Byaly Turgenev and Russian realism abstract. F

I.S. Turgenev - as a great realist

The work of Ivan Turgenev (1818-83) was largely formed under the influence of the idea of liberal-noble enlightenment, which played an important role in the development of Russian literary realism. Start creative activity Turgenev dates back to the 40s, when the writer was interested in the philosophy of romanticism. Under her influence, Turgenev's life credo was formed - he was opposed to violent measures to solve any problems, including social ones. However, the fascination with romanticism was quite rapid, and already from the mid-40s, Turgenev’s work became realistic in style.

At the turn of the 40s and 50s, a new generation of intelligentsia, distinguished by its sharp radicalism and rejection of serfdom, made itself known more and more clearly in the public life of Russia. Turgenev was the first Russian writer to reflect the views of the “new people” in his novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons.” In them he shows the inevitability of the historical end noble class, reflected the conflict of generations as the antagonism of the worldviews of noble liberals and raznochintsy revolutionaries. The writer, being a nobleman himself, considered the nobility to be the bearer of the highest spiritual values of Russian culture. In his novels, the writer revealed the best features of Russian noble intelligentsia, her love for the people, devotion to the interests of the country. However, he understood that the “time” of the nobility was running out, and it was no longer able to actively resist the extremism of the “new people.” The writer presented their views destructive force, which breaks the usual foundations of social life. At the same time, the author himself did not approve of their radicalism, but he treated Key’s moral principles with sympathy and respect. Without sharing the views of the commoners, Turgenev as great realist, shows their courage, dedication, asceticism.

F. Dostoevsky and his refusal to romanticize the images of the “common people”

A completely different role in Russian artistic culture played by the brilliant writer Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-81), who enriched world culture with works equal in their artistic power to the works of Shakespeare. Possessing a unique gift of prophecy and the ability to analyze the human soul, the writer professed ideas that went beyond the ideas of a specific historical time into the sphere of “eternal” interests of people.

He immediately entered Russian literature as an established master. Already in his first novels (“Poor People”), the writer addressed the problem of the “little man.” However, unlike his predecessors, he does not idealize poverty. The desire to show the realism of life forced Dostoevsky to abandon the romanticization of images " simple house" He portrays them in accordance with the logic of their characters and the truth of life, combining good and evil in their characters.

The 60s - 70s of the 19th century became the most important stage in Dostoevsky’s work, since at this time his most outstanding works were created - “Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “Demons”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, in which he substantiated and developed a number of deep philosophical ideas. Expressing his disagreement with the existing world order, the writer at the same time denies violent measures to restructure the world. He believes that Russia's special historical path and the rapprochement of the people with the intelligentsia will help resolve social problems without revolutionary upheavals. Dostoevsky warned that social means of combating evil alone are not enough. He believed that a person necessarily needs moral support, which he saw in God.

L. Tolstoy, founder of Russian nihilism

The pinnacle of Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century was the work of Leo Tolstoy (1829-1910), who went down in the history of Russian and world culture not only as a realist writer, but also as the founder of Russian nihilism, the creator of a unique philosophy and pedagogy. Tolstoy saw his destiny in criticism socio-historical building, as well as contemporary philosophical, religious, and ethical teachings. The writer considered the opinion of the people to be the source of his judgments. Search topic moral ideal, corresponding to the “natural life” of ordinary peasants, runs through all his works (novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, stories and dramas).

Tolstoy's work was devoted to depicting post-reform Russia. In his works, he posed many great questions, conveyed the mood of the masses, their indignation and protest against the existing order. A wide coverage of reality, the deepest penetration into human psychology, a reflection of the history of a people through the private life of an individual, a tireless search for a spiritual ideal - all this makes the phenomenon of Tolstoy a unique phenomenon in Russian and world literature.

Turgenev's creativity reflects life in its conflicts, represents a variety of social orientations Russian life 60s of the XIX century, draws attention to the most characteristic social and historical types. This writer is characterized by both comprehension of real people's life and folk types, as well as new ideas that influence the mindset of people who, with their lives, test the greatness and inferiority of historical trends.

Features of realism in the novel« Fathers and Sons"

An important feature of Turgenev’s novel is the reflection of typical, and therefore realistic, characters for Russian culture. The writer also shows the image of the “superfluous man” in a new way: Turgenev’s “superfluous man” is able to manifest himself not in a specific act, but exclusively verbally, in calls to action (“Rudin”, “Smoke”).

New type of hero

A new figure for Russian reality, but at the same time a typical figure, is. It embodied the real features of the democratic revolutionaries of the 60s:

positivism as Bazarov's philosophy proclaims the superiority of life force over moral categories - duty, honor, etc.;
the hero’s aesthetic views are close to those of

“What is beautiful is what is useful”;

experiment for the hero - the only way the study of man and nature and man.

The combination of the typical and the individual in the destinies of the main antagonists - Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov - is expressed most clearly:

Bazarov’s fate is a typical fate of a commoner, but his death at the end of the novel is the author’s individual move;
the fate of Pavel Petrovich is also typical, but its individuality is connected with love story hero, which could have had a different outcome with a different character.

The novel “Fathers and Sons” lacks an external one (it is not for nothing that a wave of criticism fell on Turgenev from both liberals and democrats: both considered the novel a libel).

However, the author, without openly expressing his assessment, shows through the composition of the novel and plot moves that the characters are wrong (Bazarov’s statements about love - the hero’s love for Odintsova). Special meaning in expressing the author's position it has a description of the rural cemetery where Bazarov is buried. Ideas die along with their founders, man is mortal, but nature is eternal. This is the writer’s life and philosophical realism.

Compositional solution of the novel

The novel is structured as a dialogue between opponents, a dialogue between generations, which the author transfers to the plane of socio-ideological concepts. Pavel Petrovich and Bazarov are initially designated in the novel as irreconcilable antagonists. Through the course of the plot, Turgenev proves that the positions of both are too categorical and therefore cannot be recognized as correct. For Turgenev himself, Bazarov’s nihilism is unacceptable, since it has no positive program.

The composition is based on a real conflict between liberals and revolutionary democrats as two generations of people thinking about the fate of Russia. It is in the composition that the author’s polemic with the hero is embedded. So, behind the categorical judgments of the main character about love, about the attitude towards a woman (Bazarov about Odintsova:

“... such a rich body! - at least now to the anatomical theater")

follows a story about the hero's love for Madame Odintsova. This love refutes the hero’s statements, and allows the author to express his disagreement with his position. Life is more diverse than the statements of a nihilist.

