S. Culturology. Textbook - 4th ed., revised. and additional M.: Gardariki, 2002.

6. Definitions of culture. Tomsk, 1994.

7. Esin A.V. Introduction to cultural studies. Basic concepts of cultural studies in a systematic presentation: Proc. allowance. M., 1999.

8. Ivanov V.V. Selected works on semiotics and cultural history. M.: Russian languages. culture. (Language. Semiotics. Culture.) T.2: Articles on Russian literature. 2000.

9. Konev V.A. Man in the world of culture. Samara, 1996.

10. Kochan L.N. Theories of culture. Ekaterinburg, 1994.

11. Culture in the modern world: experience, problems, solutions. M., 6 issues until 1995.

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Painting of the Old Russian state

With the adoption of Christianity under the influence of Byzantium, new species appeared in Rus' monumental painting - mosaic and fresco, as well as easel painting - icon painting Unique monuments of secular painting are the paintings on the walls of St. Sophia of Kyiv, which are far in nature from ordinary church paintings. Scenes of princely hunting, musicians, buffoons, fantastic animals and birds are depicted here. In the XII-XIII centuries. In the painting of the cultural centers of Rus', local features are becoming more and more clearly evident. The Novgorod school of monumental painting is being formed. She was characterized by a desire to simplify artistic techniques, expressive interpretation of iconographic images, which enhanced the impact on the feelings of believers (for example, “Angel of Golden Hair”). About gradual formation Vladimir-Suzdal school painting is evidenced by fragments of frescoes preserved from the pre-Mongol period of the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons ("Our Lady of Bogolyubskaya" and "Dmitry of Thessaloniki"). The spread of writing led to the emergence of another type of painting - book miniatures. The most ancient Russian miniatures were distinguished by bright ornaments and an abundance of gold, for example Ostromirovo(1057) and Mstislavogo Gospels(between 1103 and 1117).

Russian culture of the pre-Mongol period rightfully stood on a par with Western European culture and actively interacted with it. The intense cultural upsurge of the Russian lands and the rapid development of distinctive regional cultural centers were interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors.

Culture of Russian lands during the period of Mongol rule (mid-XIII-XV centuries)

The Mongol invasion had catastrophic consequences for ancient Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings stopped for half a century. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost, great amount written monuments, chronicle writing, painting, and applied art fell into decay. And although from the end of the 13th century. There were signs of revival; decline in various spheres of culture was observed until the middle of the 14th century. The development of culture was negatively affected by the intensification from the middle of the 13th century. disunity of Russian lands. It should be noted that as a result of political changes that occurred in the 13th-15th centuries, the once united ancient Russian nation found itself divided. Entry into different state entities made it difficult to maintain and develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions once united Rus', deepened the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation of three East Slavic nationalities: Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. In the culture of each of these nationalities, specific features began to appear that reflected the emerging ethnic characteristics of the people and the specific historical conditions of their development. Only from the second half of the 14th century. a new rise of culture begins in the Russian lands. The main content of the cultural process was determined by the tasks of liberation from Horde rule and the reunification of the Russian lands. The leading role of Moscow is being determined in this process and its importance as one of the main cultural centers is increasing. While maintaining significant local characteristics in culture, the idea of the unity of Rus' becomes leading.

The struggle against Horde domination became the main theme and oral folk art. Many folk poetic works on this topic (epics, songs, tales, military stories) were included in a revised form in written literature. Among them are legends about the Battle of Kalka, about the destruction of Ryazan by Batu, about the hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, about the defender of Smolensk, the young man Mercury, who saved the city from the Mongol armies at the behest of the Mother of God. During this period, the creation of a cycle of epic epics about Kyiv and Prince Vladimir the Red Sun was completed. Narrating about the Tatar invasion, the composers of epics turn to images Kyiv heroes who drive out invaders. In the XIV century. The Novgorod epic cycle about the merchants Vasily Buslaevich and Sadko, which embodied the idea of the power of Novgorod, reached its highest peak. The emergence of a new genre of folklore dates back to this period - historical song. The characters and events in it are closer to reality than in the epic epic. The songs reflected the feat of ordinary people trying to stop Batu’s hordes. Historical song about Avdotya Ryazanochka glorifies a simple townswoman who saves the inhabitants of Ryazan from the crowd and revives the city anew. Song about Shchelkan Dudentievich became a response to the uprising against Baskak Cholkhan in Tver in 1327.

Literature XIII-XV centuries absorbed the established traditions of Ancient Rus': vivid journalism, focus on the most important political problems. It was especially closely connected with socio-political life chronicle, which, after a short period of decline, is being resumed in many large cities. From the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. the compilation of chronicles is experiencing a significant rise. Along with Novgorod and Pskov, chronicles are kept in Rostov the Great, Ryazan and Tver. Gradually, the Moscow chronicle tradition took the leading place, with Simonov, Andronikov and other monasteries becoming its centers. With the increasing political role of Moscow, its chronicle records lose their local characteristics and acquire a national character.

Despite the fact that the invasion had a detrimental effect on the preservation of book treasures and the level of literacy, the traditions of writing and bookmaking that developed in the 11th-12th centuries were nevertheless preserved and were further developed. In almost all large cities, monastery schools for children, which usually existed at churches, are being restored and expanded. From the second half of the 14th century. There has been a revival in the book business. Old books are being rewritten and new books are being created. In this regard, the nature of the letter changes and business documentation expands. Writing technique is undergoing changes. Expensive parchment is beginning to be replaced by cheaper materials. For changing charter letter(strict calligraphic lettering) in the 14th century. comes "half charter" - more fluent and free writing. Changing writing graphics speeded up the time it took to create books, made them cheaper and more accessible. Among the books, theological and so-called chetyi- books intended for individual reading. The most common type of books to read were electors - unique libraries in miniature.

At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. Stone architecture is being resumed in Rus'. By this time, the technology for processing the main types of previously used building materials and construction techniques were lost, so the buildings erected during this period turned out to be short-lived. Nevertheless, the formation of local architectural schools began. Brightness and originality distinguished the architecture of Novgorod and Pskov. The fusion of new and old traditions was reflected in the architecture of the Novgorod churches of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Assumption on Volotovo Pole (1352). Buildings of the second half of the 14th century. indicate the formation of a special Novgorod architectural style, a characteristic feature of which was the elegant external decoration of churches. Examples of this school are the churches of Fyodor Stratilates (1360) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374). The achievements of Pskov architects were expressed in the construction of fortresses. The entire architecture of Pskov had a fortress appearance: the buildings were austere, laconic and practical, almost devoid of decorative decoration. By the second quarter of the 14th century. refers to the beginning of stone construction in Moscow. In 1367, a white stone Kremlin was built - the only one in all of northeastern Rus'.

In the 15th century There was a further development of the main Russian architectural styles - Novgorod-Pskov and Moscow. An example of the first direction is the Pskov Church of Vasily on Gorka (1413). The most interesting civil building of this period is the Faceted Chamber in Novgorod (1433), erected on the orders of Archbishop Efimy of Novgorod, an ardent opponent of Moscow, who wanted to emphasize the sovereignty of Novgorod. Unique preserved monuments of early Moscow architecture are the Cathedral of the Assumption on Gorodok in Zvenigorod (about 1400), the churches of the Trinity-Sergius (1422), Savvino-Storozhevsky (1405) and Andronikov (about 1427) monasteries. The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and St. Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir served as models for them. The emphasized interest in Vladimir's architecture was due to the idea of the grand ducal heritage, which permeates all Moscow politics and is reflected in culture and art.

Second half of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. called the "golden age" of Russian wall painting. Novgorod monumental painting, based on local traditions and using the achievements of Byzantine art, is developing successfully. The path of development of Russian sculpture was also unique. The Church strictly maintained a ban on the use of three-dimensional sculpture as an object of worship. However, in the XIV-XV centuries. Semi-volume carved wooden sculpture, painted to resemble an icon, became widespread in Rus'. Folk pre-Christian traditions of wood carving manifested themselves in the archaic appearance of ancient Russian sculptures. The most revered were the wooden sculptures-icons of St. Nikola of Mozhaisky (1320s) and patroness of trade Paraskeva Pyatnitsa

The cultural development of the Russian lands during the period of Mongol rule was an extremely important stage in the formation of all-Russian culture. The completion of this process dates back to the next period, which began at the end of the 15th century.

