The culture of ancient Rome, its features. Culture and religion of ancient Rome
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. ancient eastern civilizations lost priority in social development and gave way to a new cultural center that arose in the Mediterranean and was called “ancient civilization.” It is customary to include the history and culture of Ancient Greece, as well as Ancient Rome.
In my work, I would like to follow the main directions of development of Roman culture and highlight a number of features in it. Also, during the analysis, try to determine how great the influence of the cultures of the conquered countries was. Can the culture of Ancient Rome even be considered an independent phenomenon, or did it develop through endless borrowing? Moreover, could the cultural factor somehow contribute to the collapse of the empire? These are the questions that I will try to answer in my work.
The center of the future great power - the city of Rome - arose in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. An ancient parable, transmitted by Roman historians - Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Titus Livy and the poet Virgil, attributes the founding of the city to the legendary Romulus and dates this event to 754 - 753. BC. on the day of celebration of the shepherd goddess Paleia (April 21).
For more than twelve centuries (8th century BC - 5th century AD), Roman culture existed, which was a more complex phenomenon than Greek. Rome, later than Greece, appeared on the stage of world history and was the capital of an immense empire that captured all the territories around the Mediterranean. The very word “Rome” was synonymous with greatness, glory and military valor, wealth and high culture.
The Roman mentality was sharply different from the Greek. If the Greeks were an amazingly gifted people in the field of artistic creativity, then the Romans had the greatest ability for practical activities. This main feature of the Roman character left its mark on Roman culture.
The Romans were good, disciplined soldiers, excellent organizers and administrators, legislators and lawyers. They achieved great success in the field of town planning and urban improvement; they were excellent rural owners. The Romans created outstanding architectural monuments that amaze with the perfection of engineering technology.
The history of ancient Roman civilization is a complex phenomenon. The population of ancient Italy consisted of multilingual peoples who gradually submitted to the authority of Rome. By Ancient Rome as a whole we mean not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman power - from the British Isles to Egypt. The Roman Empire was the largest state, covering all territories adjacent to the Mediterranean. Over a long period (IV century BC - III century), the Roman Republic from a small city-state turned into a world slave-holding power, which was based on imperial power.
“All roads lead to Rome,” says the proverb, as travelers and traders flocked here from all over the world.
The entire cultural system of Ancient Rome was devoted to justifying the superiority of the Roman political system, educating the Romans into good citizens, proud of their belonging to the “master people.” The main value for the Romans was Rome itself, the Roman people, destined to conquer other peoples and rule them for their own happiness. The Roman Empire developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and agriculture, the conquest of vast territories, the conquest of many peoples and cultures, which necessitated the creation of a huge bureaucratic apparatus and the development of sophisticated political methods of management.
The history of ancient Roman culture is divided into three main stages:
.Early or royal period (VIII - VI centuries BC)
.Roman Republic (v - 1st centuries BC)
.Roman Empire (1st - 5th centuries AD)
The basis of Roman art was the ancient Italian culture, in which the art of the Etruscans was of leading importance. The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skilled metallurgists, shipbuilders, traders, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples inhabiting its coast, creating a high and unique culture. They began to create something new that the ancient Romans later developed: engineering structures, monumental wall painting, realistic sculptural portraits. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans would subsequently borrow the experience of urban planning, craft techniques, technology for making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of the priests and some customs, for example, celebrating a victory with a triumph.
However, a powerful cultural movement began in Rome only at the end of the 3rd century. BC. its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, Greek language and education. Numerous figures of Roman culture of that time - prose writers, philosophers, doctors, architects, artists - were overwhelmingly not Romans.
Rome exerted its influence on the Hellenistic territories it conquered. Thus, a synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed, the result of which was the late antique Greco-Roman culture (I-V centuries AD), which formed the basis of the civilization of Byzantium, Western Europe and many Slavic states.
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
The most ancient period of Roman history was especially characterized by the cult of family-tribal patron spirits. First of all, these included manna - the souls of deceased ancestors; The ancient Romans believed in the existence of the afterlife, where the souls of the dead go - this is Orcus and Elysium. Penates were also revered - the patron spirits of the house and laras, who were patron spirits with broader functions; there are known references to laras of crossroads, roads, navigation, etc. The cult of the hearth fire, personified in the goddess Vesta, also occupied an important place. Traces of totelism can also be traced in the most ancient beliefs, for example, the legend of the she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus. There were also agrarian cults.
Later, some tribal gods turned into objects of state cult, becoming patron gods of the city-state. The most ancient gods include Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus (Romulus), who were the most important for the Romans. If the first two have correspondences among the Greeks, then the god Quirinus has no analogues in the Greek pantheon.
One of the revered purely Italian deities was Janus, depicted with two faces, as the deity of entry and exit, of all beginnings. The Olympian gods were considered the patrons of the Roman community and were revered by the entire civil community. Among the plebeians, the divine trinity was especially popular: Ceres, Libera-Proserpina - the goddess of vegetation and the underworld, and Liber - the god of wine and fun.
One of the most popular goddesses of Rome is Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and the fire that burns in it. Vestal priestesses served in the temple of Vesta, taking a vow of virginity and chastity. Girls aged 6-10 years old were selected very carefully, without the slightest defect. For ten years they underwent training, then took initiation, received the name Amata in addition to their own, and served in the temple for ten years. For violating the vow of chastity, the punishment was cruel: the sinner was buried in the ground alive. For minor offenses they could be flogged. The Vestals enjoyed great honor and respect. Insulting them was punishable by death. After serving for ten years, they spent another ten training the younger generation of priestesses. After all this, the vestal virgin could return to the family and even get married.
The Romans had many fertility gods: Flora - the goddess of blooming flowers, Pomona - the goddess of apple trees, Faun and Faun - deities of forests, groves and fields, and others.
Mythology was practically absent, there were also no images of gods - their symbols were worshiped, so the symbol of Vesta was fire, Mars was a spear. All the deities were completely faceless. The Roman did not dare to assert with complete certainty that he knew the real name of the god or that he could distinguish whether it was a god or a goddess. In his prayers, he also maintained the same caution and said: “Jupiter, Most Good, Greatest, or if you wish to be called by some other name.” And when making a sacrifice, he said: “Are you a god or a goddess, are you a man or a woman?” On the Palatine (one of the seven hills on which Ancient Rome was located) there is still an altar on which there is no name, but only an evasive formula: “To God or goddess, husband or woman,” and the gods themselves had to decide who owns the sacrifices made on this altar.
Roman mythology is characterized by the animation and deification of abstract concepts and values, such as Freedom, Valor, Harmony. Slava especially stood out. In honor of outstanding commanders, emperors and their victories, Arches of Triumph were erected, which depicted the exploits of the triumphant.
After the conquest of Greece, there is some transformation of the image of the Roman gods and their rapprochement with the Greek: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, Mars - Ares, Neptune - Poseidon, Mercury - Hermes, Bacchus - Dionysus, Diana - Artemis , Vulcan - Hephaestus, Saturn - Uranus, Ceres - Demeter. Among the Roman gods, under the influence of Greek religious ideas, the main Olympic gods stood out: Jupiter - the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, Mars - the god of war, Minerva - the goddess of wisdom, the patroness of crafts, Venus - the goddess of love and fertility, Vulcan - the god of fire and blacksmithing, Ceres is the goddess of vegetation, Apollo is the god of the sun and light, Juno is the patroness of women and marriage, Mercury is the messenger of the Olympic gods, the patron of travelers, trade, Neptune is the god of the sea, Diana is the goddess of the moon.
Before starting a war with any people, the Romans tried to lure the gods of this people to their side, promising these gods all the necessary sacrifices.
The Roman pantheon never remained closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. The inclusion of new gods was believed to strengthen the power of the Romans. Thus, the Romans borrowed almost the entire Greek pantheon, and at the end of the 3rd century. BC. veneration of the Great Mother of the Gods from Phrygia was introduced.
Slaves who arrived in Rome and Italy professed their own cults, thereby spreading other religious views.
The priests of the gods were considered officials, and in the late Republican period they were elected. The priests observed the cult of individual gods, the order in the temples, prepared sacrificial animals, monitored the accuracy of prayers and ritual actions, and could give advice on which deity to turn to with the necessary request. Also, in each temple there were priests who specialized in fortune telling: augurs - predictors of the future by the flight of birds or in relation to their food; Haruspices - who predicted the future from the entrails of sacrificial animals and from lightning strikes.
The Romans expected help from the gods in specific matters and therefore scrupulously performed established rituals and made the necessary sacrifices. In relation to the gods, the principle “I give so that you give” operated.
During the imperial period, the cult of the geniuses of emperors gradually established itself - first posthumously, and then during their lifetime. The first to be deified (posthumously) was Julius Caesar. During his lifetime, Caligula declared himself a god.