The composition of the novel “Fathers and Sons” can be divided into two parts: Turgenev takes the hero twice in a circle - Maryino, Nikolskoye, and his parents’ house.

This allows the writer to show that Bazarov, who has experienced doubt, painfully trying to preserve his theory, to hide behind it from the complexities of the real world, loses in this battle.

The imagery system is the realism of the novel’s characters

All characters are important. So Pavel Petrovich is Bazarov’s main opponent. Nikolai Petrovich and Arkady are also participants in the dispute, but their statements are much softer, they complement the disputants, but at the same time show that life is much more diverse. Anna Sergeevna Odintsova is not like the Turgenev girls of previous novels. She is a person who knows what she wants.

Love for Odintsova is a test for both her and Bazarov.

The grotesque figures of Sitnikov and Kukshina discredit the positions of the nihilist Bazarov and show to what absurdity it can be brought social theory, if it is transferred to society by people like Sitnikov and Kukshina.

The epilogue plays a special role in the composition and in revealing the characters.

primacy of eternal over mortal man in the description of Bazarov’s grave,
the culmination of the idea of the absurdity of nihilism and its heirs is in the mention of Kukshina and Sitnikov,
a description of the peaceful local existence of the Kirsanov family is a natural result of the development of the characters of Arkady and Nikolai Petrovich,
the existence of Pavel Petrovich far from his homeland is also natural and shows the end of the life of a still living person,
the fate of Odintsova, who married a man who is one of the future public figures Russia, which is able to soberly assess the situation, presents the author’s compromise - the result of fierce ideological disputes.

Descriptions, portraits and speech of the characters in the novel “Fathers and Sons”

Portraits of heroes, details, and speeches of characters are undoubtedly important:

the description of the clothes of Pavel Petrovich and Bazarov seems to set the future antagonism of their relationship,
Bazarov's red, weathered hand indicates that he is accustomed to work,
and Pavel Petrovich’s pampered hand speaks of aristocracy;

Bazarov's phrase

“Just order my suitcase to be stolen there and these clothes”

must, in the hero’s opinion, determine his place in Kirsanov’s house, show these aristocrats that he, Bazarov, will not humiliate himself in front of them; many of this hero’s phrases are aphorisms, well-honed and quickly remembered

“Nature is not a temple, but a workshop, and man is a worker in it,”

which testifies to the thoughtfulness of his nihilism, as well as his undoubted talent.

Turgenev's realism in the novel "Fathers and Sons" introduced a lot of new things into the development of this. The writer's contribution to solving the painful problems that worried Russian society in the mid-nineteenth century is undoubted. However, the development of our country in the twentieth century forced us to read this work of the Russian writer in a new way and appreciate his insight.

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First attempts at creative writing (poems) the author wore romantic character. WITH 40's same years I. Turgenev with the work "Andrey Kolosov" goes to realism.

At the center of the story Andrey Kolosov- an impressive person who lives for his own pleasure. The hero turns out to be insensitive and cold towards the girl who is in love with him. But what is more terrible is that, a leader, a “leader” by nature, Kolosov leads not yet lost souls, turning them into a religion of cynicism and consumerism: the narrator also falls into his “net.”

He played a major role in the formation of Turgenev’s views. Belinsky: he helped the writer determine his place in the struggle of the Slavophiles with the Westerners. Turgenev took the position of denying all types of backwardness and idealizing the obsolete and national isolation.

The main direction of Turgenev's creativity was determined in the essay “Khor and Kalinich” (“Notes of a Hunter”, 1847), and after and in "Bezhin Meadow"

IN "Notes of a Hunter" the author idealizes the simple Russian character of Khor and Kalinich - heroes who are completely different in their life attitudes. ferret – rationalist; all his life he collected his wealth bit by bit; The ferret is closer to society. Kalinich, on the contrary, is a dreamer, a romantic without a practical streak; he is closer to nature, strives for harmony with it and does not pursue material assets. Turgenev admires the qualities of the Russian people - their hard work, diligence, original mind, extraordinary imagination, love of nature.

The story "Biryuk" confirms the poeticization of the Russian people: Biryuk raises children alone, carries out his service honestly, but at the same time understands the condition of the common man, whom need and hunger push to steal. Turgenev attached particular importance to the forest and hunting, because believed that when confronted with nature, class differences are erased (Turgenev’s men perceived him as one of their own).

"Bezhin Meadow" considered one of Turgenev's most poetic works (at the end of his life he would create cycle of prose poems “Senilia”). The center of the work becomes Russian nature and the child's soul.

Turgenev is interested moral world people from the people. WITH great sympathy the author creates images of peasant boys. The aura of events itself is more romantic: a July night, a bonfire, scary stories, unique nature. Nature in “Bezhin Meadow” is not the background of events, but a means of characterizing the characters, albeit indirectly. Natural landscapes and elements that the boys recreate in their imaginations help the author to poeticize the boys’ souls, to see them as bright and alive. The soul of the people in Turgenev's view turns out to be akin to nature - poetic and mysterious.

The main feature of the cycle of stories was truthfulness, which contained the idea of liberation of the peasantry, represented the peasants as spiritually active people capable of independent activity.

The Russian soul - vulnerable and unique - is presented in the work "Mu Mu", where the dominant theme is the theme of the power of one person over another. The spiritual appearance of Gerasim contains the general features of the Russian national character. The author admires his heroes, suffers with them and zealously protests against serfdom, develops ideas for the liberation of the people.

Despite the reverent attitude towards the Russian people, Turgenev the realist did not idealize the peasantry, seeing, like Leskov And Gogol, their shortcomings.