CULTURE XIV-XV CENTURIES.

Folklore. Oral folk art - epics and songs, proverbs and sayings, fairy tales and conspiracies, ritual and other poetry - reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them. The epics about Vasily Buslaevich and Sadko glorify Novgorod with its bustling city life and trade caravans sailing to overseas countries.

It was during these centuries that the Kiev epic cycle about Vladimir the Red Sun finally took shape, in whose image one can discern the features of two great Russian princes: Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Vladimir Monomakh; about Ilya Muromets and other heroes of the Russian land. In addition to the facts of ancient Russian history, the epics also reflect later events associated with the Horde invasion and yoke: the battle on Kalka, victory on the Kulikovo field, liberation from the yoke of the Horde.

Many legends have folklore features - about the battle on Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu and Evpatiy Kolovrat, the defender of Smolensk Mercury, "Zadonshchina" and "The Legend of Mamaev's massacre". The historical song about Shchelkan Dudentievich tells about the uprising of the Tver people against Chol Khan and his detachment:
"And there was a battle between them. The Tatars, hoping for autocracy, began the battle. And the people flocked and the people were confused, and they struck the bells and stood with the eve. And the whole city turned around, and all the people gathered that hour, and there was a jam in them And the people of Tver shouted and began to beat the Tatars..."

The song, on the one hand, quite accurately depicts the course of the uprising of 1327, and on the other hand, it ignores the fact that the Tatars eventually took revenge on the Tver people. The compilers of the song, without taking this circumstance into account, based on the rightness of the people, state otherwise: “It was not exacted from anyone.”

Literature. Historical thought. Heroic and hagiographic, or biographical, themes have occupied a large place in literature. A number of military stories tell about the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the struggle of brave Russians against them. Defense of their native land, fearlessness in the fight against its enemies and invaders is their constant motive: “It is better for us to buy our belly by death than by the vile will of being.”

A sublime and patriotic story about Alexander Nevsky was written by his warrior. He glorifies the “courage and life” of his hero - “our Grand Duke, both smart and meek, sensible, and brave,” “invincible, never mind.” Describes the battles won by the “thoughtful” commander, his trip to the Horde and his death.

Later, on the basis of this story, “The Life of St. Alexander Nevsky” was created. His hero is depicted as an ideal ruler, similar to biblical and Roman heroes: with a face like Joseph, strength like Samson, wisdom like Solomon, and courage like the Roman emperor Vespasian.

Under the influence of this monument, the life of Dovmont, the Pskov prince of the 13th century, the winner of the Lithuanian princes and Livonian knights, was reworked: its short and dry edition turned into a lengthy one, filled with sublime and picturesque descriptions of the exploits of the Pskov hero.

Other stories and lives are dedicated to the princes who died in the Horde: Vasilko Konstantinovich of Rostov, Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, Mikhail Yaroslavich and Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver, etc. All of them are presented as undaunted defenders of the Christian faith, that is, their land and people.

From the second half of the 14th century. a significant number of works talk about the fight against the Horde - the Battle of Kulikovo ("Zadonshchina", chronicle stories), Tokhtamyshev's ruin in 1382, the "coming" of Tamerlane to Rus'.

“Zadonshchina” occupies a special place among these monuments. Its author, Sophony Ryazanets, views the events of 1380 as a direct continuation of the struggle of Kievan Rus against steppe nomadic predators. It is not without reason that his model is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which tells the story of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversky, against the Polovtsians in 1185. The victory on the Kulikovo Field is retribution for the defeat on the Kayala River. From the Lay, Zephanius borrows images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions.

Other Moscow artists also provide high examples of folk poetic speech. monuments XIV- XV centuries. This is the lyrical lament of “The Tale of the Ruin of Moscow by Khan Tokhtamysh”: “Who would not weep like this for the destruction of this glorious city.” In the devastated capital, the author continues, there reigned “crying and sobbing, and much crying, and tears, and inconsolable screaming, and much lamentation, and bitter sadness, and inconsolable sorrow, unbearable misfortune, terrible need, and mortal grief, fear, horror and trembling".

Chronicles occupied a leading place in literature and historical thought. After the break caused by Batu's invasion, chronicle writing resumed, more or less quickly, at the courts of princes, at the metropolitan and episcopal departments. Chronicles were already written in the 30-40s. XIII century in Rostov the Great, Ryazan, then in Vladimir (from 1250), Tver (from the end of the 13th century). Chronicle writing continued in Novgorod and Pskov.

All chronicles reflected local interests, the views of princes and boyars, church hierarchs; sometimes - the views of ordinary, “lesser” people. These are, for example, the records of one of the Novgorod chronicles about the rebellion of the mid-13th century:
"And the menshii rekosha at St. Nicholas (at the Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker) at the veche: "Brother! Qi how the prince says: “Give up my enemies!” And you kissed the Holy Mother of God (the icon of the Mother of God) of the menshii - what on earth for everyone, either life (life) or death for the truth of Novgorod, for their fatherland. And when the council of the rich, noble became angry, how to defeat the menshii and bring in the prince of his own free will.”

This passage is about an uprising, during which the Novgorodians were divided in two - the “smaller” (poor) against the “big” (rich); if the first opposed the second and the prince, then the second sought to “defeat” the first, and keep the prince “in their will.” It is characteristic that “for the truth of Novgorod, for their fatherland,” i.e., for the interests of the Novgorod land, according to this entry, it is “lesser” and not “big” people who stand.

The compilation of chronicles and other works, the copying of manuscripts has been on the rise since the second half of the 14th century. Gradually the leading place passes to Moscow. In the capital itself, its monasteries (Simonov, Andronikov, etc.), the Trinity-Sergius Monastery at this and later times, a large number of manuscripts of spiritual and secular content (Gospels, chronicles, lives of saints, words, teachings, etc.) were copied.

In the Moscow chronicles of the late XIV - XV centuries. The ideas of the unity of Rus', the Kyiv and Vladimir heritage, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands and the fight against the Horde are promoted. A presentation of world history, including Russian history, is given in the "Russian Chronograph".

Architecture, painting. Andrey Rublev. The construction of wooden buildings - huts and mansions, chapels and churches - resumed after the Mongol-Tatar invasion quite quickly - life required housing and a temple, even the most modest one. Stone buildings appear at the end of the 13th century. In the XIV - XV centuries. their number is greatly increasing. The churches of St. Nicholas on Lipna near Novgorod (1292), Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream (1360), the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) and others in the city itself have survived to this day.

In cities and monasteries, stone walls and other fortifications are built. Such are the stone fortresses in Izborsk, Oreshk and Yama, Koporye and Porkhov, the Moscow Kremlin (60s of the 14th century), etc. In Novgorod the Great in the 15th century. built a complex of buildings of the Sophia House - the residence of the archbishop (the Faceted Chamber, the clock-bell, the palace of Bishop Evfimy), the boyar chambers.

Churches and cathedrals were usually painted with frescoes, and icons were hung in altars and on the walls. The names of the masters are sometimes given in chronicles. In one of the Moscow chronicles, for example, it is written: the Archangel Cathedral was painted (1344) by “Russian scribes... among them were the elders and chief icon painters - Zacharias, Joseph, Nicholas and their other retinue.”

Among the craftsmen who worked in Novgorod, Theophanes the Greek, or Grechin, who came from Byzantium, became especially famous. His frescoes in the churches of the Savior on Ilyin and Fyodor Stratelates amaze with their majesty, monumentality and great expression in depicting biblical subjects. He also worked in Moscow. Epiphanius the Wise, compiler of the lives of saints, called Theophan a “glorious sage”, “a very cunning philosopher”, “a deliberate isographer and an elegant painter of icon painters”. He writes that the master worked in a free, easy manner: standing on a stage in the church and applying paints to the walls, at the same time talking with the audience standing below; and every time there were quite a lot of them.

Russian fresco painting and icon painting reached the highest degree of expressiveness and perfection in the work of the brilliant Andrei Rublev. He was born around 1370, became a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, then the Moscow Spaso-Andronikov Monastery. Together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, then, this time in collaboration with friend Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Later, they also worked on frescoes and icons for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery At the end of his life the master worked in Andronievo, where he died and was buried (around 1430).