In the 1st century AD Christianity was born in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, which played a vital role in the history of world culture.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
In the 1st century BC. in Palestine - on the outskirts of the Roman Empire - Christianity arises, and already in the time of Nero (second half of the 1st century AD) there was a Christian community in Rome.
During the I - III centuries. Christianity spreads throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The imperial authorities were suspicious of Christians, attributing to them misanthropy, because Christians of that time not only expected, but also called for the End of the World and the Last Judgment, Christians refused to make official sacrifices in front of statues of state gods (including emperors). This led to numerous persecutions of Christians, which were started by Nero. They took place with particular force under the emperors - Dominician, Trojan, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Diocletian.
But, despite all the persecution, Christianity continued to live and spread, and by the 4th century it became a force that the emperors themselves were forced to reckon with. In 313, Emperors Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed the equality of all religions, including Christianity, and in 325, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion. By decree of Theodosius the Great in 395, all pagan temples were closed, from that moment Christianity became the only official religion of the Roman Empire.
Already at the end of I - beginning. II century The Gospels (“Good News”) were written down in Greek, the Epistles and Acts of the Apostles were written, as well as the Apocalypse, i.e. books that made up the New Testament. To discuss and resolve complex theological issues, and first of all, to combat the Arian heresy, which were then hotly debated by Christians, by decree of Emperor Constantine, a cathedral was created in the city of Nicaea in 325, which became the first of seven Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church.
ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTAL WALL PAINTING
ancient roman civilization culture painting
To understand the overall character of Roman architecture, the reasons for the appearance of giant parade squares, large spectacular buildings and memorial ensembles, it is necessary to understand the socio-economic life of Ancient Rome. The development of trade, successful wars and the influx of slaves favor the rise of the economy, the further enrichment of the clan nobility (patricians), the advancement of the rich from among the common people (plebeians) and the formation of a new Roman nobility - the nobiles. Wealth inequality is increasing; free community members are forced out of the lands and rush to the city, where they engage in crafts, petty trade, and become professional military men. Wars turned into one of the main means of profit for the Roman nobility. The victorious commanders were the idols of the Romans and were given high honors. To commemorate victories, multi-day celebrations were organized with solemn parades of troops, distributions of bread and money, grandiose performances, and gladiator fights. In accordance with the way of life, the architecture of Rome took shape - a complex system of public buildings, temples, squares that could accommodate tens of thousands of people.
The Etruscans were the teachers of the Romans. It was they who taught how to build buildings, but very soon the Romans surpassed them in this art. They began to make better use of materials that had already been used before, adapted new ones, and improved construction methods.
The early city was built without a plan, in a haphazard manner, with narrow and crooked streets, and primitive dwellings made of wood and mud brick. The only large public buildings were temples, for example the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built in the 6th century BC, and the small Temple of Vesta in the Forum. There were vacant lots and undeveloped areas inside the city, and the houses of the nobility were surrounded by gardens. The drainage ditches were at first open, but then they were covered with wooden flooring and later with a stone vault.
Roman roads were of great strategic importance; they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome (VI-III centuries BC) for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of a network of roads that later covered the whole of Italy. Near the Aricchi valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, crushed stone, lava and tuff slabs, ran along a massive wall (197 m long, 11 m high) due to the terrain, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.
At the beginning of the 4th century BC. The fire of Rome after its capture by the Gauls destroyed most of the city's buildings. After the fire, the city was surrounded by new, so-called Servian walls. They consisted of the main outer walls and a powerful earthen rampart resting on it, which was supported by another, less high wall from the city side.
In the 1st century BC. Multi-storey buildings and villas of the nobility appeared, built from baked brick and concrete, and even marble. The city was divided into blocks, the blocks were grouped into districts.
The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of strength, power and greatness that overwhelm man. This is where the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their buildings, which amaze with their size, was born.
Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lavish decoration of buildings, rich decorative furnishings, a lot of decorations, and the creation primarily not of temple complexes, but of buildings and structures for practical needs (bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths). Roman architects developed new design principles, in particular they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns they used pillars and pilasters. Arches and vaults were borrowed from the Etruscans.
The arched structure is based on two elements: pillars and the arch resting on them. So, the horizontal ceiling is replaced by a curved arch. The rectangular massive shape of the pillars is less individualized compared to the column.
A striking example of the use of an arched structure - triumphal arches. These typically Roman memorial structures were already erected during the Republican period. Most often they were installed in honor of victories.
Triumphal Arch of Titus was erected in honor of the capture of Jerusalem by the troops of Emperor Titus (180s BC). its architectural appearance consists of a powerful monolith, cut through in the center by an arched span. Here we are faced with the typical Roman use of the order system in decorative terms: creating a purely visual impression of the constructiveness of the order system by “overlaying” it on the wall mass. The “facade” of the arch is clearly divided into a base, a middle part consisting of Corinthian semi-columns and an entablature, and an upper part in the form of a massive attic, where the urn with the ashes of the emperor was placed.
Unlike the Greek architects, who drew up a building plan without following the dry geometry of its different parts, the Romans proceeded from strict symmetry. They widely used the Greek orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (the most favorite, magnificent order). The Romans used orders only as a decorative, decorative element.
The Romans developed the order system and created their own orders, different from the Greek ones.
Spectacles occupied a large place in the social life of the Romans. Theaters and amphitheaters are characteristic of ancient cities. Even during the period of the late Republic, a unique type of amphitheater developed in Rome. The latter was entirely a Roman invention. If Greek theaters were set up in the open air, with seats for spectators located in a hollow of a hill, then Roman theaters were independent closed multi-tiered buildings in the city center with seats on concentrically erected walls. Amphitheaters were intended for the crowd of the lower classes of the capital's population, hungry for spectacles, in front of which gladiator battles and naval battles were played out on the days of the festivities.
After the civil war of 68 - 69 AD, Vespasian, who came to power, began the construction of an amphitheater, known throughout the world as Coliseum. The completion of its construction occurred during the reign of Vespasian's son Titus (80 AD), and in honor of the opening of the Colosseum, hundred-day gladiatorial games were held.
In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 meters in circumference), dissected by transverse and circular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance, monumental and majestic, is determined by a ring wall designed in the form of a multi-tiered arcade: Tuscan below, Ionic above, Corinthian in the third tier, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.
One of the most perfect examples of a temple with a dome was Pantheon in Rome (c.120), created by Apollodorus of Damascus. The constructive and artistic problems of creating a large-span domed space were brilliantly resolved here. Rounded in plan (rotondo type), the temple had an 8-column portico of the Corinthian order. The building had a powerful domed volume on the outside, a single and intact space inside. The interior is dominated by a dome, at the top of which a light opening is left (a spherical vault, which is a monolithic mass without a frame, rests on a wall 6 m thick). the wall is divided into two tiers: the lower one, where deep niches alternate with massive columns of the Corinthian order, and the upper one - like an intermediate one between the support and the dome.
For the first time in architecture, the main emphasis shifted to the internal space, which, with its solemn and festive design, contrasts with the external appearance, where space of monumental volume dominates.
Grandiose domed coverings were used in thermae, which were a complex of rooms and courtyards where the Romans rested and had fun. The basis of the composition was the halls for ablution (baths). Most famous Baths of Caracalla (206 - 216).
The Romans created a type of public square called the forum. Having appeared during the Republican period, the forums of the empire acquired a ceremonial appearance, becoming also a grandiose architectural ensemble, including many buildings of various functionalities, glorifying one or another emperor.
Famous Trajan's forum (first half of the 2nd century AD) was created by Apollodorus of Damascus. It included:
.The main rectangular square with a triumphal arch at the entrance and a colonnade, behind which there were semicircles of trading shops;
.The five-nave basilica of Ultia, turned perpendicular to the central axis;
.A small perimeter courtyard with Trajan's Column, covered with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the military exploits of the emperor. It was located on the central axis between two symmetrical library buildings;
.The last perimeter courtyard, rounded on the side where the Temple of Trajan stood.
The entire ensemble was united by the motif of colonnades and porticoes of various sizes, sometimes reaching huge ones.
All these grandiose constructions were required by Rome as the center of a huge empire. And indeed, built up with all these buildings, rich in monuments, the city was also in the 3rd - 4th centuries. looked impressive. In the 3rd century. A lot of construction was still going on - arches, magnificent baths, and palaces were being erected. “But, as A. Blok put it, “there was no longer a single sore spot on the body of the Roman Empire,” creative potential gradually faded away.” Thus, architecture begins to become obsolete and become more and more primitive. Perhaps this is due to the fact that, in pursuit of innovation and luxury, the Roman nobility too quickly exhausted the possibilities of borrowed construction techniques.
Developing in Rome monumental wall painting. The so-called “Pompeian” frescoes are usually divided into four groups:
.“Inlay style” - II century BC. Imitation of wall cladding with squares of multi-colored marble - “House of the Faun”.