In the brilliant galaxy of literary artists, ideologically and creatively educated by advanced literature and criticism of the 1840s, Turgenev occupies a special place. All the writer’s sympathies were on the side of the progressive nobility, the bearer best traditions national culture of the previous period. Nevertheless, he was aware that neither their socio-political activities nor their ideological activity the advanced nobility could no longer lay claim to leading value V national development. The only area where the best people from the nobility could still show their significance was, according to the writer, moral relations, their deep devotion to the interests of their native country and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe liberation of the people, love for their native life and nature, readiness to renounce everything for the sake of striving for the good of their homeland personal and egoistic and, finally, the high, romantic self-awareness arising from all this.
Trying to realize and justify in characters the best people from the nobility these high and noble moral experiences, Turgenev created his “new” creative “manner”, his own literary style. This style clearly revealed the deep internal contradictions in the content of his works. Those principles of plot composition, methods of image composition, stylistic colors that the writer used when depicting ideological and moral quests and related ones love relationship their heroes, on the one hand, revealed and strengthened the emotional significance of their experiences and thereby served the task of their ideological affirmation. On the other hand, these principles and techniques revealed all the contemplation and passivity of the heroes’ experiences and thereby expressed the ideological negation of their characters.
Basically, this tendency of denial prevailed in Turgenev's work. The writer did not spare his favorite heroes, the best people from the Russian nobility of the mid-century, and often emphasized in their characters not only passivity and lethargy, but also the traits of moral helplessness, skepticism and unbelief that corroded their souls. Turgenev's best heroes clearly did not justify the ideological mission that he would like to entrust to them. And the writer himself was clearly aware of this. This shows strong point Turgenev's creativity, his realism. In this regard, the writer’s most literary style, expressing a correct awareness of perspective social development, can be called, despite its emotional and romantic elation, a realistic style.
Realizing the social weakness of the advanced people from the nobility, Turgenev was looking for another force that could really lead the Russian liberation movement. And he was forced to see such strength in the representatives of Russian democracy of 1860-1870. As Dobrolyubov wrote, Turgenev’s thought and imagination involuntarily submitted to “the irresistible influence of the natural course of social life and thought...”. Theoretically, in his journalistic speeches Turgenev was ready to refute the views of the common democrats on all points. But in directly comprehending reality, he could not help but pay them tribute of recognition and respect. This was reflected in “On the Eve”, even more clearly in “Fathers and Sons”, and later also in “Novi” and the stories adjacent to it. Having appeared as the “last of the Mohicans” of the progressive noble movement, Turgenev, despite all his ideological fluctuations and even breakdowns, reflected in his work a unique period of national Russian life - the second period of the liberation movement. Turgenev reflected it ideologically truthfully, realistically, creatively original and complete. All this determines the enduring value of the writer’s work for subsequent historical eras.

20. “Who Lives Well in Rus'” as an epic of people’s life. Folklore in the work.

N. A. Nekrasov dedicated his entire life and work to the Russian people. Describing the hardships of people's life, praising the kindness of the soul and the unparalleled patience of the Russian people, the poet sought to change the difficult lot of the peasants, to draw public attention to the life of the Russian peasant, full of worries and deprivations.

The most complete and vivid embodiment of the poet’s aspirations was his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” which can rightfully be called the epic of people’s life. The poet began work on this work in 1863. Two years have passed since serfdom was abolished. But have the hopes associated with this reform been justified? Are the peasants who received “freedom” happy? Are they truly free? Nekrasov’s poem fully answered these questions that worried many of the poet’s contemporaries.

Nekrasov created the image of an entire historical era, showed all the classes and estates of Russia at that time: from the peasant “Vakhlak” to the Tsar. That’s why we have before us not just a story in verse, but an epic poem telling about the most important thing in the lives of all people - happiness.

Poverty, overwork, and injustice reigning in society prompted Russian men to go in search of the truth:

We'll fly around the whole kingdom,

Let's see, let's explore,

Let's ask and find out:

Who lives happily?

Free in Rus'?

The names of the provinces and villages from which these men came are symbolic: Terpigoreva, Pustoporozhnaya, Zaplatova, Neelova, Neurozhaika - they can be attributed to every village, every place in Russia. What kind of happiness do peasants need?

We are looking, Uncle Vlas,

Ungutted parish,

Izbytkova sat down.

From the very beginning of the poem, the epic tone of the narrative is felt, the motifs of Russian folk tales are heard. Nekrasov once said that he collected his poem for twenty years “by word.” But not only parables and myths formed the basis of the work. Along with fairy-tale and epic motifs, words characteristic of a certain era are also heard. Already in the first lines of the poem we hear the word “temporarily obliged”, which was introduced into use after the abolition of serfdom. Thus, the reader can determine historical period, which is in question.

The composition of the poem is also built according to the laws of classical epic: the work consists of separate parts and chapters, related topic roads, wanderings of truth-seekers across Rus'.

Describing certain events, Nekrasov, as an epic artist, strives to recreate life in its entirety, to reveal the diversity of folk characters. Telling us about the freedom-loving “hero” Savely, who actively rebels against tyranny, and about the “exemplary slave” Yakov, and about the truth-seeker Yakim Nagy, the poet paints a picture of folk Russia. The plight of the Russian woman did not go unnoticed. We can judge her by the example of Matryona Timofeevna. N.A. Nekrasov touched upon all social strata in his epic; he walked throughout Russia with his heroes, who met only one person satisfied with his lot - Grisha Dobrosklonov. A poet, singer, he found his happiness in serving the people and his homeland. He gave all his talent and power of persuasion to people. And this is precisely where happiness lies, according to Nekrasov:

People power,

Mighty force -

Conscience is calm,

The truth is alive!

Nekrasov repeatedly addressed in his lyrics to folklore motives and images. He constructs the poem of folk life entirely on a folklore basis. In “Who Lives Well in Rus',” all the main genres of folklore are “involved” to one degree or another: fairy tale, song, epic, legend.

What is the place and significance of folklore in the poem? Folklore has its own special ideas, style, techniques, figurative system, their laws and their artistic media. The most basic difference between folklore and fiction is the lack of authorship in it: the people compose, the people tell, the people listen.

Author's literature turns to folklore when it is necessary to penetrate deeper into the essence of national morality; when the work itself is addressed not only to the intelligentsia (the bulk of readers of the 19th century), but also to the people. Nekrasov set both of these tasks for himself in the poem “Who can live well in Rus'?”

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Introduction

Following Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, their follower and successor, among other great writers in Russian literature of the 19th century. Turgenev went through his long, forty-year creative journey. Already at the beginning of this path, in the 40s, his talent was noted and appreciated by Gogol and Belinsky.

“Depict for me,” wrote Gogol (in 1847) to P.V. Annenkov, - a portrait of young Turgenev, so that I would get an idea of him as a person; “As a writer, I know him partly: as far as I can judge from what I’ve read, his talent is remarkable and promises great activity in the future.” A few years later, Gogol confirmed his opinion: “In all modern literature, Turgenev has the most talent.”