The work of Andrei Rublev was highly valued already in the 15th - 16th centuries. According to contemporaries and descendants close in time, he is “an extraordinary icon painter and surpasses everyone in wisdom.” Epiphanius the Wise, a student of Sergius of Radonezh and the author of his life, placed in the latter miniatures depicting Rublev (the artist on the stage paints a wall icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands, the burial of Rublev by monks).

The era of national upsurge during the struggle of Dmitry Donskoy, Moscow with the Horde, the Kulikovo victory, success in uniting Russian forces was reflected in the work of the great artist - the world of his images and ideas called for unity, harmony, humanity.

His most famous work is “The Trinity” from the iconostasis of the aforementioned Trinity Cathedral. Written in the ancient tradition, it is deeply national in its softness and harmony, the noble simplicity of the figures depicted and the transparency and tenderness of the colors. They reflect the characteristic features of Russian nature and human nature. They are also inherent in other icons and frescoes - “Savior”, apostles, angels. The work of the great artist was highly valued by his descendants - chronicles mention him, his icons were given to influential people, princes. The Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 ordered that “an icon painter should paint icons... as Andrei Rublev and other notorious (famous, illustrious) icon painters wrote.”

In the 15th century on the icons, in addition to traditional scenes from the Bible, the lives of saints, landscapes (forests and mountains, cities and monasteries), portraits (for example, on the icon “Praying Novgorodians” - a portrait of a boyar family), battle scenes (for example, the victory of the Novgorodians over Suzdal residents on one of the Novgorod icons).

Folding large political centers in Rus' and the struggle between them for the great reign of Vladimir. Formation of the Tver and Moscow principalities. Ivan Kalita. Construction of the white stone Kremlin.

Dmitry Donskoy. The Battle of Kulikovo, its historical significance. Relations with Lithuania. Church and State. Sergius of Radonezh.

Merger of the Great Vladimir and Moscow principalities. Rus' and the Union of Florence. The internecine war of the second quarter of the 15th century, its significance for the process of unification of Russian lands.

Lecture 17. Literature and art of Ancient Rus' (9th-14th centuries)

Features of development ancient Russian literature. Periodization.
Art and literature of the period of Kievan Rus. "The Tale of Bygone Years."
Art and literature of the era of feudal fragmentation and during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections.

Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created.

Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Sciences such as textual criticism and paleography can come to the rescue (studies external signs handwritten monuments – handwriting, lettering, nature of the writing material).

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

In the 14th century, parchment was replaced by paper. The statutory letter is replaced by a more rounded one.

Question periodization of ancient Russian literature has not yet been finally resolved. Undoubtedly, the stages of development of Old Russian literature are closely related to the stages of development of Old Russian people and the state.

Taking into account the uniqueness of ideas, original and translated works, main genres and styles, it is possible to highlight in the history of the development of Old Russian literature (in addition to the initial) four periods:

· Literature of Kievan Rus (11th – first third of the 12th century). Associated with intensive development Old Russian writing. Ancient Rus' becomes acquainted with a large number of monuments of translated literature, both canonical, church, and apocryphal, didactic, historical and narrative. During this period, original ancient Russian literature was born and developed. The most important genres are formed - hagiography, didactic and solemn sermon, teaching, description of travel, chronicle, historical and military story, legend. The literature of this period is imbued with the patriotic, civic pathos of love for the great Russian land.

· Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th – mid-13th century). Russia breaks up into a number of independent feudal semi-states, and the development of literature takes on a regional character. Literary schools are being created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk. In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, the genres of travel, historical stories, and solemn oratorical eloquence are developing (“words” of Kirill Turovsky, Kliment Smolyatich; “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”).

· Literature from the period of the struggle against foreign invaders and the unification of northeastern Rus' (mid 13th – early 15th century). The heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders is clearly reflected. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”. In the literature of this time, the main themes were the struggle against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars - and the strengthening of the Russian state, glorifying the military and moral exploits of the Russian people. During this period, Epiphanius the Wise revived and raised the emotionally expressive style to a new level of artistic perfection. The style of historical narration is further developed, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” (“The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”) is strengthened. In the 15th century Novgorod literature, as well as the literature of Tver, reaches its peak. Afanasy Nikitin’s “Walking across Three Seas” is associated with democratic urban culture. The literature of this period reflected the main character traits of the emerging Great Russian people: perseverance, heroism, the ability to endure adversity and difficulties, the will to fight and win. There is growing interest in psychological states human soul.

· Literature from the period of strengthening the Russian centralized state (16th – 17th centuries) . In the 16th century, a merger process took place regional literature into one common one. Two trends are strictly observed: one is the observance of strict rules and canons of writing, church rites, and everyday life, the other is the violation of these rules. The latter begins to appear not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical storytelling. Literature, in connection with historical changes (Bolotnikov’s peasant war, the fight against intervention), expands the scope of reality, changes the genre system, and begins to free itself from the belief in divine predestination. The principles of the artistic method of medieval literature - symbolism, etiquette - are being destroyed. The life turns into an everyday biography. Vivid evidence of this is “The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya” and “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks in 1641.” In the second half of the 17th century, the process of secularization of literature, its liberation from the tutelage of the church, and the process of its democratization accelerated. Traditional genres of church and business writing become objects of literary parody (“Kazan Petition” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”). Folklore is rushing into literature in a broad wave. The genres of folk satirical tales, epics, and song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

The process of personal self-awareness is reflected in a new genre - the everyday story, in which a new hero appears - a merchant's son or a rootless nobleman. Together appears syllabic poetry, courtier and school theater, which indicates the triumph of new beginnings, which prepared the way for the emergence of classicism in Russian literature.

Art and literature of the Kievan Rus period

9th century opens a new page in the history of the Slavic people. The process of gathering the East Slavic tribes under a single princely authority begins with the help military force– and a young strong state is born. The beginning of the era of Kievan Rus is usually attributed either to the chronicle story about the recognition of the Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor to reign in Novgorod in 862, or to determine the time of the Kiev campaign of the legendary Prophetic Oleg in 882. The period ends, as a rule, with the reign of Yaroslav in Kiev the Wise (1019 – 1054), sometimes brought to the time of Vladimir Monomakh (1113 – 1125).

Thus, chronological framework era of Kievan Rus - mid-IX - early 12th centuries.

In the XII – XIII centuries. In the history of Rus', a period of feudal fragmentation began. In one of the chronicles from 1132 it is written: “And the whole Russian land was enraged.”

By the time of Batu’s invasion, the number of independent princely possessions had reached 50. The sharp-tongued Russian people reflected this in an ironic saying: “In Russian land, seven princes have one warrior.”

At the same time, the initial phase of the era of feudal fragmentation, before the factor of conquest intervened in the course of development, was accompanied by the rapid growth of cities and the cultural flourishing of the Russian lands.

Without a doubt, the most important cultural component of the period of Kievan Rus was the adoption of Christianity by Russia.

No less important was another factor related to the religious psychology of the people, the peculiarities of their artistic and emotional perception of the world. The Tale of Bygone Years contains an extensive account of the doubts of Vladimir and his boyars when choosing a faith. When missionaries from Byzantium, Muslims from Danube Bulgaria, and Jews from Khazaria arrived in Rus', the prince was dissatisfied with the sermons of everyone except the Byzantines. Therefore he sent the boyars to different countries to choose the best faith. The final decision - the choice of Christianity of the Byzantine rite - was determined by the following reasons: “And we came to the Greek land, and led us to where they serve their God, and we did not know whether we were in heaven or on earth: for there is no such spectacle and such beauty on earth, and we do not know how to say about it, - we only know that God is with the people there, and their service is better than in other countries. We cannot forget that beauty, for every person, if he tastes the sweet, will not then take the bitter; So we can no longer remain in paganism here.”

The above passage reflects the strong impression that Byzantine worship made on the Russians, who were first becoming acquainted with Christianity.

Formally, Rus' became Christian. The funeral pyres went out, the fires of Perun died out, but for a long time pagan mounds were poured throughout the villages, they prayed to the Svarozhich fire, and celebrated exuberant holidays of antiquity. Paganism began its long journey of merging with Christianity. Servants ancient religion– Magi are mentioned in chronicles back in the 12th century. as organizers of the Kyiv uprising of 1113

Therefore, speaking about the progressive significance of the adoption of Christianity in Rus' in foreign policy, state, and social aspects, one should not recognize Christianization as the only determining factor in the cultural evolution of the Russian people. Even though painting, music, to a large extent architecture and almost all the literature of Kievan Rus were in the orbit of Christian thought, a careful look at the masterpieces of ancient Russian art will reveal their deep kinship with the archaic heritage: headpieces-initials of the texts of books and chronicles, frescoes and sculptural ornaments of cathedrals, melodic structure of church chants.