.“Architectural-perspective” style. Between the picturesque columns, pilasters, and cornices there were large multi-figure compositions based on subjects borrowed from Greek painting. A realistic interpretation of images dominates - the painting of the “Villa of Mysteries”.
.“Candelabra” style - from the end of the 1st century BC. The most austere and elegant, with a variety of decorative motifs (garlands, candelabra, ornaments) that framed small plot images - “The House of Punished Cupid”.
.“Lush” style - from the middle of the 1st century AD. It combines the characteristic features of the second style (perspective architectural structures) and the third (wealth of ornamental decorations) - paintings in Nero's palace - the Golden House, the house of the Vettii.
SCULPTURE
According to legend, the first sculptures in Rome appeared under Tarquinius Proud, who decorated the roof of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, which he built according to Etruscan custom, with clay statues. The first bronze sculpture was a statue of the fertility goddess Ceres, cast at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. From the 4th century BC. they begin to erect statues of Roman magistrates and even private individuals. Bronze statues were cast in the early era by Etruscan craftsmen, and starting from the 2nd century. BC. - Greek sculptors. The mass production of statues did not contribute to the creation of truly artistic works, and the Romans did not strive for this. For them, what was important in the statue was its portrait resemblance to the original. The statue was supposed to glorify a given person and therefore it was important that the image not be confused with someone else.
On the development of Roman individual portrait influenced by the custom of removing wax masks from the deceased, which were kept in the main room of a Roman house. The masters apparently used them during sculptural work. The emergence of the Roman realistic portrait was influenced by the Etruscan tradition, which was guided by Etruscan masters working for Roman clients. In this art Rome reached the greatest heights.
Despite the complexity of the development of a sculptural portrait, the main milestones of this process can be identified:
.The period of hard realism - 1st century. BC. - “Portrait of an Old Patrician”, portraits of Caesar (the origin of a psychological tendency)
.Classical period (idealization of the image) - late. 1st century BC - beginning I century - portrait statues of Augustus.
.The period of complicated realism (psychologization and pomposity) - the second half. Iv. - portraits of Vitelius, Nero, Flavians.
.Reminiscence of the periods of realism and classics - II century. - portrait of Plotina, wife of Emperor Trajan, portraits of private individuals, portrait of Antinous
.The period of acute psychologism - III century. - portraits of Caracalla, Philip the Arabian.
.Late period - IV century.
In this area of art, the Romans, using Etruscan traditions, introduced new artistic ideas and created excellent masterpieces, such as the “Capitolian She-Wolf”, “Brutus”, “Orator”, busts of Cicero, Caesar and others.
From the end of the 3rd century BC. Greek sculpture begins to influence Roman sculpture. When robbing Greek cities, the Romans captured a large number of sculptures. Despite the abundance of originals exported from Greece, there is a great demand for copies of the most famous statues. Greek sculptors copy the originals of famous masters. The abundant influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying slowed down the flourishing of Roman sculpture.
LITERATURE
Roman literature emerges as imitative literature. The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical examples of Greek literature, although they used Roman plots and some Roman forms.
During the development of civil society, literature became one of the leading means of dialogue with the authorities.
At the end of the 3rd century. BC. In Rome, the Latin literary language was formed and, on its basis, epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appeared, who usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. One of the first Roman tragedians was a freedman Livy Andronicus , Greek by origin, translated Homer’s “Odyssey” into Latin (3rd century BC). His works played an important role in the development of Roman literature. They introduced the Romans to the wonderful Greek literature, mythology, epic and theater. Livy Andronicus laid the foundation for Roman fiction.
Younger contemporaries of Livy Andronicus were Roman poets Gnaeus Naevius (c. 274 - 204 BC) and Ennius (239 -169 BC). Naevius wrote tragedies and comedies, borrowing plots from Greek authors, but the influence of Roman life in his works is felt much stronger than in Andronicus. Naevius composed poems about the first Punic War (264 - 241 BC) with a brief summary of the previous history of Rome. Ennius was the first to describe the entire history of Rome in verse, arranging events by year. Ennius's main work was the Chronicle (Annales), but in addition, like his predecessors, he wrote tragedies and comedies. Ennius was the first to introduce the hexameter into Latin literature - a more euphonious poetic meter among the Greeks. Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius wrote their works in archaic Saturnian verse.
The largest Roman writer of the late 3rd - early 2nd centuries. BC. was Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC), actor by profession. He composed 130 comedies, of which only 20 have reached us. He worked only in the comedy genre. The plots of the comedies were very diverse - scenes from family life, from the life of mercenary warriors, urban bohemia. One of the indispensable heroes of Plautus's comedies were slaves - cunning, resourceful, dexterous and greedy. In terms of plot and character, Plautus's comedies are imitative. His characters have Greek names, and his comedies take place in Greek cities. Plautus' comedies are usually published alphabetically. The first is called "Amphitryon". The comedy “The Boastful Warrior” was more popular. The comedy was probably directed against the mercenary troops and reminded the audience of the victory over Hannibal. Despite the fact that the action of Plautus's comedies takes place in Greek cities, and their heroes bear Greek names, they contain many lively responses to Roman reality. His comedies reflect to a certain extent the interests and views of the broad masses of the urban plebs.
Roman comedy and tragedy developed largely under the influence of Greek models and were considered non-primordially Roman genres. Originally a Roman literary genre, the ball genre is the so-called saturation. This is a mixture of different poems - long and short, written in Saturn and other meters. How the literary genre satura received deep development in creativity Gaia Lucilius (180 - 102 BC). He wrote 30 books of saturs, where he exposed the vices of his contemporary society: greed, bribery, moral corruption, perjury, greed. The subjects for Lucilius’ saturs were given by real life. These stories marked the beginning of the realistic trend in Roman literature.
Roman poetry of the 1st century. BC. rose to a new, higher level. Many poets lived at this time, but among them the most outstanding were Titus Lucretius Carus (95 - 51 BC) and Guy Valery Catullus (87 - 54 BC). Lucretius owns a wonderful poem “On the Nature of Things” in six books. This philosophical poem expounds the teachings of the Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus about the nature of the gods, the origin of the earth, sky, sea, and the development of humanity and human culture from the primitive state to the time of Lucretius. In the poem, the Latin language reached a new peak; The language of farmers and warriors, short, abrupt and poor, thanks to the art of Lucretius turned out to be capacious, rich, full of shades, suitable for conveying the subtlest human feelings and deep philosophical categories.
Catullus is the greatest poet of the end of the Republic, a master of lyric poetry. He wrote short poems where he described human feelings: love and jealousy, friendship, love of nature, etc. A number of poems are directed against the dictatorial intentions of Caesar and his greedy minions. Catullus's poetic work was influenced by Alexandrian poetry with its special attention to mythology, sophistication of language, and the personal experiences of the author. The poems of Catullus occupy a prominent place in world lyric poetry. His poetry was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.
Drama and poetry were the main, but not the only types of Latin literature. Prose developed in parallel. Until the 2nd century BC works in prose were a rare occurrence and were brief records of historical events and legal norms. Early Roman prose, like poetry, was imitative.
The first prose work in Latin was the work Mark Portia Cato the Elder (II century BC) “On agriculture.” Cato published about 150 of his speeches, wrote Roman history, an essay on medicine, and oratory.
The most outstanding Roman writers, masters of the prosaic word, lived and worked in the 1st century. BC. Marcus Terence Varro (116 - 27 BC) - a unique writer, wrote about 74 works in 620 books. Varro's main work is “Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs” in 41 books. Essays - “On the Latin language”, “On Latin speech”, “On grammar”, “On the comedies of Plautus”. He also wrote a treatise “On Agriculture,” where agricultural issues are presented in an elegant literary form. "The Menippean Saturas" in 150 books is a cheerful and witty poetic work. Varro's merits in the development of Roman literature were so great that he, the only Roman writer, had a monument erected to him during his lifetime.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - wrote in various prose genres: philosophical works (“On the limits of good and evil”, “Tusculan conversations”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc.), legal works (“On State”, “On Duties”), speeches (“against Verres”, “against Catiline”, “Philippica against Antony”), on the theory of oratory (“On the Orator”, “Brutus”), numerous letters.
A major Roman writer was Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), author of “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War.” Acting as a writer, Caesar pursued political goals: to justify his aggressive and often treacherous actions in Gaul, to place responsibility for the outbreak of the civil war on his opponents.
In the "Golden Age of Augustus" (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman literature reached its highest flowering: masterpieces of world literature were created, enriching its treasury. This flourishing is associated with the work of such poets as Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
Publius Virgil Maro (70-19 BC), he owns three main works that glorified his name - “Bucolics” (42 - 39 BC), a poem about agriculture “Georgics” (37 -30 BC) . BC) and the historical and mythological poem “Aeneid” (29 - 19 BC).