Turgenev's heroes and heroines entered the ranks of classical Russian literary images, became artistic generalizations of great cognitive power - a reflection of the cultural and social stages of one of the most remarkable eras of Russian life (idealists of the 30-40s, commoners of the 60s, populists of the 70s) . About Turgenev’s responsiveness to the demands of life, Dobrolyubov wrote: “ Lively attitude to modern times, it has established Turgenev’s continued success with the reading public. We can safely say that if Turgenev touched on any issue in his story, if he depicted some new side of social relations, this serves as a guarantee that this issue is being raised or will soon be raised in consciousness educated society“that this new side of life is beginning to emerge and will soon appear before the eyes of everyone.”

Turgenev was not a revolutionary, but his works, full of thoughts about the fate of his homeland, warmed by love for the people and deep faith in their great future, helped educate Russian revolutionaries. That is why Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote: “Turgenev’s literary activity was of leading importance for our society, on a par with the activities of Nekrasov, Belinsky and Dobrolyubov.”

Great is the social and literary merit of Turgenev, who created wonderful female characters full of thirst for activity, dedication and readiness for heroism. Such Turgenev heroines as Elena from the novel “On the Eve”, the girl from the prose poem “The Threshold”, inspired struggle, called to the path of serving the people, and were an example for many of the writer’s contemporaries. “Turgenev,” said L.N. Tolstoy did a great job by painting amazing portraits of women. Perhaps there were none, as he wrote, but when he wrote them, they appeared. This is grain; I watched it myself. then Turgenev’s women in life.”

Belinsky also noted Turgenev’s “extraordinary skill in depicting pictures of Russian nature.” The singer of Russian nature, Turgenev with such poetic power and spontaneity showed the captivating beauty and charm of the Russian landscape, like no other prose writer before him.

Together with his great predecessors - Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol-Turgenev, he was one of the creators of Russian literary language. “Our classics,” Gorky wrote, “selected the most accurate, bright, weighty words from the chaos of speech and created that “great, beautiful language,” which Turgenev begged Leo Tolstoy to serve for the further development.”

Turgenev achieved world fame during his lifetime and had a progressive influence on the work of a number of Western writers.

“Notes of a Hunter” became very popular in France.

His socio-psychological novels added even more to Turgenev’s fame in Western Europe. Progressive circles of readers were captivated by the moral purity in matters of love that Turgenev discovered in his novels; they were captivated by the image of a Russian woman (Elena Stakhova), seized by a deep revolutionary impulse; I was struck by the figure of the militant democrat Bazarov.

Maupassant admired Turgenev - a “great man” and a “brilliant novelist.” Georges Sand wrote to him: “Teacher! We all must go through your school."

Turgenev's works became a true revelation about Russia for European society. They gave an excellent artistic commentary on the events of life and history of our country.

Turgenev was the first to introduce foreign readers to the Russian peasant ("Notes of a Hunter"), to Russian commoners and revolutionaries ("Fathers and Sons", "Nove"), to the Russian intelligentsia (in most novels), to the Russian woman (Natalia Lasunskaya , Lisa Kalitina, Elena Stakhova, Marianna, etc.). Cultural world from the works of Turgenev I recognized Russia as a country where the center and revolutionary movement and ideological quests of the era.

To this day, Turgenev remains one of our favorite writers. Living truth life, long gone, does not die in his images.

In an era of decisive and sharp class clashes, defending his “old-style liberalism,” Turgenev more than once found himself between two fires. This is the source of his ideological fluctuations, but one cannot underestimate the courage of his mind, the depth of his thoughts, the breadth of his views, which freed him from the chains of class egoism. Pet landowner's estate, heir to noble culture, Turgenev was one of the best progressive representatives of his turbulent and complex “transitional” time. His writings always contain open, sincere thought, truth (as he understood it, fearing the “damned idealization of reality”) and genuine, intelligent love for man, homeland, nature, beauty, art.

Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev was born in a wealthy noble family. Thinking Russian people, since the times of Kantemir and Fonvizin, ridiculed the noble fanabery, empty inventions about some special, higher virtues of the noble breed; but these people themselves were nobles, and their ridicule is real result the process of accumulation and organic assimilation by the nobility of the most important assets of world culture, without which creativity within the original national culture was unthinkable. But noble culture grew on the soil of serfdom, which determined both the life and morals of the noble masses.

In conversations about his childhood, Turgenev often recalled the areas in which the serfdom and customs of their family had a particularly sharp effect. Of course, in childhood and early teenage years Turgenev hardly yet understood that he, the barchuk, who was flogged for high pedagogical reasons “in the rooms” and “loving”, and those coachmen, cooks, hay girls, boys and Cossack women who, by order of his mother, were flogged in the stables, were victims the same order, the same morality. But he learned to ardently, painfully sympathize with their suffering even then, in this cruel home school.

1. From romanticism to realism. "Notes of a Hunter"

In the development of Russian and world literature, Turgenev's time is the time of transition from romanticism to realism, the time of the establishment and flourishing of realism. Turgenev himself saw in “the great realistic stream that currently dominates everywhere in literature and the arts” the most remarkable manifestation of the artistic development of his time, as he wrote in 1875 in the preface to the French translation of “The Two Hussars” by L.N. Tolstoy. In realism, he pointed out, “expressed that special direction of human thought, which, having replaced the romanticism of the 30s and every year spreading more and more in European literature, also penetrated into art, painting, and music.” An outstanding representative of this trend in world literature was Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev himself.

Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol laid the unshakable foundation of a new realistic Russian literature. The successes of realism were due to the fact that it provided art with limitless possibilities for a truthful artistic reflection of reality, created diverse artistic forms, and made literature a powerful means of influencing the ideological, moral and aesthetic development of society.

In the 40s of the 19th century, a brilliant galaxy of new realist writers, brought up by the criticism of Belinsky, the successors of Pushkin and Gogol, entered Russian literature. Among them was Turgenev. In 1845-1846. He was still not sure of his calling as a writer and even “had,” as he wrote in his memoirs, “a firm intention to leave literature altogether; only as a result of requests from I.I. Panaev, who did not have anything to fill the mixture section in the 1st issue of Sovremennik, I left him an essay entitled “Khor and Kalinich.” The story was highly praised by Belinsky: “Turgenev approached the people from a side that no one had ever approached him before.”

The main idea of Turgenev’s unique creativity was to point out the “sorrows and questions” of the time. It was in the development of this topic that the great critic saw the key to further success in the development of Russian literature. We can say that the entire period of the 1840s, all of Turgenev’s work in those years was subordinated to one super task - the writer was looking for his solution to a social theme in literature.