Thus, the culture of Kievan Rus absorbed the achievements of the East Slavic tribes, borrowed the experience of other peoples, including Byzantium and nomads, and also made its own contribution from contemporaries, forming originality and independence.

Writing and education during the period of Kievan Rus

The factor that prepared the adoption of Christianity by Russia was the creation in the second half of the 9th century. Slavic writing based on the Greek statutory letter with the addition of a few letters. The creation of writing is associated with the names of the brothers Cyril (827 - 869) and Methodius (815 - 885), who arrived from Byzantium to the Great Moravian Empire at the invitation of Prince Rostislav for missionary purposes in 863. They not only created the Slavic alphabet, but also translated it from ancient greek language books Holy Scripture.

In the 10th century There is already evidence of the use of the Cyrillic alphabet in Rus'. Treaty 911 between Oleg and Byzantium was written in two languages - Greek and Slavic. There is numerous chronicle and archaeological evidence of the widespread spread of literacy among various strata of society. Novgorod birch bark letters containing notes for memory have been found everywhere since the 11th century.

Literacy was most widespread among the urban population. The townspeople left inscriptions - “graffiti” on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Smolensk, Novgorod. Among such inscriptions are reflections on life, complaints, and prayers.

From the 11th century In the families of the rich, boys and girls began to be taught to read and write. Yanka, the sister of Vladimir Monomakh, created a convent in Kyiv, and with it a school for teaching girls to read and write.

Schools of a higher type also appeared that prepared for state and church service. One of these schools was at the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery. It taught theology, philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, using historical works, collections of sayings of ancient authors, and geographical works.

Knowledge of foreign languages was widespread among the princes and their families. The chronicles called the princes “book men” - Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl, Konstantin Vsevolodovich of Rostov. Some women in princely families also received education. Thus, Princess Euphrosyne of Polotsk “was trained in book writing” and wrote books herself.

The names of 39 scribes of the 11th – 13th centuries are known, 15 of them were clergymen. In the 11th century There were libraries in Rus', they contained collections of sayings of famous poets, philosophers, theologians of the world, and translated books.

Old Russian literature of the period of Kievan Rus. "The Tale of Bygone Years"

Old Russian literature was born, judging by the monuments, in the first half of the 11th century. among the ruling class.

In Ancient Rus', the church played a large role in the literary process. Along with secular has received widespread development church literature.

Medieval literature in Rus' existed only within the framework of the handwritten tradition. Even the advent of the printing press changed the situation little until the mid-18th century. The material for writing was parchment and specially tanned calfskin. Paper finally replaces parchment only in the 15th – 16th centuries. They wrote with ink and cinnabar until the 19th century. used goose feathers. The high cost of the material determines the economy of writing: the text was presented in one line without syllable division, frequently occurring words were abbreviated under the so-called titles. Handwriting XI – XIII centuries. in science it is called charter due to its clear, solemn character. A type of Old Russian book is a voluminous manuscript made up of notebooks sewn into a wooden binding covered with embossed leather. Already in the 11th century. Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appeared in Rus'. Their binding was bound in gold or silver, decorated with pearls, precious stones, and enamel. These are the “Ostromir Gospel” (XI century) and the “Mstislav Gospel” (XII century).

The basis of the literary language was the living spoken language of Ancient Rus', more precisely, its regional dialects, southern and northern (Dnieper region and Novgorod the Great). At the same time, in the process of its formation, an important role was played by the closely related language, although foreign in origin, Old Church Slavonic, or Church Slavonic. It was to it that the Moravian brothers Cyril and Methodius were transferred in the second half of the 9th century. books of Holy Scripture. On its basis, church writing developed in Rus' and worship was conducted.

Being one of the dialects of the Old Bulgarian language, Church Slavonic had a large set of abstract concepts that settled in the Russian language so firmly that they became its integral property: space, eternity, reason, truth.

All ancient Russian literature is divided into two parts: translated and original.

Translation was considered as part of one's own national literature. The ecclesiastical nature of Old Russian literature determined the choice of translated works that existed in the manuscript tradition and the approach of the authors, which was manifested even in the description of history, in everyday stories and in other seemingly secular subjects.

First stage translated ancient Slavic writing was determined, along with the Holy Scriptures, by the works of the early Christian church fathers of the 4th – 6th centuries: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Jerusalem.

Works of popular literature were also translated - “Chronicle” by John Malala, “Christian Topography” by Cosmas Indicoplov, apocrypha, and patericon. The most popular was the Psalter, liturgical and explanatory.

The first original works written by East Slavic authors date back to the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. Among them are such outstanding monuments as “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Life of Theodosius of Lechersky”, “The Word of Law and Grace”.

Genre diversity of ancient Russian literature of the 11th – 12th centuries. small: chronicle, life And word.

The division of works of ancient Russian literature into genres is quite arbitrary. This happens because the East Slavic scribes themselves did not have common ideas about genre categories. With the same, most general term “ word“The writers called both the solemn speech of Metropolitan Hilarion and the military story.

Among the genres of ancient Russian literature, the central place is occupied by chronicle, which developed over eight centuries (XI – XVIII centuries). No European tradition has had as many chronicles as the Russian one.

Mostly, although not always, chronicle writing in Rus' was carried out by monks who had undergone special training. Chronicles were compiled on behalf of the prince, abbot or bishop, sometimes on personal initiative. If the chronicle was kept on direct orders, it was more or less official in nature, reflecting political position, likes and dislikes of the customer.

The oldest Russian chronicle is called “ The Tale of Bygone Years"(1068). In the original, it has a more extensive title: “This is the story of bygone years, where the Russian land came from, who began to rule first in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came from.” This chronicle has reached us in handwritten copies no older than the 14th century. Of these, two are the most remarkable: a collection of 1377, conventionally called the Laurentian Chronicle after the scribe-monk Laurentius, who copied it for the Suzdal Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich, and a collection of the early 15th century, called the Ipatiev Chronicle after the place of storage - the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma .

The main difference between both lists of the Tale is at its end. The Laurentian Chronicle ends with a story cut short in mid-sentence about the miraculous appearance on February 11, 1110 of a pillar of fire over the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. In the Ipatiev list this story is completed and is followed by several more legends under 1111, 1112 and 1113.

The authorship of the “Tale” is attributed to a monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor, who created it around 1113. main idea The work is deeply patriotic - the unity of the Russian land. The princely strife and bloody strife that began to shake the Russian land then are condemned by the chronicler. Thus, Kyiv became the place of origin of the first all-Russian chronicle, telling about the history of the Russian land as a whole.

The materials for the “Tale...” included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions. The compiler set out to determine the place Eastern Slavs among European and Asian peoples. The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement of the Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs, about the morals and customs of different tribes.

The work emphasizes the unity of culture, language and writing of the Slavic people. After the introduction, the chronicler turns to the history of the first Russian princes, tells the legend about how the noble Scandinavian Rurik was called to Rus' as a ruler, and tells about the deeds of his descendants. The chronicle shows how the Old Russian state is growing, its borders are expanding, and its enemies are weakening.

The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. Central location in “The Tale...” - a story about the first Christians, the baptism of Rus', the spread of a new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism. The final part of the “Tale...” is devoted to the idea of the need for agreement between the Russian princes.
Throughout the story there is a preaching of brotherly love among princes and unity in the fight against external enemies.

The chronicle reflected the class struggle taking place in the Kiev state. Under 1068, it tells about the uprising of the masses in Kyiv, caused by the defeat of the three Russian Yaroslavich princes - Izyaslav, Vsevolod and Svyatoslav in a clash with the Polovtsians on the Alta River. After everything, Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv, and Svyatoslav fled to Chernigov. The chronicler does not directly express his attitude towards the rebels of Kiev. He sympathizes with Vseslav's release from prison.