Quintus Horace Flaccus (65-8 BC), contributed to the formation of imperial ethics, the morality of the loyal subjects of the new regime, more than any other poet. He was one of Augustus' favorite poets. He wrote several well-known works: a small collection of satirical poems, epics and satires, four books of “Odes”, or “Songs”, of a lyrical nature, two books of “Epistle”, or “Letters”. Commissioned by Augustus, Horace wrote a majestic hymn to the Roman state, “Song of the Century.” Horace owns a poetic manifesto of the poet's prophetic mission - the famous “Monument”. Subsequently, based on the “Monument” of Horace, similar “monuments” were created in Russian poetry by the great Russian poets Derzhavin and Pushkin.
Publius Ovid Naso (43 BC - 18 AD), the main theme of creativity was love, as one of the most important manifestations of human relationships. Two collections of poetry were written - “Elegies”, or “Songs of Love”, and “Heroids” (letters from heroines known from mythology to their lovers). The infamous treatise, “The Art of Love,” was the main reason for the poet’s exile. In the second period of his work, Ovid wrote two large historical and mythological poems, “Metamorphoses” and “Fasti”. The works “Letters from Pontus” and “Tristia”, “Mournful Elegies” date back to the time of exile.
Among the works of prose literature, a grandiose historical work occupies a worthy place Tita Livia (59 BC - 17 AD) "From the Founding of Rome" in 142 books.
It is impossible to imagine Roman literature without Plutarch (c. 46 - c. 126) he owned 227 works, of which over 150 have survived. Plutarch's literary heritage can be divided into two categories: a series of treatises on moral topics, including religion, philosophy, politics, literature and music, and biography.
CONCLUSION
Shocked by the powerful blows of the barbarians, the Roman Empire was heading towards its destruction. Ancient art was completing its journey. After the death of Constantine (337), the crisis of the ancient order sharply worsened in Rome. Barbarian attacks on the borders of the empire intensified, and the Romans lost almost all of their provinces. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. The capital of the western half remained the city of Rome, and the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (the future Byzantium) became the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium.
In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the Vandals. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, deposed the young emperor Romulus Augustulus. This event is considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The Eastern Roman Empire did not perish under the attacks of the barbarians and existed for almost a thousand more years.
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient culture, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of European peoples, perished and became their common property, the basis of the entire culture of the new Europe. The earliest images of the originality of this culture appeared at the level of the most ancient forms of folk art, in particular mythology, the plots of which have served as rich material for painters, sculptors, composers, and poets for many centuries.
Ancient Rome gave Europe a developed jurisprudence, from which the modern legal system grew, and also left a rich cultural heritage that has become part of the life and culture of modern humanity. The majestic remains of Roman cities, buildings, theaters, amphitheatres, circuses, roads, aqueducts and bridges, baths and basilicas, triumphal arches and columns, temples and porticos, port facilities and military camps, multi-storey buildings and luxurious villas amaze modern people not only with their splendor , good technology, quality construction, rational architecture, but also aesthetic value. In all this there is a real connection between Roman antiquity and modern reality, visible proof that Roman civilization formed the basis of European culture, and through it the entire modern civilization as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Grinenko G.V. Reader on the history of world culture. Textbook - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher Education, 2005. - 940 p.
2.History of Ancient Rome: Textbook. for universities for special purposes “History” / V.I. Kuzishchin, I.L. Mayak, I.A. Gvozdeva and others; Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 383 p.
.Pivoev V.M. Culturology. Introduction to the history and philosophy of culture: Textbook / V.M. Pivoev. - Ed. 2nd, revised and additional - M.: Gaudeamus; Academic Prospect, 2008. - 564 p.
.Sadokhin A.P. World artistic culture: a textbook for university students / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2008. - 495 p.
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Roman culture largely continued the Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.
Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.
The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as it was disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, and idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then stopped performing them altogether, leaving only the pantheon we are familiar with. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion acquired more harmonious outlines, and the gods have long become mythology. The religions of Ancient Rome originated in totemism (the legend about the founders of Rome - Romulus and Remus). The pantheon of gods of Rome, as well as rituals, were mostly borrowed from the Greeks. Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Demeter - Ceres, etc. Cult of Jupiter (temple on Capitol Hill). The Romans revered such deities as Peace, Hope, Valor, Justice, which did not possess the traits of living individuals. In honor of such gods, temples were built and sacrifices were made. Mythology did not develop.
The Romans are also famous for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. Just look at the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the works of these scientists, the first philosophical problems arose, many of which have not been resolved to this day.
In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved particular success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livy; in literature - Livy Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valerius Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Naso, Plutarch. It is also necessary to remember about Roman law, which is used throughout Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.
A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for ordinary people was the circus, where gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with thrilling battle scenes, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.
A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome cannot even describe half of what was being built in the then city-state.
The Etruscans and Hellenes left their rich heritage to the Romans, from which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the structures were for public purposes - aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.
But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, we can add to this the rapid flourishing of portraits depicted in stone - the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.
There is still a widespread idea that ancient Roman culture is not original, because the Romans tried to imitate the unattainable examples of classical Greek culture, adopting everything and creating practically nothing of their own. However, the latest research shows the original nature of the culture of Ancient Rome, because it represents a certain unity that arose as a result of a combination of the original with borrowed cultural innovations. We should not forget the essential point that the ancient Roman and ancient Greek cultures were formed and developed on the basis of the ancient civil community. Its entire structure predetermined the scale of basic values that guided all its fellow citizens in one way or another. These values included: the idea of the significance and original unity of the civil community with the inextricable connection between the good of the individual and the good of the entire collective; the idea of the supreme power of the people; the idea of the closest connection between the civil community and the gods and heroes who care about its welfare. This perception of the deity in both Greece and Rome opened up space for free search in the field of philosophy, science, art and religion itself, not bound by dogmas and canons. The absence of a priestly caste is also significant. It should also be noted that the political life of both the Greek city-states and Rome, the struggle of leaders of various directions who sought to enlist the support of the people's assembly, open trials, which played a significant role in politics and attracted masses of listeners, stimulated the development of oratory, the ability to persuade, and contributed to the refinement of logical argumentation determined the methods of philosophy and science. The similarity of many basic features created favorable conditions for the mutual influence of cultures, and above all, for the influence of Greek culture on Roman culture.
But similarity does not mean identity - Rome differed in many ways from the Greek, primarily Athenian, polis. From the very beginning of its existence, Rome waged constant wars with its neighbors, which largely determined its organization, its entire structure of life and history. If the Greeks created myths about gods and demigods, then for the Romans the center of their mythology was Rome itself, its heroic victorious people, those who fought and died for its greatness. The gods, according to the Romans, only helped them win, thereby showing their special affection for the Roman people. Iron military discipline required military virtues - courage, loyalty, perseverance, stern inflexibility, proud dignity. Such virtues were required not only for war, but also for peaceful life, for fulfilling the duty of a good citizen. The relations between patricians and plebeians also had their own characteristics - the struggle for various laws that the plebeians wrested from their opponents acquired paramount importance, which determined the special role of law in the life of society. Both sides took advantage of religion, which was initially very close to law. The close connection of religion with law, with political struggle, on the one hand, increased its importance in the life of society, on the other, contributed to its formalization, detailing the various ways of communicating with the gods, recognizing their will. This excluded flights of fancy and personal initiative in the religious sphere, which did not become a source of poetic creativity. The mentioned differences largely determined the path of the Romans' assimilation of Greek culture.
It is not surprising that here we are faced with an interesting phenomenon - if Greek art and literature were successfully “transplanted” onto Roman soil, then Greek mathematics and logic did not take root on it. Logic ceased to be a moment of scientific research; the logical knowledge of antiquity seemed to “dry up” due to the intellectual level of the “consumers” of Roman culture, their practicality and sobriety. As a result, developed logical traditions became impoverished; early Latin translations were characterized by superficiality and confusion in terminology. All this is explained by the specifics of Roman culture: strength, not sophistication, power, not speed, massiveness, not beauty, utilitarianism, not harmony in everyday life, fact, not imagination, dominates in art; mercilessly realistic is spoiled in painting; majestic sculpture is characteristic of it. “Strength clothed in greatness” was the Roman ideal that blocked the development of logic and mathematics. It is clear that the Graeco-Roman, ancient culture that gradually formed as the Roman power grew, which turned into the Roman Empire, not only spread in the Roman provinces, but also absorbed the achievements of the cultures of the Etruscans, Western and Eastern peoples. However, absorbing foreign cultural values and samples, Roman culture evolves in its social logic, maintaining its integrity at different stages of evolution and borrowing only what does not contradict this integrity.