His appeal to peasant life naturally flowed from the anti-serfdom sentiments that arose in the writer in his youth. The main idea of “Notes of a Hunter” was a protest against serfdom. “Under this name I collected and concentrated everything against which I decided to fight to the end, with which I swore never to reconcile... This was my Annibal oath; and I wasn’t the only one who gave it to myself then,” Turgenev later recalled.

Since the time of Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” the peasant theme has been one of the main themes of Russian literature. The appearance of images of peasants in Turgenev’s work corresponded to an important trend general development realistic Russian literature of the 40s - its desire for artistic knowledge of people's life, for rapprochement with the people.

“Notes of a Hunter” were the direct and most profound expression of social and literary struggle 1840s of the XIX century.

After the publication of each new essay or story from “Notes of a Hunter,” this conviction became stronger and stronger. First of all, the breadth of the author's horizons attracted attention; Turgenev seemed to write from life, but his essays and stories did not give the impression of etudes or ethnographic sketches, although he did not skimp on ethnographic and “local history” details. The private lives of apparently non-fictional people are usually presented in his system of comparisons, which show that in the author’s field of vision is all of Russia in its connections with the whole world. Thanks to this, each figure, each episode, with all its individual spontaneity, and sometimes even seeming fleetingness or chance, acquires special significance, and the content of this or that thing turns out to be broader than the vital material reproduced in it.

In “Notes of a Hunter,” Turgenev’s characters often compare “old” and “new” times. But no matter what the heroes say about this - whether they praise the old years or do not approve - the author’s position is extremely clear: the “golden age” of the Russian nobility - the age of Catherine and Alexander - is predominantly the age of noble revelry, extravagance (one only has to remember the fun and the fun of Count A.G. Orlov-Chesmensky, about which the same-lord Luka Petrovich Ovsyanikov tells), debauchery and impudent arbitrariness. Well, what about the new, Nikolaev times? Strange as it may seem, it was precisely in this dark period that state-owned borzoscribes shouted more than ever about the successes of enlightenment, especially among landowners. In the story “The Burmister” it is precisely about one “most enlightened” landowner - about Arkady Pavlych Penochkin, Turgenev leaves nothing for the reader to guess: the mask of “enlightenment” is torn off right before his eyes. As a matter of fact, Penochkin puts it on only on special occasions. Indicative in this sense is the episode of pacifying the “rebellion” in Shipilovka: “No, brother, I don’t advise you to rebel... I... (Arkady Pavlych stepped forward, and probably remembered my presence, turned away and put his hands in his pockets.)” In this disgusting figure lies the summation of enormous power.

Turgenev's first stories and essays were written and published during the years of relative revival in Russian public life, when even government circles were thinking about abolishing serfdom. But at the beginning of 1848, a revolution broke out in France, and Nicholas I, who never forgot what a coward he celebrated on December 14, 1825, immediately decided to stop any liberal efforts. The punishers undertook a genuine campaign against literature. Naturally, first of all, they paid attention to the most advanced magazine - Sovremennik. Nekrasov and Panaev were summoned to the Third Department, where they were given a suggestion and explanation about Siberia. Turgenev, whose works were one of the most important components of the success of Sovremennik, was also taken under suspicion. They were just waiting for an opportunity to deal with him. Such an opportunity soon presented itself. Turgenev wrote a short, heated article on Gogol's death, which the chairman of the St. Petersburg censorship committee banned on the grounds that Gogol was a “lackey writer.” Then Turgenev sent the article to Moscow, and there it was published through the efforts of his friends - Botkin and Feoktistov. An investigation was immediately ordered, as a result of which Turgenev (by order of Nicholas I) was arrested on April 28, 1852. He was then sent to Spasskoye-Lutovinovo (Turgenev’s mother’s estate) under police supervision, again on the personal orders of Nicholas I.

Even in Turgenev’s time, such punishment looked cruel, so there was virtually no doubt that the note about Gogol was not the only fault of the writer.

In this involuntary seclusion, Turgenev was able to sum up the most important results of his work. He was finally convinced that not a single topic in literature could be more or less satisfactorily resolved without directly or indirectly relating it to the elements of people's life. This also concerned the topic of personality, a topic that in the real conditions of the Russian social development first half of the 19th century centuries was inextricably linked with the question of the fate of the noble intelligentsia.

The criterion of nationality deepened the theme of the noble intelligentsia with a new understanding of the idea of duty. A developed, and even more so gifted, personality must strive to realize the possibilities inherent in it; this is her duty, a duty to herself, to the idea of Humanity. Without access to the wide world of Humanity, the Motherland, and the world of people's life, a noble intellectual is doomed to the collapse of his personality. A hero was needed who decided to take this step. Apparently, in order to present such a person, stories of the usual scale and form for Turgenev were no longer suitable. This theme of entering the wide world of activity - activity on the scale of the whole of Russia - required a great story, as Turgenev often said, that is, it required a novel.

2 . Roman "Rudin"

Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev began work on “Rudin” in 1855.

The appearance of the novel in print caused a lot of speculation and controversy in literary circles and among readers.

The critic of "Notes of the Fatherland" viewed Rudin only as a pale copy of previous heroes of Russian literature - Onegin, Pechorin, Beltov. But Chernyshevsky objected to him in Sovremennik, noting that Turgenev was able to show in the image of Rudin a man of a new era of social development. Comparing Rudin with Beltov and Pechorin, Chernyshevsky emphasized that “these are people of different eras, different natures - people who form a perfect contrast to one another.”

After the novel was published, Nekrasov expressed confidence that for Turgenev “a new era of activity is beginning, for his talent has acquired new strength, that he will give us works even more significant than those with which he earned in the eyes of the public first place in our newest literature after Gogol "

In a letter to Turgenev, Sergei Timofeevich Aksakov spoke about the vitality of the image of the Rudin type and noted that the novel “raises many small questions and reveals the deep secrets of the spiritual nature of man.”

Speaking about the recognition of the novel among the populist intelligentsia, one cannot ignore the words of V.N. Figner: “It seems to me that the whole novel is taken directly from life, and Rudin is the purest product of our Russian reality, not a parody, not a mockery, but a real tragedy that has not died at all, that is still alive, still going on...” "In any case educated person of our time sits a piece of Dmitry Rudin,” wrote Stepnyak-Kravchinsky.