In the 3rd edition of the “Tale...” under 1113 it is reported that after the death of Prince Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh refuses to take the Kiev table. The Kiev nobility threatened Monomakh that if he persisted in his refusal, the rebels would go to rob the prince’s daughter-in-law, the boyars, and the monastery. After that, Vladimir sat down on the Kiev table. A significant part of the narrative material of the chronicle is distinguished by signs of poetic presentation. Unlike the Byzantine chronicles, which begin their presentation from the “creation of the world,” “The Tale ...” begins with a story about the division of the earth between the sons of Noah and the confusion of languages after the Babylonian pandemonium. Then we talk about separating the Slavic people from the tribe of Noah’s son, Japheth.

Sources of the story : chronicles, chronicles (George Amartol), folklore. A multi-faceted, multi-genre story about the vast expanses of Rus' from the Ugric Mountains to the Volga, from Ladoga to Kerch.

Along with oral traditions, “The Tale...” also used written sources, Russian and foreign. For example, the “Chronicle” of George Amartol, from which the legends told on the first pages of the chronicle are drawn - about the division of the land between the sons of Noah, information about life and customs different nations, about the facts of Byzantine history, etc. Information about Polyano-Rus and the translation of books into the Slavic language was extracted from a Moravian-Pannonian source that has not reached us. Information about Igor’s campaigns against Constantinople in 941 and 944 is borrowed from the life of Vasily the New. The story of Vladimir’s baptism in Korsun goes back to a Greek source.
Russian sources of “The Tale...”: folklore, military stories, monastic tales, lives (Boris and Gleb), teachings, legends.

Some events are conveyed in the chronicle in the impressions of eyewitnesses and the memories of the editor of the code.

The final part of the “Tale...” is permeated with the idea of the need for agreement between the Russian princes, that the mutual hatred of the princes is a grave sin, a crime against the Lord.
The Russian chronicle is imbued with the lofty idea of serving the native land, concern for its well-being, and a zealous attitude towards its honor and dignity. Calls to stand up for your native land. Standing for the Russian land - to the point of suffering and dying for it - is inextricably linked in the chronicles with the consciousness of knightly honor and the thirst for military glory, respect for the traditions of fathers and grandfathers. There is a persistent preaching of brotherly love and unity of princes in the fight against external enemies. The chronicle reflected the class struggle taking place in the Kiev state. The chronicler does not directly express his attitude towards the rebels of Kiev.

Images of “The Tale...”

Olga.The image of a wise woman, beautiful, strong-willed, persistent, resourceful. She is a devoted wife who avenged her husband. Positive mother. A brave warrior, the first to be baptized. She brutally avenged the death of Igor on the Drevlyans.

Svyatoslav, son of Olga. According to the chronicle, he “walked easily, like a pardus, and created many wars.” Perhaps the most warlike Russian prince. War is his usual element. His name alone instills fear in his enemies: the Pechenegs scatter in different directions when they learn that Svyatoslav is coming towards them. He defeats the Khazars, Vyatichi, and Danube Bulgarians. Dies in the fight against the Pechenegs. Does not accept Christianity, unlike Olga. Honor and dignity are dear to him, flight from the battlefield is an indelible shame for him, worse than death. Noble: Warns countries of attack. Having made peace with the defeated Greeks, he promises not only never to fight them, but also to protect them if they are attacked.

Vladimir Svyatoslavich – younger son Prince Svyatoslav and housekeeper Princess Olga Malushi. From 969 he ruled in Novgorod. In 980, Vladimir, having killed his half-brother Yaropolk, became the Grand Duke of Kyiv. By his order, the heir to the throne, Yaropolk, was killed, and Vladimir took his pregnant widow as a concubine. Vladimir had five legal wives and many concubines: in Vyshgorod - about 300 concubines, in Belgorod - 300, in the village of Berestovo - about 200. His first wife was Princess Rogneda of Polotsk, whom he took as his wife by force. To achieve Rogneda, Vladimir captured her hometown of Polotsk and killed all her relatives: her father and brothers. Disillusioned with paganism, he became a Christian.
Vladimir did a lot to strengthen the borders of the state. He undertook campaigns against the Vyatichi, Radimichi and Lithuanians.

The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich is considered the period of the rise of Rus'. By the beginning of the 11th century, almost all major unions of the Eastern Slavs became part of the state. Vladimir the Holy died on July 15, 1015 while preparing for a campaign against his son Yaroslav, who reigned in Novgorod. Prince Vladimir was loved by the people. Having learned about his death, “numerous people came together and cried for him: the boyars as for the intercessor of the country, the poor as for their intercessor and provider” (“The Tale of Bygone Years”).

Another common genre of ancient Russian literature is “ hagiography” – literally corresponds to the Greek “life” and the Latin “vita”. He presents biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - founders of monasteries, and less often biographies of secular persons, but only those who were considered saints by the church. Hence, lives in science are often referred to as “ hagiography"(from agios - holy and grafo - writing). The compilation of lives required adherence to rules and style of presentation. These included a leisurely narration in the third person, compositional adherence to three parts: introduction, life itself and conclusion. The main character was portrayed as an immutable saint, and the negative character was introduced for contrast and acted in the background. The genre of hagiography is immobile; it excludes the description of the development of character and usually comes down to the selection of material to illustrate the holiness of the hero.

Hagiography, therefore, is a pre-realistic art, the closest parallel of which may be ancient Russian icon painting. In a person, all features of his individuality, “temporariness” were eliminated; he became a generalized embodiment of either good or evil. According to legend, Nestor the Chronicler is the author of all three of the first lives that have come down to us - two lives of the first Christian martyrs, the prince-brothers Boris and Gleb, and the life of Abbot Theodosius, the founder of the Kiev Lavra.

Speeches, called in the old days teachings And words, belong to the genre of eloquence, the “golden age” of development of which in Rus' occurred in the 12th century, but already in the 13th century. it falls into decay and completely disappears from literary use in the 14th century.

Teachingspursued practical goals of edification, information, and controversy. A striking example of this genre is the “Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh”, which came to us in the Laurentian copy of the “Tale of Bygone Years” under 1096. At the beginning of the “Instruction”, one of the outstanding princes of his time, Vladimir Monomakh, gives his sons a number of moral instructions, writing out for edification: they are quotations from Holy Scripture. However, very soon this moralizing theme, set by church tradition, develops into a political testament, into a lesson to the sons on how to reign and govern the state. The “Instruction” ends with the prince’s autobiography.

Solemn eloquence (oratorical prose) - a field of creativity that required not only depth ideological plan, but also big literary excellence. The oldest monument of this genre that has come down to us is the “Sermon on Law and Grace,” the authorship of which is supposedly attributed to the first Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion and dates back to between 1037 and 1050.

Architecture of the Kievan Rus period

Another type of ancient Russian art, architecture, was also greatly influenced by the church. With the advent of Christianity in Rus', widespread construction of religious buildings, churches and monasteries began. One of the first central monasteries was Kiev-Pechersk, founded in the middle of the 11th century. Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk. Pechery, or caves, are places where Christian ascetics initially settled and around which a settlement later arose, turning into a communal monastery.

Along with Kievsky is also known Ilyinsky underground monastery in Chernigov - a unique historical and architectural monument in the thickness of Boldinaya Gora, according to legend, founded by the same Anthony around 1069. Another such famous one became Pechersky Monastery near Izborsk, Pskov region.

The phenomenon of cave seclusion came to Rus' along with Christianity and is associated with the name of its apologist, St. Anthony. The most extraordinary phenomenon of Christian spiritual culture, also called hesychia(silence, smart doing) is the path of spiritual practice of transforming the human spirit through asceticism, withdrawal from the world.

Underground monasteries were centers of hesychia in Rus', for here neither the sound of the world nor the light of the sun interfered with prayerful concentration. Traditional life in communal monasteries was not so strict. People who renounced ordinary life and went to monasteries could continue to perform many worldly duties. Abbots of monasteries, along with bishops, acted as diplomats, judges, and mediators. Monasteries became centers for the dissemination of spiritual knowledge. An ordinary monk could become a chronicler, architect, or icon painter. There is no doubt that it was the monasteries that played a decisive role in introducing the Russian people to the cultural riches of Byzantium, in spreading enlightenment and creating major literary and artistic treasures.