Over the course of several centuries, Ancient Rome evolved from polis to empire, and the Roman from citizen to subject with his strong sense of order. A citizen was characterized by direct connections in the community-citizen system, i.e. connections of complicity. Of great importance was the fact that in Rome there was equality of citizens in the sense of legal responsibility before the law, but there was no equality in the political and social sphere. The decisive role here was played by qualifications - the size of property and origin, which determined the citizen’s place in the social hierarchy, his rights and responsibilities. Thus, the people's assembly was the highest electoral and legislative body, but ordinary people could not expect to occupy high positions; this was available only to persons with high qualifications. The Roman citizen was guided by the following system of values: courage, bravery, endurance, hard work, stern dignity, unyielding honesty, justice, freedom. Characteristic and specifically Roman was the inextricable connection between freedom and economic independence: “salary makes a man a slave.” An economically dependent person did not dare to express an opinion that was not pleasing to the one to whom he owed something.
Of interest is the Roman ideal of a republic, to which Rome was close in the era from the final victory of the plebs to the middle of the 1st century. BC. The most complete, albeit embellished, description of it was given by the historian Polybius. He emphasizes the perfection of the political system of Rome, its “mixed structure”, combining elements of monarchy (the power of the consuls), aristocracy (the authority of the Senate) and democracy (the right of the people's assembly to pass laws, decide issues of war and peace, elect magistrates, punish or bestow honors as a reward for valor). The mutual control of all these institutions, the coordination of their actions, their dependence on each other give the entire system exceptional strength and the ability to conquer other peoples and rule them. As a result, a global Roman Empire arose.
This world power absorbed many of the cultural and technical achievements of the conquered peoples, assimilated, preserved them and gave them the status of universality. Although Rome demanded absolute social discipline from the individual, in the spirit of ancient traditions, it did not try to destroy individual originality, but, on the contrary, stimulated and approved any initiative in the interests of the empire. All subjects of the empire depended only on the emperor, who became the supreme owner of the land, the source of law and the supreme court of appeal, and in this sense replaced the Roman people. Thanks to service in the army and the bureaucratic apparatus, there were some opportunities for advancement up the social ladder, but they were limited by the preservation of the class principle and largely depended not only and not so much on real merits and abilities, but on the patronage of the emperor and influential people, i.e. from the ability to flatter, intrigue, adapt. Thus, in contrast to a citizen, for a subject, the determining factors were the connections in the empire-subject system, i.e. connections of subordination. This transition from citizen to subject also determined the corresponding evolution of the value system, in which there was a peculiar mixture of primordially Roman values with new values oriented towards the psychology of the subject.
Along with the social history of Ancient Rome, the evolution of its religion took place from the oldest communal religion, in which there were no anthropomorphic gods (they were represented as undefined forces), to Christianity. All researchers of Roman religion note that the introduction of the cult of the Capitoline Trinity (Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, who already had individuality and their inherent functions) and the construction of the Capitoline Temple were due to the consolidation of Rome as a city and the policy of the kings of the Etruscan dynasty, as well as the construction of the Temple of Diana on the Aventine and Jupiter Latiaris was dictated by the transition to Rome of hegemony in the Latin Union; that the triad of Libor, Libora and Ceres was plebeian, and the cult of the Dioscuri was equestrian; that in the era of the Republic and under the Empire, despite the reforms of Augustus and the imperial cult, the Roman religion ceases to act on the minds and souls of people, and in search of new forms of communication with the deity, the immortality of the soul, they turn to Eastern cults, mysteries, revelations, astrology, magic, to philosophy, closer to religion; that emperors, trying to influence their subjects, sought to make their power theocratic. Thus, there is a relationship between the development of the social structures of Ancient Rome and changes in the religious sphere, the status of which was very high. The rise in the social status of religion was also facilitated by the search for means of gaining spiritual freedom, which was led by ancient Roman philosophers, contrasting the body with the soul, matter with the spirit, and the world with God.
It is significant that with the partial disintegration of rural communities and the gradual dissolution of urban civil communities in the empire, with the establishment of a compulsory imperial cult and the deepening of social inequality, various social strata, in search of answers to the questions facing them, in different ways, come to the search for a single, supreme, common to all humanity god. And this god, and not the sanction of some more or less narrow group, becomes the source of moral norms, the guarantor of a correct and, therefore, happy life on earth and bliss beyond the grave. This was not yet monotheism, since a whole hierarchy of intermediaries, identified with traditional gods, was built between the supreme god and man. The latter were not denied by those who honored the gods closer to man (Sylvanus, Hercules, Dionysus). There was no obligatory dogma in these religions and, accordingly, the concept of heresy. But nevertheless, they prepared the victory of the world religion - Christianity, which most fully responded to the needs of various social strata of that time.
The importance of law was great in ancient Roman culture, the study, commentary and development of which was considered a matter worthy of all respect. A good legal education received in special schools could open the way to the upper classes for people who did not belong to them by origin; the most famous example is Cicero. For many centuries, Roman jurists developed and improved the law, adapting it to the real needs of life; Roman law became a model for subsequent legislators and formed the basis of the Napoleonic Code and a number of other normative documents of New and Contemporary times.
We know practically nothing about ancient Roman law. From the “royal laws” only meager passages interpreting sacred law have reached us. The basis for all further development of law was the Laws of the XII Tables, compiled in 451-450. BC. The Romans’ respect for these laws was partly determined by their general conservatism, the cult of the “morals of their ancestors,” and partly by the fact that certain foundations of the Roman civil community on the basis of which they were formed, with all modifications, continued to live until the complete disintegration of the ancient world and its culture. The laws of the XII tables also contained a number of elements of customary law inherent in other nations closely related to each other.
At the same time, the Laws of the XII Tables were already distinguished by a number of features specific to the Roman civil community, which retained their significance at all stages of the evolution of Roman law. First of all, these are provisions concerning agrarian relations, according to which the civil community continued to be the supreme owner of the land and controlled its management. Also indicative is the right to acquire land as a result of two years of use of it; it continued to operate throughout Roman history. Only a Roman citizen could own land on the territory of Rome, hence the formula “mine according to Quirite law” and the inextricable connection between citizenship and land ownership.
The community's concern for good cultivation of the land also affected the special structure of the Roman family, according to the Romans themselves, which had no analogues among any other peoples. Its peculiarity, as is known, was the exclusive right of the father to all resources belonging to the family: real and movable property and people under his authority - wife, sons with their wives and children, slaves. He could arbitrarily dispose of their labor force, could hire them out, sell them, punish them up to and including death, although custom required a family court in such cases. It is usually believed that such power of the father over all the resources of the family ensured the most effective cultivation of the land in the difficult farming conditions of Ancient Rome.
A number of provisions of the Laws of the XII Tables concern the rights of Roman citizens. First of all, this is the article according to which the last decree of the people is a binding law; then a law prohibiting the execution of a Roman citizen without the sanction of the highest legislative and judicial authority. This also includes the prohibition of conferring any privileges on individuals. Thus, the equality of citizens before the law was affirmed and the possibility, so common in other early societies, of providing a person who was not one of the elected masters with the administration of any territory, collecting taxes from the population, etc., was excluded. Control over the entire territory of Rome and its population belonged only to a collective of citizens. Perhaps the law that punished the death penalty for composing and publishing a song that dishonored someone was also connected with this.
According to the Laws of the XII Tables, other crimes were punishable by death: the night theft of someone else's harvest, for which the culprit was crucified on a tree and doomed to Ceres, arson of a building or grain compressed and lying near the house, for which the culprit was chained, beaten and burned. This also includes permission to kill with impunity a thief caught at the scene of a crime at night, and during the day - a thief who defended himself with a weapon. False witnesses were thrown from the Tarpeian rock; A judge or arbitrator convicted of bribery, a person who raised enemies against Rome or betrayed a citizen to the enemies, was executed. According to Augustine, the Laws of the XII Tables provided, in addition to execution and fines, also fetters, flogging, talion, dishonor, exile and slavery.
As class contradictions deepened, punishments for Roman citizens became more and more severe, and their equality before the law disappeared due to social differentiation, as evidenced by the cruel punishments issued by Augustus and his successors. The court ceased to be a public spectacle, processes under autocracy lost their political significance, the role of emotions decreased accordingly, and a subtle and comprehensive knowledge of the law, the ability to interpret it and apply it to a specific case increased in value. Meanwhile, the law became more and more complex, which led to its systematization, which is represented by the Guy's Institutes. It should also be noted that the jurists of the time of the Empire were well-known in their attitude towards ancient law: on the one hand, it was recognized as an unshakable basis, on the other, new trends paved the way for themselves. During this same period, the famous principle of the “presumption of innocence” was finally formed, according to which, if for one reason or another the question of a person’s status or the right of a slave to freedom came to court and the case turned out to be doubtful, it should have been decided in favor of freedom. As a result of long evolution, Roman law became flexible, which allowed it to be adequate to the changing social reality.