Rudin is one of the best representatives of the cultural nobility. He was educated in Germany, like Mikhail Bakunin, who served as his prototype, and like Turgenev himself. Rudin's character is revealed in words. This is a brilliant speaker. Appearing at the estate of the landowner Lasunskaya, he immediately charms those present. “Rudin possessed perhaps the highest secret - the secret of eloquence. He knew how, by striking one string of hearts, he could make all the others vaguely ring and tremble.” In his philosophical speeches about the meaning of life, about the high purpose of man, Rudin is simply irresistible. A person cannot and should not subordinate his life only to practical goals, concerns about existence, he argues. Without the desire to find " general principles in the private phenomena" of life, without faith in the power of reason there is no science, no enlightenment, no progress, and "if a person does not have a strong beginning in which he believes, there is no ground on which he stands firmly, how can he give himself an account in the needs, in the meaning, in the future of his people?

Enlightenment, science, the meaning of life - this is what Rudin talks about so passionately, inspiredly and poetically. He tells a legend about a bird that flew into a fire and disappeared again into the darkness. It would seem that a person, like this bird, appears from oblivion and, having lived short life, disappears into obscurity. Yes, “our life is fast and insignificant; but everything great is accomplished through people.”

His statements inspire and call for a renewal of life, for extraordinary, heroic achievements. The power of Rudin’s influence on listeners, his persuasion in words, is felt by everyone. And everyone admires Rudin for his “extraordinary mind.” Only Pigasov does not recognize Rudin’s merits - out of resentment for his defeat in the dispute.

But in Rudin’s very first conversation with Natalya, one of the main contradictions of his character is revealed. After all, only the day before he spoke so enthusiastically about the future, about the meaning of life, about the purpose of man, and suddenly he appears as a tired man who does not believe in his own strength or in the sympathy of people. True, one objection from the surprised Natalya is enough - and Rudin reproaches himself for cowardice and again preaches the need to get things done. But the author has already cast doubt in the reader’s soul that Rudin’s words are consistent with deeds, and intentions with actions.

The writer subjects the contradictory character of his hero to a serious test - love. Turgenev’s feeling is sometimes bright, sometimes tragic and destructive, but it is always a force that reveals the soul, the true nature of a person. This is where Rudin's true character is revealed. Although Rudin's speeches are full of enthusiasm, years of abstract philosophical work have dried up the living springs of his heart and soul. The preponderance of the head over the heart is already noticeable in the scene of the first love confession.

The first obstacle that arose on his way - Daria Mikhailovna Lasunskaya's refusal to marry her daughter to a poor man - leads Rudin into complete confusion. In response to the question: “What do you think we should do now?” - Natalya hears: “Of course, submit.” And then Natalya throws a lot of bitter words at Rudin: she reproaches him for cowardice, cowardice, for the fact that his lofty words are far from reality. And Rudin feels pathetic and insignificant in front of her. He fails the test of love, revealing his human inferiority.

In the novel, Lezhnev is opposed to the main character - openly, straightforwardly. Rudin is eloquent - Lezhnev is usually a man of few words. Rudin cannot understand himself - Lezhnev perfectly understands people even without unnecessary words helps loved ones thanks to his emotional tact and sensitivity. Rudin does nothing - Lezhnev is always busy with something.

But Lezhnev is not only Rudin’s antagonist, he is the hero’s interpreter. Lezhnev’s assessments are not the same at different moments, even contradictory, but on the whole they inspire the reader with understanding complex nature hero and his place in life.

Thus, the highest assessment of Rudin is given by his antagonist, a man of a practical nature. Maybe he is the true hero of the novel? Lezhnev was awarded both intelligence and understanding of people, but his activities are limited by the existing order of things. The author constantly emphasizes its everyday life. He is businesslike, but for Turgenev it is impossible to reduce the whole meaning of life to businesslike activity that is not inspired by a higher idea.

Rudin reflects the tragic fate of a man of Turgenev’s generation. A retreat into abstract thinking could not but entail negative consequences: speculative, poor familiarity with the practical side. People like Rudin, bearers of high ideals, guardians of culture, serve the progress of society, but are clearly devoid of practical potential. An ardent opponent of serfdom, Rudin turned out to be absolutely helpless in realizing his ideal.

In Russian life he is destined to remain a wanderer. His fate is echoed by another image of a wanderer, the image of the immortal Don Quixote.

The ending of the novel is heroic and tragic at the same time. Rudin dies on the barricades of Paris. I remember the words from Rudin’s letter to Natalya: “I will end up sacrificing myself for some nonsense that I won’t even believe in...”.

3 . "Noble Nest"

Compared to Turgenev’s first novel in “The Noble Nest,” everything seems soft, balanced, there are no such sharp contrasts as the contrast between Rudin and Pigasov, Basistov and Pandalevsky. Even Panshin, who embodies exemplary noble morality, is not distinguished by obvious, conspicuous negativity. One can understand Lisa, who for a long time could not determine her attitude towards Panshin and, in essence, did not resist Marya Dmitrievna’s intention to marry her to Panshin. He is courteous, quite tactful in everyday life, moderately educated, knows how to hold a conversation; he draws and paints, composes music and poetry. And who knows what Lisa’s fate would have been like if not for the dispute. In general, it should be noted that in the composition of Turgenev’s novels, ideological disputes always play a huge role. In “The Noble Nest” the “starting” dispute is the dispute between Panshin and Lavretsky about the people. Turgenev once remarked that this was a dispute between a Westerner and a Slavophile. This author's description cannot be taken too literally. The fact is that both Panshin is a Westerner of a special, official type, and Lavretsky a Slavophile is not a true believer. In his attitude towards the people, Lavretsky is most similar to the author of “Notes of a Hunter,” that is, to Turgenev himself. He is not trying to give the Russian people some simple, easy-to-remember definition; like Turgenev, Lavretsky believes that before inventing and imposing recipes for organizing people’s life, it is necessary to understand this life, to study the character of the people. Here he expresses essentially the same idea that Rudin expressed in his dispute with Pigasov.

"The Noble Nest" is a novel about historical fate nobility in Russia. The father of the main character of the novel, Fyodor Ivanovich Lavretsky, spent his entire life abroad, first for work, and then “for his own pleasure.” This man, in all his hobbies, is infinitely far from Russia and its people. A supporter of the constitution, he cannot stand the sight of “fellow citizens” - peasants.