After the adoption of Christianity at the end of the 10th century. started in Rus' stone construction. The first structures of this type were built by Byzantine craftsmen. In 989 it was founded in Kyiv Tithe Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. A tenth of the prince’s income was allocated for her maintenance. During the Batu invasion in 1240, it was destroyed. Archaeological excavations and research of the ruins of this ancient temple of Rus', carried out by M.K. Karger, allowed us to establish that this building with an area of about 900 square meters. m., crowned, according to the chronicle, with 25 tops, i.e., chapters, was grandiose in design and execution.

The 13th top was also multi-headed Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, erected during the time of Yaroslav the Wise. The namesake of the cathedrals of Kyiv and Constantinople was intended to establish the equality of Rus' with Byzantium. Archaeological excavations discovered that the temple was surrounded by the fortress wall of the metropolitan castle. St. Sophia Cathedral is a monument not only of architecture, but also of fine art. Mosaics have been preserved in the interior of the cathedral, and the floor was also mosaic. Many frescoes are painted on Russian subjects: the family of Yaroslav the Wise is depicted, everyday scenes - buffoons dancing, mummers wrestling, bear hunting.

In the 30s of the 11th century. The stone Golden Gate with the Gate Church of the Annunciation was built. In the same century, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, churches in Polotsk, Chernigov, Vydubitsky and Kiev-Pechersk monasteries were built. In Vyshgorod, near Kiev, in honor of the first Russian saints - princes Boris and Gleb - a grandiose temple with an area of about 600 sq.m. is being built.

An outstanding work of architecture of Kievan Rus was St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod(1045 – 1050), in the architectural appearance of which some features of the future Novgorod architectural style can already be discerned. It is much more strict than the Kyiv one, has five domes arranged in a symmetrical order, and the walls are much more powerful and more severe, built from local limestone. There are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, but not as dynamic as in Kyiv, and an excess of ornamental decorations of pagan antiquity with a clearly visible pattern of knotted writing.

Kievan Rus was a country of highly developed crafts. pottery, metalworking, jewelry. In the 10th century A potter's wheel appears, and throughout the entire territory of the former Kievan state, archaeologists still find magnificent slate spindle whorls and weights for spindles. By the middle of the 11th century. belongs to the famous sword with the Russian inscription “Lyudota forged”, since that time Russian swords have been found in archaeological excavations in the Baltic states, Finland, and Scandinavia. The jewelry technique of Russian craftsmen was very complex, and Russian products were in great demand on the world market of that time.

Art and literature of the era of feudal fragmentation

XII – XIII centuries - the heyday of the chronicles of local feudal centers. The monuments that have reached us are most often represented by chronicle vaults. Local chroniclers included in such codes not only weather records about the most important events, but also entire artistic narratives, changing the original texts relatively little. It was the chronicles that were preserved for descendants outstanding works Russian literature, which have not reached us as independent monuments.

Of all the chronicles of the era, the greatest historical and cultural interest is Kyiv chronicle code 1198., compiled by the abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery Moses. It reflects not only Kyiv events, but also events that took place in Chernigov, Galich, Novgorod, Vladimir, Ryazan, and even foreign events, like one of crusades Frederick Barbarossa. Scientists count about ten manuscripts used by Moses in compiling the code, including the “Caesar's record” about the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky.

At the beginning of the 12th century. a chronicle tradition arises in the Rostov-Suzdal land. Most famous Vladimir chronicle code 1177., created under Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, aimed to show the leading role of the northeastern region in the history of the Russian land and the special role of Vladimir as its capital.

Novgorod chroniclers were more attentive to events than those from Kyiv and Vladimir hometown. The chronicles of Novgorod report either city fires, or floods, when the waters of the Volkhov forced residents to sit on the roofs in a choir, or drought and the forced purchase of bread in Suzdal.

Thus, chronicles are a kind of treasury of historical and literary heritage of the past.

Literary monuments

An outstanding place among the literary monuments of the era of feudal fragmentation is occupied by "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", written, as scientists suggest, in Kiev around 1185. The fate of his manuscript is no less tragic than the Book of Veles (see Chapter 9). In 1792, a collection containing the text of the Lay was discovered in Yaroslavl. For two decades the manuscript was available for study. During the fire of 1812 in Moscow on Razgulay, it burned down. Fortunately, the copy taken before the source was lost was published in printing. Soon doubts begin to appear about the reliability of the “Tale,” although its original was studied by such a recognized authority as N.M. Karamzin. The argument was put forward by the high level of Russian culture that the poem demonstrated, which was not recognized at that time, so that it was even called “a rosebush in a rye field.” However, interest in Russian antiquity and its in-depth study in the 19th century. influenced the fact that the general level of Russian culture became known much better and “The Lay” harmoniously fit into it.

Doubts about the authenticity of the monument arose again in the 20th century. with the publication in German-occupied Paris of A. Mazon’s book, which claimed that “The Lay” was a forgery of the 18th century. But an analysis of the language of the poem and the Polovtsian words in it proved its true origins in the 12th century. As for the Polovtsian inclusions, this extinct Turkic language became known to scientists only in the middle of the 19th century, that is, after the destruction of the manuscript, and only thanks to the discovery of a Latin-Polovtsian-Persian dictionary in the library of the poet Petrarch.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” tells the story of the defeat of the troops of the Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavovich by the Polovtsian khan Konchak in 1185 and Konchak’s rapid campaign against Kiev, which turned out to be impossible to stop due to the infighting of the princes and their “non-help” to Prince Igor. The poem is addressed against the “diversity” of the Russian princes in the face of a common danger. “The Lay” is an outstanding example of ancient Russian literature, the author of which shows mastery of metaphor and rhythmic prose. He is not only a poet, but also a historian, looking eight centuries back from his era.

The figure of the guslar Boyan is deeply meaningful, whose very name is connected with the concept of a person who rules over spirits, with his gift of super-knowledge and divination.

The best examples of lyrical symbolism in Russian literature include Yaroslavna's lament for her husband, Prince Igor. In Yaroslavna’s appeals to the wind, the Dnieper, and the sun, the author chooses the rhythm of the large free breath of people’s crying. The rhythm of the poem often changes, following the meaning of the work. The peculiar musicality of the language is conveyed by the exact correspondence of the rhythmic form and ideological content of the narrative. Love for the homeland and people determined the choice of artistic means of expression, close to folklore, imparted high ideological content to the entire work and determined the long life of the “Word” in the memory of descendants.

Two literary works are of great historical and cultural interest: "The Word of Daniel the Sharper" And "The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner". “The Lay” is a petition dating back to around 1197. In the form of aphorisms favored by medieval authors, Daniil describes various aspects of Russian life in the 12th century. He denounces the princely tiuns who oppress petty feudal lords, expresses dissatisfaction with rich and stupid people, and mocks the ambassadors spending time in the “feast house.” “Prayer” is an imitation, written about 30 years later by an anonymous author. In “Prayer” the author included almost the entire “Word”, but supplemented it with a number of aphorisms and addressed it to the Pereyaslavl prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. In conditions of fragmentation of lands, the author of “Prayer” advocates strong princely power, recognizes the boyars as the prince’s intelligent entourage, but has a sharply negative attitude towards the customs of the “kind-hearted dogs” - the monks.

With Batu’s invasion, a new topic entered Russian literature. One of the first responses was "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land"(1238 – 1246). This is an excerpt in its entirety from the introduction to "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky", written by a person who knew the prince well, therefore the hagiographic elements of the description are combined in it with the features inherent in an everyday story. The image of Prince Alexander - an ideal warrior and ruler - is endowed with exclusively positive features. A large place in the “Tale” is occupied by portraits of ordinary Russian people, participants in the prince’s military campaigns.

In the fresh wake of Batu's invasion, it was created “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, which described the events of 1237 and was part of a cycle of works about the miraculous icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky. According to legend, this shrine was taken from Kherson to Ryazan in the third year after the massacre on the river. Kalke. Stories about the courage of the defenders of Ryazan are based on folklore and chronicles.

Literature of the 12th–13th centuries. becomes the bearer of new qualities of Russian spirituality. Paying a lot of attention to the description of the masculinity and patriotism of the characters, she can no longer do without characterizing the moral traits of the heroes. If this is a prince, then he must be of “Christ-loving birth” and “diligent to the churches.”