Roman science was also unique, proceeding from the ideas of an eternal, animate, indivisible and perfect cosmos - in it there was an antinomy between nature and man. Violent methods of mastering nature, the desire to correct or improve the initially established part-whole relationship at any cost (which is typical for modern technical civilization) were excluded by the very structure of the Roman world order. Roman science was not the dominant force in society due to the peculiarities of the existing culture; there was no social institution of scientists and groups of narrow specialists, like modern ones.
In the Roman Empire, a distinction was made between speculative (theoretical) and empirical (practical) sciences; This also included the arts (sciences) that satisfied the needs of luxury. Practical sciences are closer to reality and are dictated by necessity: these are medicine, agriculture, construction and military affairs, the art of navigation, law and other vital areas of knowledge. Studies in these sciences were traditionally considered worthy of a “noble” person and included knowledge of grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music. These subjects were part of the circle of Greek education and upbringing, and were also the basis of all practical knowledge throughout ancient history.
Speculative (theoretical) sciences are not directly related to practice (Aristotle put them above all others). The most important of them is philosophy, which is divided into physics, ethics and logic, which constitutes the method of philosophical presentation. Physics deals with questions of the structure of the universe and the laws of nature; ethics examines a person’s connections with society and his place in the cosmic whole, his position in the world and social order. Roman philosophy had all the philosophical schools of antiquity - Platonism, Stoicism, Pythagoreanism, skepticism, Epicureanism, etc., which allowed the ancient Romans to comprehend their position in the world.
The originality of Roman science is due to the nature of the worldview, in which Greek, Hellenistic and purely Roman cultural traditions were intertwined. Already in the era of the Republic, Roman culture became bilingual - the highest Roman families spoke and read Greek, which was considered a sign of education and good manners; at the same time, thanks to the work of philological scientists, the Latin language is developing a categorical apparatus capable of conveying all the subtleties and complexities of the Hellenistic cultural and scientific tradition. Therefore, science in the Roman Empire became multilingual (Apulei wrote in Latin, and Marcus Aurelius and Aelian wrote in Greek). In addition, Roman science was multidirectional: the theoretical heritage was the privilege of foreigners, while people of practical knowledge like Vitruvius, Celsus, Frontinus sought to use the achievements of the Greeks for the glory of Rome. And the accumulated stock of practical knowledge and experience - Roman civil engineering, Roman sanitation and hygiene, etc. - was the pride of Rome. If we take into account that no culture with centuries-old traditions can exist on knowledge borrowed from outside without adapting it to its own value system, then the uniqueness of Roman science becomes understandable.
Roman art also has its own appearance, which arose from a mixture of local (mainly Etruscan) art traditions with Greek influence. Roman art was also influenced by various peoples - the Germans, Gauls, Celts, etc., who were part of the multinational Roman Empire, but these influences did not significantly change the basic features of Roman art. Its artistic form is the result of ideological preconditions specific to Rome. Roman art is a continuation of Greek, therefore, thanks to the admiration of the Romans for Greek art, most of the creations of the Greek classics were preserved in Roman copies. From the Etruscans Roman art received its main inheritance.
Roman architecture took a lot from Etruscan architecture - the round shape of the plan and arch, which was characteristic of the city gates of Etruscan cities. The Romans turned the arch into a triumphal portal through which the winner passed. This form, such as the design of the vault, was preserved in the new European architecture.
The Romans created huge architectural structures and buildings. Forums, baths, amphitheaters, palaces, temples, fortress walls, etc. were built, which even today delight with their monumentality, thoughtfulness and beauty of architectural forms.
In the field of sculpture, the Romans were also followers of the Etruscans. They borrowed the custom of creating funerary masks and portraits on the sarcophagi of the dead, and from these tomb masks the Roman portrait developed widely based on a realistic reflection of reality. The Roman sculptor did not create an idealized image in a portrait, but depicted specific individuals, emphasizing the portrait resemblance. Roman sculpture did not create generalized images of athletes, as was customary among the Greeks. In general, the naked body is rarely found among the Romans, and if it does occur, it is always as if with some kind of “excuse.” Roman monumental sculpture creates statues dressed in togas, seriously engaged in their work.
Roman art also had significant success in painting. An original painting is created, different from the Greek one. The Roman painter first of all strives to reflect the surrounding nature and arrange the figures in space. He does not achieve a realistic reflection of reality, but creates certain illusions of it, emphasizes the internal space linearly, although without achieving perspective (which appears much later). All this gives Roman painting a certain advantage over Greek.
Roman poetry is also beautiful, the golden age of which began in the era of Augustus. One of the famous poets is Virgil Maron, who created the poems “Georgics”, “Aeneid” and “Shepherd’s Songs”. In the work of Horace Flaccus, Latin poetry reached its highest form of development. Taking Greek lyric poets, especially Alcaeus, as a model, he created several odes. In them he glorified the personality and work of Augustus, Roman weapons, as well as the joys of love and friendship and the contemplative quiet life of the poet-philosopher. An outstanding poet of the “golden age” was Ovid Nason, who wrote many poems about love. His poem “The Art of Love” was a kind of instruction to lovers on how to achieve love, which aroused the wrath of Augustus, who saw in Ovid’s poems a parody of his legislation on strengthening the family life of the Roman nobility and exiled the poet outside the empire. And subsequently, Roman poetry and prose of Juvenal, Apuleius, Seneca and others became widespread.
It should be emphasized the pragmatic nature of all Roman art, the task of which was to strengthen the existing order. In ancient Rome, to use modern terminology, programs of mass influence on the population were carried out; they were expensive, but the effect was enormous. These included gladiator fights and “combat programs”: “Sometimes the arena was filled with water, fish and various sea monsters were released into the water; naval battles were also staged here, for example, the Battle of Salamis between the Athenians and the Persians or the battle of the Corinthians with the Corcyrians. In 46 BC. a battle was arranged between the Syrian and Egyptian fleets on a lake that Caesar deliberately ordered to be dug on the Campus Martius; 2,000 oarsmen and 1,000 sailors took part in the battle.
A similar battle was staged by Augustus in 2 AD. on an artificial lake on the other side of the Tiber. The number of participants reached 3000. But all these games were overshadowed by a large naval battle, which was staged during the reign of Claudius on Lake Fucin. Here two fleets opposed each other - the Sicilian and the Rhodian, and 19,000 people fought on both sides” (P. Giro).
The principle of “bread and circuses”, characteristic of the way of life of Ancient Rome, had ideological significance and carried moral and political information to the audience. Spectacles served as a very effective means of strengthening power, be it in republican or imperial Rome. There is a story that one day Augustus reproached the pantomime Pylades for his rivalry with his partner, to which Pylades replied: “It is to your advantage, Caesar, that the people are busy with us.” The spectacles pursued a very specific goal - to give the thoughts of the crowd a certain direction in favor of the existing regime. This was achieved by the splendor and luxury of festivals, spectacles and buildings that influenced the imagination and fantasy of the masses.
Studies of various aspects of the Roman way of life reveal a certain universal tendency in it. It turns out that the principles of design in the field of artistic construction, the categories of theoretical thought and the image of social reality deposited in the popular consciousness reveal a certain isomorphism in Ancient Rome. They are united by a common idea of the changeable surface of existence, which envelops its constant basis - a half-concept-half-image, which, however, had indisputable foundations in objective reality and was realized in it. This is what can be called the internal form of culture.
It is clear that although Rome grew from a small city-state into a gigantic empire, its people retained the old ceremonies and customs almost unchanged. In light of this, it is not surprising that the shocking display of wealth caused by some Romans' use of lectica (stretchers) caused widespread irritation. It is rooted not so much in politics or ideology, but in those hidden, but indisputably living layers of social consciousness, where the centuries-old historical experience of the people, which has been outlived on the surface, has been molded into forms of everyday behavior, into unconscious tastes and aversions, into the traditions of life. At the end of the republic and in the 1st century. AD Fantastic amounts of money circulated in Rome. Emperor Vitellius “ate” 900 million sesterces in a year, Nero’s temporary servant and Claudius Vibius Crispus was richer than Emperor Augustus. Money was the main value in life. But the general idea of what is moral and proper was still rooted in natural communal forms of life, and monetary wealth was desirable, but at the same time somehow unclean and shameful. Augustus's wife Livia herself spun wool in the atrium of the imperial palace, the princesses enacted laws against luxury, Vespasian saved pennies at a time, Pliny glorified ancient frugality, and eight Syrian lecticians, each of whom should have cost at least half a million sesterces, insulted the money laid down in time immemorial. but understandable to everyone ideas about what is decent and acceptable.