After the death of his father, Fyodor Ivanovich falls into the love networks of the cold and calculating egoist Varvara Pavlovna. He lives with her in France until an incident opens his eyes to his wife’s infidelity. As if freed from obsession, Lavretsky returns home and seems to see anew his native places, where life flows “silently, like water through swamp grasses.” In this silence, where even the clouds seem to “know where and why they are floating,” he meets his true love- Lisa Kalitina. But this love was not destined to be happy, although the amazing music composed by the old eccentric Lemm, Lisa’s teacher, promised happiness for the heroes. Varvara Pavlovna, who was considered dead, turned out to be alive, which means that the marriage of Fyodor Ivanovich and Liz became impossible. In the finale, Lisa goes to a monastery to atone for the sins of her father, who acquired wealth through unrighteous means. Lavretsky is left alone to live out a joyless life.

Lisa and Lavretsky are heirs to the best features of the patriarchal nobility (their bearer in the novel is Marfa Timofeevna, Lisa’s aunt), and at the same time, both the barbarity and ignorance of former times, and blind admiration for the West are alien to them.

They are capable of self-sacrifice and are ready for long, hard work. The characters of the honest, slightly awkward “baybak” Lavretsky (in many traits he resembles Pierre Bezukhov from Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”) and the modest, religious Liza Kalitina are truly national. Turgenev saw in them that healthy beginning of the Russian nobility, without which, from his point of view, the social renewal of the country could not take place.

Start folk morality in the character of Lisa, in her entire worldview, another definition is expressed. With all her behavior, her calm grace, she more than any of Turgenev’s heroines resembles Pushkin’s Tatyana. But in the character of Lisa there is one property that is only outlined in the character of Tatiana, but which will become the main distinguishing property of the type of Russian women who are usually called “Turgenevsky”. This is dedication, readiness for self-sacrifice. Lisa has only one predecessor: Lukerya from Turgenev’s story “Living Relics”.

It is difficult for us to accept the fact that at the end of the novel we see Lisa Kalitina in the monastery. But, in essence, this is an amazingly courageous, true touch of the artist. After all, Lisa had no path to life in the name of good (and Liza dreamed only of such a life). Liza’s fate also contained Turgenev’s verdict on Lavretsky. It is difficult to imagine what would have happened to Lisa if Lavretsky had gone beyond his dreams, if he had been in some great danger. Probably, then Lisa’s fate would have been different. Her monastic lot is an accusation not only against Lavretsky, but also against the entire society, which kills everything pure that is born in it.

Turgenev novel realism creative

4 . Revolutionary sentiments of Turgenev - the novel “On the Eve”

The novel “On the Eve” was written and published at the height of the revolutionary situation of 1859-1861.

The action of this novel takes place in 1963, before the Crimean defeat, but it does not feel the oppressive atmosphere that existed in recent years reign of Nicholas I. The novel was written after the Crimean War, during the years of the beginning of the social awakening of Russia, in the pursuit of freedom, freedom in everything: in social activities, in feelings, in personal life. This penetrating pathos of the novel is embodied primarily in the image of Elena Stakhova.

In concrete historical terms, the image of Turgenev’s heroine testified to the growth of social self-awareness among Russian female youth of that time. When Elena, after the death of Insarov, becoming a sister of mercy, took part in the liberation war of the Bulgarian people against the Turkish yoke, readers could not help but recall the memorable images of the first Russian sisters of mercy and their exploits during the defense of Sevastopol.

When the novel was published, opinions about it were sharply divided, even those who welcomed the novel were forced to talk, first of all, and most of all, about Elena. She seemed the most convincing artistically, and the path of life she chose was a new word in Russian literature. And many considered Insarov’s image to be unsuccessful. His restraint in expressing his feelings seemed unnatural, contrived.

Turgenev did not choose a Bulgarian as his hero on a whim. Russian society followed with great attention and sympathy the struggle waged by the peoples Slavic countries against the Turkish yoke. It was quite natural that the Russian writer not only became interested in this struggle, but also made one of its participants the hero of his work. So there was nothing contrived in Elena’s decision. In fact, in those days there were many cases when Russian young people, one way or another, were involved in the liberation movement against Turkish rule in the Balkans.

In the novel “On the Eve”, social issues are in the foreground. “Notice,” says Insarov, “the last man, the last beggar in Bulgaria and I - we want the same thing. We all have the same goal. Understand how much confidence and strength this gives!” Here, in essence, the duality of the theme of Turgenev’s novel is most clearly reflected. Insarov talks about Bulgaria and Turkey. Turgenev wanted the reader to think about the “internal Turks,” that is, about the defenders of serfdom, about serfdom, against which all healthy forces of Russian society should unite, forgetting, at least for a while, internal strife and misunderstandings. Turgenev dreamed of uniting all the forces of Russian society, of jointly preparing for the coming transformations.

Turgenev found himself in extreme difficult situation: his idea was not accepted by either revolutionary democrats or conservatives. If we consistently reveal the dual theme of the novel, we will have to admit that the writer was quite sympathetic to how the Bulgarians were fighting the Turkish yoke (we were talking about armed struggle). It turned out that, introducing an internal theme and developing it, Turgenev did not deny the most decisive forms of struggle against serfdom.

Analyzing the novel, Dobrolyubov in the article “When will the real day come?” (1860) proposed his own interpretation of his main idea, different from Turgenev’s: if Turgenev believed that Insarov as a heroic nature “could not develop and manifest himself in modern Russian society,” he was possible only in Bulgaria, then Dobrolyubov, on the contrary, argued that “there is now a place in our society for great ideas and sympathies, and that the time is not far off when these ideas can be manifested in practice.” These direct revolutionary conclusions from the novel “On the Eve” were not acceptable to Turgenev. After reading Dobrolyubov's article in manuscript, he asked Nekrasov, the editor of Sovremennik, not to publish it even after it had been censored. Nekrasov refused. Then Turgenev posed the question sharply: “Me or Dobrolyubov?” Nekrasov preferred Dobrolyubov. After this, Turgenev went to Sovremennik.

5 . "Fathers and Sons"

Under the influence of communication with the ideological leaders of Sovremennik - Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky - the writer nevertheless began to think intently about how to show A work of art new heroes - commoners-democrats, whose public role intensified every day. As a result of these writer’s reflections and observations, the novel “Fathers and Sons” soon appeared, where central character is the democrat commoner Bazarov.

In this novel, the dispute is between liberals, like Turgenev and his closest friends, and a revolutionary democrat like Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov (Dobrolyubov partly served as the prototype for Bazarov). When Turgenev created the image of Bazarov, he thought not so much about embodying in this figure the features of Dobrolyubov that were unpleasant to him, but about conveying as fully as possible the charm of strength and integrity that attracted him to new people.