Applied art of the period of feudal fragmentation

The literature and art of Medieval Rus' are interconnected. Art serves as one of the important sources of information about the consciousness of the people, including works of artistic craft, or “silver folklore”. In the 12th – 13th centuries, during the era of brilliant prosperity of the northeastern lands of Rus', outstanding works of applied jewelry were created in Vladimir, Suzdal, and Ryazan using the techniques of chasing, filigree, engraving, silver niello, granulation, and cloisonné enamel. Almost everything that was created by jewelers of that era was irretrievably lost during the days of the invasion, from which the Vladimir-Suzdal region and the Ryazan land suffered in to a greater extent than other principalities of Rus'.

Of the few works of applied art of pre-Mongol Vladimir-Suzdal Russia that have survived to this day, the following stand out: the silver chalice of Yuri Dolgoruky, the helmet of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, gold colts with cloisonne enamel from the Vladimir treasure of 1865, a silver breast decoration - monisto with crosses and ornaments, found in the village of Isady near Suzdal, a miniature icon of the holy healer Panteleimon carved on clay shale from the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, where it ended up in the 16th century. as the contribution of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible. In Medieval Rus', which did not know the art of carving precious stones, works of Byzantine glyptics were highly valued. Several of these Byzantine cameos belonged to the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. Two of them - a sapphire with a half-length image of St. Nicholas and a jadeite with the image of the disciple George - date back to the 12th century.

Music

Unlike folk music liturgical singing almost immediately it becomes the lot of professional people in Rus'. This is confirmed by the resolution of the Council of 1274, which expressed the desire that church reading and singing should be performed by people exclusively dedicated to this. After accepting Christianity in church services Greek and South Slavic (Bulgarian) singers participated in Christian churches.

With the further penetration of Christianity into Rus', towards the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, the first handwritten books appeared, which contained songs for worship. In their content, they experienced Byzantine church influence, but distinctive properties inherent only to the ancient Russian peoples had already appeared. The singing books contained songs and hymns in honor of Russian saints. Most early work – kontakion(solemn chant), dedicated to the memory of the innocent princes Boris and Gleb killed by their brother Svyatopolk in 1015. Church singing at first was monophonic, as in the entire Eastern Christian Church.

But along with church chants, secular. This was facilitated by the love for folk games. As a rule, celebrations and feasts of princes and their retinue were accompanied by dancing, playing musical instruments, and songs. Almost everyone sang and danced - the nobility, the invited singers, and the musicians who played the harp. But many princely courts already had professional singers and musicians who performed in squares and city streets for a certain fee. Buffoons- the first ancient Russian actors - combined in themselves a musician, a dancer, a storyteller, a performer, and an acrobat.

The first Russian chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years, mentions buffoons who played trumpets, gusli, nozzles and tambourines. They played the harp with the fingers of both hands and held them in front of them. They played while sitting and on a bowed three-stringed instrument, the gudok, while holding the instrument in their hands, resting it on the knee. They also played buffoon trumpets, horns, pipes, lanterns, bagpipes and tambourines.

Music was heard at merry feasts, holidays, ceremonies and state ceremonies. Music accompanied us in both joy and sorrow. From military campaigns, the princes “with their retinue” were greeted with fanfare.

Architecture

The era of feudal fragmentation became the heyday of monumental types of fine art: architecture, fresco painting and icon painting. Outstanding architectural monuments have been preserved in Novgorod, the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' and Smolensk.

The distinctive features of the Novgorod architectural style were severity, simplicity of forms, and sparingness of decorative ornaments. From the monuments of the 12th century. The works of master Peter, the author of the cathedrals in the Antoniev and Yuryev monasteries, stand out. He is also credited with creating the Church of St. Nicholas on Yaroslav's Courtyard. The last of the princely churches of Novgorod, Church of the Savior on Nereditsa(1198), was completely destroyed during the Great Patriotic War. Currently, it has been restored to its original form with the exception of the frescoes. An example of a small street temple would be Church of Peter and Paul on Sinichaya Mountain (1185 – 1192), built by residents of Lukina Street.

Although the Tatar invasion did not directly affect Novgorod, the export of artisans and the collection of tribute had a heavy impact on stone construction. Only in 1292, after a long break, when wooden churches were being built, was a stone one built Nikola's temple on Lipna. Here, for the first time, new construction techniques are used - the old masonry (alternating flat brick, plinth and stone in a lime mortar with an admixture of finely crushed brick, cement) is replaced by masonry from the Volkhov slab in a lime and sand solution. This type of construction technique would prevail until the 15th century.

In general, the architectural backbone of Novgorod consisted of five ensembles: Detinets, the central fortified core of the city on the high Kremlin hill; Yaroslav's Dvorishche, the center of commercial life of the Novgorod Republic, a place of veche meetings; The Anthony Monastery downstream of the Volkhov and the Yuryev Monastery at the mouth of the river near Lake Ilmen, guarding the approaches to the city from its two main ends, and the Settlement, the permanent residence of the princes on the right bank of the Volkhov, with the Church of the Annunciation. In Novgorod there were no districts of the city nobility, due to this the contrast between the main architectural complexes and residential buildings was smoothed out.

In addition to citywide centers, at each end of the city there were also local ones, which had their own administrative control. They were formed near churches and were open areas for meetings of residents. The streets were narrow, the estates were closely adjacent to the pedestrian part, covered with log flooring. The estates were fenced off from one another with a log palisade up to 2.5 m high. One could enter the yard through a gate that was tightly locked. The exceptional advantages of Novgorod estates were the rationality and economy of the forms and placement of buildings. The Volkhov River became the main city highway, crossing the core of Novgorod, from which its residential part diverged to five different ends.

Architecture of Vladimir Rus' XII – XIII centuries. - an outstanding cultural heritage of the Fatherland, which became the basis for the revival of the Russian land after the invasion of the Tatars. The architectural art of the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky was subject to social struggle. To protect the approach to the city, at the level of the previously constructed grandiose line of ramparts of the New City with chopped fortress walls, a rare monument of Russian military-defensive architecture was erected in 1164 - the Golden Gate. On the outside, the arched lintel of the gate span was covered with sheets “written in gold.” Based on these magnificent gates, the entire structure received the name Golden Gate.

In 1158, the largest building of the new capital of Prince Andrey was laid Assumption Cathedral, which, according to the chronicle, was thought of by him as a stronghold of the Vladimir metropolitanate, independent of the Kyiv spiritual authorities. The prince gave the temple, completed in 1160, large land holdings and a tenth of the prince’s income, so that the Vladimir cathedral became a “tithe” cathedral, like the most ancient temple Kyiv - Tithe Church. During the capture of Vladimir in 1238, the Tatars filled the cathedral inside and outside with wood and set it on fire. The princely family, the bishop and some of the townspeople died in the choir of the cathedral. However, the building survived.

The Vladimir chronicler in the obituary of Prince Vsevolod III (Vsevolod the Big Nest) mentioned that he created a “beautiful church” of the holy martyr Dmitry in his yard and marvelously decorated it with paintings. Dmitrievsky The cathedral, dating from 1194 - 1197, belongs to the type widespread in the 12th century. the type of small four-pillar, single-domed temples that were built in feudal courtyards. Its distinctive feature is the precious carved decoration on the outer walls of the temple, which is organically fused with both the architecture and the landscape. On all three facades, except for the more modest eastern altar, the figure of the biblical psalmist king and prophet David is placed in the center of the patterned composition. There are reliefs around that are not associated with the figure of David. Their composition itself is very interesting - out of 566 carved stones, only 46 images of a Christian nature. The bulk of the reliefs are images of plants, birds and animals, as well as warlike horsemen, scenes of struggle and bloodshed.

Vladimir’s “architectural preface” is the princely residence - Bogolyubovsky Castle and located not far from it at the confluence of the Nerl River and Klyazma Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary, called the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. This complex of buildings was erected in just eight years - from 1158 to 1165. In reality, the princely castle was a stone fortress that took control of the “gate” of the Vladimir land at the mouth of the Nerl. Today, only the northern wing of the passages, leading through the tower into the cathedral to the choir, has survived.

Construction Church of the Intercession on the Nerl was dedicated to the patroness of the Vladimir land, but at the same time it was a monument to the victory of 1164 over the Volga Bulgarians and the prince’s son Izyaslav, who died in this battle. Archaeological research has shown that only the main part of the original building has reached us. The temple was three-tiered; around the main perimeter of the building, which has survived to this day, a covered gallery was built, which became its first floor. Since the building was erected on a flat floodplain bank, high in flood waters, the architects erected a grandiose foundation about five meters high and hid it in the embankment of an artificial hill, lining the slopes with white stone with hewn gutters to drain water. Thus, initially the temple was very solemn.