The everyday necessity of life was felt as reprehensible, as contrary to the vague, violated, but omnipresent and intelligible norm - “the mores of the ancestors,” and this constant comparison of this directly visible, everyday existence with the distant, but immutable paradigm of ancient sanctions and restrictions, virtues and prohibitions constitutes one one of the most striking and specific features of Roman culture. Life and development, correlated with the archaic norm, suggested either its constant violation and therefore contained something crisis-ridden and immoral, or required external conformity with it contrary to the natural course of events of reality itself and therefore contained something cunning and hypocritical. This was just a universal tendency that explains a lot in Roman history and Roman culture.
At the end of the 5th century. Ancient Rome as a world empire ceased to exist, but its cultural heritage did not perish. Today it is an essential ingredient of Western culture. The Roman cultural heritage shaped and was embodied in the thinking, languages and institutions of the Western world. A certain influence of ancient Roman culture is visible both in the classical architecture of public buildings and in the scientific nomenclature constructed from the roots of the Latin language; many of its elements are difficult to isolate, so firmly have they entered the flesh and blood of everyday culture, art and literature. We are no longer talking about the principles of classical Roman law, which underlies the legal systems of many Western states and the Catholic Church, built on the basis of the Roman administrative system.
This ancient culture also played a key role in the history of European and world culture. The countries that we today designate as Western Europe originated in their foundations from Ancient Rome and actually exist within the former Roman Empire.
Many fundamental spiritual ideas and norms of social life, traditional values, socio-psychological stereotypes transmitted by Rome to Europe for more than one and a half thousand years, right up to the 19th century, formed the basis and arsenal, language and form of European culture. The foundations of law and state organization, the idea of democracy, civil responsibility, separation of powers, a stable set of plots and artistic images were adopted by Europe from antiquity through Ancient Rome.
The initial stage of the formation of ancient Roman culture covers the XIII-III centuries. BC e. By the end of the 6th century. BC e. Rome developed as a city-state of the Greek type. The first circus for gladiator fights was built here, craft and construction equipment, writing, etc. were used.
Religion Ancient Rome was animistic (recognized the existence of spirits), and also contained elements of totemism - the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who, according to legend, nursed the brothers Romulus and Remus - the founders of the city. The deities were initially impersonal, asexual, but over time they acquired a humanoid character. The Roman sought help from the gods in his daily life, as if entering into an agreement with the deity and awaiting his favor after fulfilling his promises and obligations. Gods were not depicted in artistic culture.
Socio-political organization of Ancient Rome (republican period). In 510 BC. e. Rome became an aristocratic slave-owning republic and subjugated the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula. At the same time, the first code of Roman law was written - “Laws of the XII Tables” (mid-5th century BC). Jurisprudence reached a high level of development: in the 1st century. BC e. There was already an extensive legal literature. The Roman Republic and Roman law became an example for all subsequent generations. A great state was created in which the wisdom of government and oratory were encouraged. Every citizen who aspired to become a political and statesman had to perfectly master the techniques of rhetoric - this helped to become famous, win the love of the people and get the opportunity to be elected by the people to a high public position. The highest state legislative body of the Roman Republic was the Senate, which supervised foreign policy, finance, state property, was in charge of military life, etc.
During this period, Greek culture had a huge influence on Roman culture. This is reflected in religion, philosophy, and literature. From the 3rd century. BC e. Roman gods began to be identified with Greek ones: Jupiter - with Zeus, Venus - with Aphrodite, etc.
Literature in Ancient Rome it was initially of a compilative nature - the first works in Latin were translations from Greek, and the first Roman writers were Greeks.
Architecture, which reached a high level of development in Ancient Rome, was also formed under the influence of ancient Greek culture. At the same time, the buildings of the Romans also had distinctive features: they sought to emphasize the strength and power that prevailed over man. For these purposes, monumental buildings were erected, and the buildings were decorated in a lavish way: columns of triumphants reaching towards the sky, lavish decoration of balconies. Greater interest was shown not in temple complexes, but in buildings for practical needs.
Roman architects developed new design principles - arches, vaults, domes, pillars, pilasters. In II-I BC. e. Concrete and vaulted structures were widely used. New types of buildings appeared:
1 basilica (trade transactions were carried out, court proceedings were carried out);
2 amphitheaters (gladiatorial fights were held);
3 circuses (chariot competitions took place);
4 thermal baths (a complex of bathhouses).
A new type of monumental structure emerges (triumphal arch).
During military campaigns, the Romans exported material assets and works of art from Greece in huge quantities: statues, paintings, ceramics. Copying of Greek masterpieces began. All this did not contribute to the flourishing of Roman art itself.
From 31 BC e. another period begins in the history of Ancient Rome (the period of empire) and a qualitatively new Mediterranean culture is born. One of the conditions for its prosperity was the strengthening of the material and economic potential of the empire, which provided favorable conditions for the creation of cultural values and gave birth to a special social stratum - the ancient intelligentsia: teachers, masters of rhetoric, philosophers, poets, writers.
The centers of culture were cities in which there were theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, stadiums,
temples, etc. The population was characterized by a high level of literacy. The school education and upbringing system included 3 levels - primary, secondary, and higher. Graduates of the highest level were prepared for state, practical and cultural activities. Higher education began to emerge.
One of the most important achievements of Roman culture of this period is literature (Apuley, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Ovid). The enormous scale of the Roman Empire left its mark on the literary form. In comparison with Greek examples, the works of Roman authors were distinguished by greater drama and a more sober analysis of reality.
The science. Compared to literature and art, the achievements of science during the times of Ancient Rome were not so significant. Geographical and medical knowledge gained a certain dissemination, but signs of regression, backward movement, and rejection of advanced views formed in previous historical periods increasingly appeared. For example, in astronomy the geocentric system of Ptolemy was recognized (the Earth is the center of the Universe), but already in the 3rd century. BC e. there was a heliocentric system of Samos.
In the I-II centuries. n. e. Society's attention increasingly shifted to ethics due to the decline of morals, increased consumerism, and rampant passions. During the Empire, the outstanding thinkers included the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius (2nd century AD). He reflected on ethics, the gap between ideal and reality, and his own imperfections.
Art culture. Unlike science in this area, the ancient Romans created the greatest works, which to this day remain unsurpassed masterpieces of world artistic culture. These are achievements in the field of architecture: the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a system of vaults (unlike the Greeks), a closed enchanting vault (dome); built two of the most famous architectural monuments - the Colosseum, the largest amphitheater of the ancient world, and the Pantheon - a temple in the name of all gods (a round building covered with a grandiose dome with a diameter of more than 43 m, the reproduction of which became possible only in the 19th century, with the invention of reinforced concrete structures) .
Religion. Throughout the territory of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of its existence, the influence of eastern cults increased. Many miracle workers, mystics, and prophets appeared. Astrology and superstition found more and more adherents. But in the end, religious faith prevailed, proclaiming monotheism, equality of all before God, posthumous reward for a virtuous life. It was Christianity that attracted the sympathy of slaves, the poor, all the oppressed who thirsted for justice. The disciples of Christ, the “apostles,” dispersed around the middle of the 1st century. n. e. around the world, preaching a new faith. They also founded numerous Christian communities.
At the end of the 2nd century. n. e. A crisis began in the Roman Empire: frequent changes of emperors, separation of provinces, and the emergence of independent rulers in various parts of the empire. In 395, the empire splits into Western (Rome) and Eastern (Constantinople). Already in the first half of the 4th century. Christianity turns into the dominant religion, the destruction of pagan temples begins, and the Olympic Games are banned.
Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as the Byzantine Empire. Its culture became a continuation of the Greek one, but in a Christian version. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 (the last emperor was deposed). This year is considered the end of the Ancient World, the beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins of the Western Roman Empire, so-called barbarian states arose, the population of which, to one degree or another, was introduced to Greco-Roman culture.
Ancient Rome worthily fulfilled its historical mission, preserving Greek culture for Europe through the broadcast and replication of its values.
The art of Hellenism vividly reflected the ideas that worried the people of that turbulent era, and artistic culture became the basis for the development of many types of art in various areas of the Mediterranean. With the decline of the Hellenistic states from the end of the 1st century BC. e. Roman art acquired leading importance in the ancient world. Having absorbed many of the achievements of the culture and art of Greece, it embodied them in the artistic practice of the colossal Roman power.
The Romans introduced features of a more sober worldview into the ancient anthropocentrism of the Greeks. Precision and historicism of thinking, harsh prose lie at the basis of their artistic culture, far from the sublime poetics of the myth-making of the Greeks.