The crown of creativity of Vladimir architects and stone carvers were cathedrals - Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal(1222 – 1225) and St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky(1230 – 1234). Both buildings are made of uneven slabs of spongy tuff. Only decorative architectural details of the facades are made of hewn white stone. It was not so much an economic calculation as new artistic tastes. In the contrast of various refined reliefs with the uneven, as if crumpled background of the walls, the architects combined Vladimir’s love for the refined decoration of the building with the rough masonry of the wall planes of the Novgorod and Pskov churches.

In the architecture of the second half of the 12th century. and XIII century. There is a tendency to develop Russian national forms of composition of religious buildings, a creative rethinking of the Byzantine cross-domed system of the temple. The new approach is characterized by a stepped structure of the building, a “tower” of its top, formed by raising the head upward on a special pedestal. These techniques are combined with a special way of dividing the facades of buildings. Here the semi-column is replaced by complex pilasters, forming bundles of rapid verticals, as if dragging the entire building upward. This technique was often combined with the construction of a one-story tomb gallery and public meeting place around the temple. This architectural movement was associated with the rapid development of cities, which carried within them the growing strength of crafts and trade and the seed of national unification. Especially many buildings of this kind were erected in Smolensk.

In the 40s of the 12th century. Along with the beginning of the political heyday of Smolensk, the development of Smolensk architecture received an impetus, which is associated with the invitation to the Smolensk region of a group of Chernigov masters.

Church of Peter and Paul - one of the three surviving and better preserved monuments of Smolensk architecture of the 12th century. It was created in the traditions of a single stream of southern Russian architecture, represented by the schools of Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn. This is an excellent example of a cross-domed, single-domed, four-pillar church of strict proportions, emphasized by the restraint of decoration.

By the end of the 12th century. The conditions were ripe for a significant change in the architectural forms of the South Russian school. Even in Kyiv, where traditions were strongest, new trends were reflected in the construction of the Church of Vasily in Ovruch.

For Smolensk, such a temple became the pearl of world architecture Church of the Archangel Michael. It gave birth to a whole group of monuments that repeatedly reproduced its basic forms. The vertical direction of the composition of the church was created by a tower-shaped raised drum of the dome, placed on a special pedestal, a complex but very organic construction of equal volumes of the building and the associated stepped silhouette of the temple, as well as many vertical divisions on the facades in the form of thin semi-columns on pilasters, starting from the third row masonry Niches, belts, crosses, eyebrows above the windows decorate the outer walls of the temple. One of the distinctive features of the style of Smolensk architects - the widespread use of galleries and vestibules - will subsequently become widespread in Moscow architecture, along with such compositional features as tiering, height, vertical direction and asymmetry.

It should be noted that the number of monuments of monumental architecture of Smolensk XII - XIII centuries. it turned out to be very large. In terms of the number of monuments of the pre-Mongol period, Smolensk ranks third after Kyiv and Novgorod. During a particularly intensive period of construction ( last decade XII century - first third of the 13th century) Smolensk certainly surpassed all other centers of Rus' in terms of the scale of construction. The catastrophe of 1240 and the subsequent drastic changes in the political fate of the city interrupted the outstanding development of Smolensk architecture.

Painting

Old Russian painting developed in the 12th – 13th centuries. in two directions: monumental fresco and icon.

Samples of fresco art from this period have not reached us, since most of the temples were either destroyed or burned. The icons have been preserved in the best possible way. Collecting ancient icons began in Russia at the end of the 19th century. The suppliers for the collections were natives of the ancient Vladimir villages of Palekh and Mstera, custodians of ancient craftsmanship. The names of some of them have reached us - Tyulins, Chirikovs, Bragins.

From the point of view of Christian orthodoxy, icon carries within itself the light of some spiritual essence, or rather, the grace of God, and its main function is reminder. " Icons, - say the holy fathers and in their words the Seventh Ecumenical Council, which approved the veneration of icons, - remind those praying about their prototypes, and, looking at the icons, believers “raise their minds from images to prototypes».

The icon prevailed in the Russian church over fresco and mosaic. The iconostasis was located in an extremely important place in the cathedral. It separated the part of the temple where the believers were and which was called the “ship of salvation” from the altar, where only the clergy had access. The main sacrament of the Christian church is performed at the altar - the transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. On the transverse beam of the altar barrier, the architrave, there was a cross, a sign of God crucified on it in the name of the people. There was also a prayer row, or Deesis: the Savior, before whom the Mother of God and John the Baptist pray. Their images conveyed the symbol of the prayer of the Church, reuniting people with Jesus Christ. Under the Deesis row until the 14th – 15th centuries. there were icons of the holidays - the story of the incarnation of the God-man.

The oldest examples of Russian icon painting include the icon of the Apostles Peter and Paul from the Novgorod Museum, dating back to the 11th century, a large half-length "Savior Almighty"from the Andrei Rublev Museum in Moscow, which is also associated with the 11th century.

From the 12th century More icons have reached us. Icon of St. George- a temple image of the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Novgorod, created around 1170. In the 16th century. it was taken away by Ivan the Terrible and has since been kept in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

One of the earliest examples of Deesis icons is “ Deesis rank» XII century, discovered in 1936 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Another find of restorers in the same cathedral is a 12th-century icon dedicated to the Vladimir school. "Savior Not Made by Hands"" In 1918, master G.O. Chirikov, from under the cover of black film, revealed the faces of Mary and the baby, painted at the beginning of the 12th century. in Constantinople. The icon is brought to Kyiv and then transported to Vladimir. Having become famous in this city, she began to be called Our Lady of Vladimir. In the 16th century the icon ends up in Moscow and becomes the main shrine of the Moscow state.

Suzdal "Saved by Golden Hair", Yaroslavl images "Savior Not Made by Hands" And " Savior Almighty", dating back to the 13th century, already indicate a departure from iconographic abstraction and the desire to outline the ideal of earthly man. In the golden hair and blue eyes of the Suzdal Savior one can see the face of a Russian.

The Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow houses one of the earliest and most famous icons of the Prophet Elijah, one of the very popular biblical characters in Rus'. Dating back to the 13th century, it comes from the village of Vybuty near Pskov and belongs to the type of hagiographic icons. Around the centerpiece, where the master depicted Ilya as a mighty old man, on the sides there are separate compositions and marks that tell the story of Ilya’s life.

Among the early images of archangels, a pearl icon with the image of the Archangel Gabriel, called "Angel Golden Hair". Written in Novgorod in the 12th century, it is now kept in the Russian Museum. She was once part of the mantle deesis. The angelic nature of the bright messenger of God is indicated by a bottomless and mysterious look, but also by a special attribute: on the right curls the so-called “hearing” - “torok”, with the help of which the angels hear God. From the 12th century the famous icon of “Archangel Michael”, the patron saint of warriors and protector of the souls of those who died from demonic power, has been preserved.

The culture of the era of feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar invasion is distinguished by several peculiar features:

1. The rapid growth of local feudal centers was accompanied by the development of local styles in the fine and applied arts, architecture and chronicles. This, in turn, enriched the all-Russian cultural treasury.

2. The era is characterized by a deepening interaction between the pagan and Christian components of the cultural process, expressed in the emergence of the phenomenon of folk Christianity and heresies of the Paulician-Bogomilian type.

3. With the Mongol-Tatar invasion, patriotic themes entered the cultural tradition, which contributed to the consolidation of all-Russian national consciousness and the formation of all-Russian ethnic integrity. Epoch XII – XIII centuries. gave masterpieces unsurpassed in depth and imagery in the field of literature, architecture, and icon painting, the appearance of which testifies to the extremely high level cultural development of the people on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

4. The conquest of Rus', although it slowed down the pace of the historical and cultural process, not only did not interrupt it, but partly even enriched it. At the junction of the interaction of Slavic and Turkic cultures, new phenomena begin to emerge in language, life, customs, and art, which will manifest themselves especially clearly in the next era. Margin of safety cultural heritage Rus' turned out to be so powerful that in difficult, turning-point years, alien shoots forcibly grafted onto its trunk not only did not destroy the tree, but took root on it and gave new shoots.