The culture of Rome has entered our consciousness since school years with the mysterious legend of Romulus, Remus and their adopted wolf mother. Rome is the ringing of gladiator swords and the thumbs down of Roman beauties who were present at gladiator fights and longing for the death of the defeated. Rome is Julius Caesar, who on the banks of the Rubicon says “The die is cast” and starts a civil war, and then, falling under the daggers of the conspirators, says: “And you, Brutus!” Roman culture is associated with the activities of many Roman emperors. Among them is Augustus, who proudly declares that he took Rome in brick and left it to his descendants as marble. Caligula, who is about to appoint his horse as a senator, Claudius with his empress Messalina, whose name has become synonymous with frantic debauchery, Nero, who started the fire of Rome to inspire a poem about the fire of Troy, Vespasian with his cynical words “Money has no smell,” and the noble Titus, who, if he did not do a single good deed during the day, said: “Friends, I lost a day” (Gasparov M.L. Preface // Gaius Suetonius Tranquila. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. M., 1988. P. 5).
The artistic culture of Rome was distinguished by great diversity and diversity of forms, it reflected features characteristic of the art of peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes at a higher level of cultural development. Roman art developed on the basis of the complex interpenetration of the original art of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the powerful Etruscans, who introduced the Romans to the art of urban planning (various versions of vaults, the Tuscan order, engineering structures, temples and residential buildings, etc.), and monumental wall painting , a sculptural and pictorial portrait, distinguished by a keen perception of nature and character. But the main influence was still Greek art. In the words of Horace, “Greece, having become a captive, captured the rude victors.”
The basic principles of the artistic culture of the two peoples were different in their origins. The beautiful, “the proper measure in everything,” was for the Greek both the ideal and the principle of culture. The Greeks, as already noted, recognized the power of harmony, proportionality and beauty, the Romans did not recognize any other power than the power of force. They created a great and powerful state, and the entire structure of Roman life was determined by this great power. Personal talents were not promoted or cultivated - the social attitude was completely different. Hence the formula of researchers of Roman culture: “great deeds were accomplished by the Romans, but there were no great people among them” - great artists, architects, sculptors. Let us clarify that there were no geniuses of ancient Greece equal in importance. The strength of the state was expressed primarily in construction.
In Roman art during its heyday, architecture played a leading role, the monuments of which, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, designed for huge numbers of people. Throughout the ancient world, architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into urban, rural ensembles and landscapes. They reworked the principles of Greek architecture and, above all, the order system.
But the humanistic principle, noble grandeur and harmony, which constitute the foundations of Greek art, in Rome gave way to tendencies to exalt the power of emperors and the military power of the empire. Hence the large-scale exaggerations, external effects, false pathos of huge structures, and nearby - the poor shacks of the poor, cramped crooked streets and city slums.
In the field of monumental sculpture, the Romans remained far behind the Greeks and did not create monuments as significant as the Greeks. But they enriched plastic art by revealing new aspects of life, developed everyday and historical relief, which formed the most important part of architectural decor.
The best legacy of Roman sculpture was the portrait. As an independent type of creativity, it has been traced since the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The Romans were the authors of a new understanding of this genre. They, unlike the Greek sculptors, carefully and vigilantly studied the face of a particular person with his unique features. In the portrait genre, the original realism of Roman sculptors, observation and the ability to generalize observations in a certain artistic form were most clearly manifested. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their morals and ideals.
The ideal of the era was the wise and strong-willed Roman Cato - a man of a practical mindset, the keeper of strict morals. An example of such an image is a sharply individual portrait of a Roman with a thin, asymmetrical face, an intense gaze and a skeptical smile. The civic ideals of the republican era are embodied in monumental full-length portraits - statues of Togatus ("Dressed in Toga"), usually depicted standing upright, in the pose of an orator. The famous statue “Orator” (early 1st century BC) depicts a Roman or Etruscan master at the moment of making a speech to his fellow citizens.
At the end of the 1st century BC. e. The Roman state transformed from an aristocratic republic into an empire. The so-called “Roman Peace” - a time of calm in the class struggle during the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 24 AD) stimulated a high flowering of art. Ancient historians characterize this period as the “golden age” of the Roman state. The names of the architect Vitruvius, the historian Titus Livius, and the poets Virgil, Ovid, and Horace are associated with it.
End of 1st and beginning of 2nd centuries. n. e. - the time of creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of large spatial scope. Next to the ancient Republican Forum, forums for emperors were erected for ceremonial ceremonies. Multi-storey buildings were built - they determined the appearance of Rome and other cities of the empire. The embodiment of the power and historical significance of imperial Rome were triumphal structures glorifying military victories.
The most gigantic spectacular building of Ancient Rome is the Colosseum, a place of grandiose spectacles and gladiator fights. The builders had to comfortably accommodate 50 thousand spectators in its huge stone bowl. The powerful walls of the Colosseum are divided into four tiers by continuous arcades; on the lower floor they served for entrance and exit. The places descending like a funnel were divided according to the social rank of the spectators. In terms of the grandeur of the plan and the breadth of spatial design, the Pantheon temple competes with the Colosseum, captivating with its free harmony. Built by Apollodorus of Damascus, it represents the classic image of a central domed building, the largest and most perfect in antiquity. Subsequently, the largest architects sought to surpass the Pantheon in scale and perfection of implementation. The ancient sense of proportion remained unattainable.
Artistic ideals of Roman art 111-4th centuries. n. e. reflected the complex nature of the era: the collapse of the ancient ancient way of life and worldview was accompanied by new searches in art. The grandiose scale of some monuments in Rome and its provinces is reminiscent of the architecture of the Ancient East.
During the imperial era, relief and round sculpture were further developed. A monumental marble Altar of Peace was erected on the Campus Martius (13-9 AD) on the occasion of the victory of Augustus in Spain and Gaul. The upper part of the altar is completed by a relief depicting the solemn procession to the altar of Augustus, his family and the Roman patricians, endowed with precise portrait characteristics. The craftsmanship and free design indicate Greek influence.
The leading place in Roman sculpture was still occupied by the portrait. His new direction arose under the influence of Greek art and was called “August classicism.” In the age of Augustus, the character of the image changed dramatically - it reflected the ideal of strict classical beauty, this is the type of new person that republican Rome did not know. Full-length ceremonial court portraits appeared, full of restraint and grandeur.
Later, vital and convincing works are created, and the portrait reaches one of the peaks of its development. The desire to individualize the image sometimes reached the point of grotesqueness in its expressiveness. The portrait of Nero, with a low forehead, a heavy suspicious gaze from under swollen eyelids and an ominous smile of a sensual mouth, reveals the cold cruelty of a despot, a man of base, unbridled passions.
At the time of crisis of the ancient worldview (2nd century AD), the portrait captures individualism and spirituality, self-absorption and, at the same time, sophistication and fatigue, characterizing the period of decline. The finest chiaroscuro and brilliant polishing of the surface of the face made the marble glow from the inside, destroying the sharpness of the contour lines; picturesque masses of restlessly flowing hair set off the transparency of his features with their matte texture. This is the portrait of the “Syrian Woman,” ennobled by the most subtle experiences. A barely noticeable ironic smile can be seen in the facial expression that has changed due to the lighting. When the point of view changes, the smile disappears - a hint of sadness and fatigue appears.
The monumental bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, reinstalled in the 16th century, dates back to this era. designed by Michelangelo on the Capitoline Square in Rome. The image of the emperor is the embodiment of the civic ideal and humanity. He addresses the people with a broad, pacifying gesture. This is the image of a philosopher, the author of “Reflections on My Own,” indifferent to fame and wealth. The folds of his clothing merge him with the powerful body of a superbly cast slow-moving horse. “A more beautiful and smarter head than the horse of Marcus Aurelius,” wrote the German historian Winckelmann, “cannot be found in nature.”
The third century is the era of the heyday of Roman portraiture, which is increasingly freed from traditional ideals, artistic techniques and types and exposes the very essence of the person being portrayed. This flowering took place in the complex contradictory conditions of decline, decomposition of the Roman state and its culture, the obsolescence of the forms of high ancient art, but at the same time the emergence in the depths of ancient society of a new social feudal order, new powerful creative tendencies. The strengthening of the role of the provinces and the influx of barbarians, who often stood at the head of the empire, poured fresh energy into the fading Roman art and determined the new look of late Roman culture. It outlined features that were developed in the Middle Ages in the West and East, in the art of the Renaissance. In the portrait there appeared images of people filled with extreme energy, self-affirmation, egocentrism, lust for power, brute force, born of a cruel and tragic struggle that captured society at that time.
The late period of development of the portrait is marked by an external coarsening of the appearance and increased spiritual expression. Thus, a new system of thinking emerged in Roman art, in which the aspiration to the sphere of the spiritual, characteristic of medieval art, triumphed. The image of a person who has lost the ethical ideal in life itself has lost the harmony of physical and spiritual principles characteristic of the ancient world.
Roman art completed a large period of ancient artistic culture. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. Destroyed and plundered by barbarians in the 4th-7th centuries. Rome was deserted, new settlements grew among its ruins, but the traditions of Roman art continued to live. The artistic images of Ancient Rome inspired the masters of the Renaissance.