The son of a doctor, Evgeny Bazarov, contemptuously calls nobles who have never worked anywhere “barchuks.” But in the work not only representatives of different social groups, but also generations.

A month and a half before the end of the novel, Turgenev noted in one letter: “Real clashes are those in which both sides are to a certain extent right.” The conflict between ideological opponents, Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov and Evgeny Bazarov, representing “fathers” and “children” respectively, is exactly this. The position of the educated liberal Pavel Petrovich is in many ways close to the author. His “principles” and “authorities” are a sign of respect and trust in the experience of past generations. But he is not able to treat the mental needs and concerns of the “children” with “fatherly” attention. Bazarov, who mercilessly denies love, poetry, morality and, perhaps, the entire world order, is an extreme individualist. In the novel he is characterized as a nihilist: “From the Latin nihil, nothing... therefore, this word means a person who... recognizes nothing.” But his nihilism (this word was picked up with the advent of Turgenev’s novel) feeds on the latent ferment of popular discontent and is therefore strong.

It was not for nothing that Turgenev was called “the chronicler of the Russian intelligentsia.” He sensitively captured the hidden movements, feelings and thoughts of the “cultural layer” of the Russian people. In his novels, he embodied not only already existing “types and ideals,” but also those barely emerging. The latter also includes the image of Bazarov. Even a few years later, critic D.I. Pisarev complained that there were still too few Bazarovs in Russia.

In disputes with Pavel Petrovich, Bazarov turns out to be morally stronger and almost emerges victorious. The inconsistency of his nihilism is proven not by Pavel Petrovich, but by the entire artistic structure of the novel.

Critic N.N. Strakhov defined Turgenev’s “mysterious moral teaching” as follows: “Bazarov turns away from nature... Turgenev... paints nature in all its beauty. Bazarov does not value friendship and renounces romantic love... the author... depicts Arkady's friendship with Bazarov himself and his happy love for Katya. Bazarov denies close ties between parents and children... the author... unfolds before us a picture of parental love. Bazarov shuns life... the author... shows us life in all its beauty. Bazarov rejects poetry; Turgenev... portrays him himself with all the luxury and insight of poetry. ...Bazarov... is defeated not by the faces and not by the accidents of life, but by the very idea of \u200b\u200bthis life.”

The love rejected by Bazarov irresistibly chained him to the cold aristocrat Odintsova and broke him mental strength. Bazarov dies by stupid accident. A cut on his finger was enough to kill the “giant” (as he thought of himself). Bazarov accepts his death with the dignity of a victim of fate. As in other works of Turgenev, inexplicable forces triumph over man. higher power, controlling his life and death.

Turgenev did not like people like Bazarov. And yet, his image of a nihilist was by no means caricatured, as in the series of “anti-nihilistic novels” that followed Fathers and Sons. Paradoxically, the statements of his nihilist are in many ways consonant with the sentiments of Turgenev himself (in particular, Bazarov’s words about a “narrow place” where human life passes meaninglessly, about a “burdock” that will grow on the grave of a suffering and thinking creature, etc. ). Turgenev even admitted: “With the exception of Bazarov’s views on art, I share almost all of his beliefs.” It is no coincidence that Bazarov came out as a truly tragic figure.

Turgenev began work on the novel in early August 1860, and finished it in July 1861. “Fathers and Sons” appeared in the February book of the Russian Bulletin magazine for 1862. The same year the novel was published separate publication with dedication to the memory of V.G. Belinsky.

The novel takes place in the summer of 1859; the epilogue tells about the events that followed the fall of serfdom, in 1861. Turgenev follows, one might say, on the heels of the events of Russian life - he has never yet created a work, the vital content of which would almost coincide in time with the moment of the work itself on it.

Conclusion

Turgenev admitted in one of his letters that when he wrote to Bazarov, he, in the end, felt not hostility, but admiration for him. And when I wrote the scene of Bazarov’s death, I sobbed bitterly. These were not tears of pity, these were the tears of an artist who saw the tragedy of a man in whom part of his own ideal was embodied.

“Fathers and Sons” caused, apparently, the most fierce controversy in the entire history of Russian literature of the 19th century centuries. Pisarev believed that Bazarov unusually fully embodied the qualities of a revolutionary of the generation of the 60s, Sovremennik in an article by M.A. Antonovich spoke sharply negatively about Turgenev’s novel, seeing in the image of Bazarov slander of “children.”

In the second half of the 60s, the conflict between Turgenev and the revolutionary democrats reached its greatest intensity. The writer believed that he had been unfairly offended, was indignant, complained, threatened to “put down his pen,” but at the same time he did not cease to follow with intense attention the ups and downs of the social struggle in Russia. An artist always faithful to the truth of life, he realized that both in the years of reaction and in the years of the new rise of the liberation movement, it was Chernyshevsky’s young followers who played the leading role. Even now he did not agree with their methods of struggle; but he openly bowed before their nobility, before their readiness to make the greatest sacrifices in the name of the good of the people. It was this feeling that guided him when he wrote his last novel“Nove”, and the famous hymn to revolutionary feat - “Threshold”.

Turgenev was a highly developed man, convinced and never abandoned the soil of universal human ideals. He carried these ideals into Russian life with that conscious constancy, which constitutes his main and invaluable service to Russian society. In this sense, he is a direct successor of Pushkin and has no other rivals in Russian literature.

In terms of the epic power of his works, Turgenev is second only to Tolstoy. Tolstoy's compositions, covering entire years, revealing the life of the nation from bottom to top, approach the epic, while Turgenev's novel is close to the story. However, the very possibility of the emergence of a “thick novel” was prepared by Turgenev, his careful development of the fate of the characters in their relationship with the environment, with the typical circumstances of their life, their upbringing, their spiritual and moral development...

Turgenev is one of the creators of the great Russian realistic novel, whose truthfulness, depth and artistic merit amazed the world. And if it is true that the main highway of development world literature in the era of realism there was a novel, it is indisputable that one of central figures this development in mid-19th century was Turgenev.

Bibliography

1. Belinsky, V.G. Poly. collection op. T 7. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1955. P. 78.

2. I.S. Turgenev in Russian criticism. M: Goslitizdat, 1953. P. 397-398.

3. Turgenev. I.S. Complete collection of works and letters. In 28 volumes. Letters. T. 3. M.; L., 1961.

4. Library of World Literature. Episode two. T. 117.

I. Turgenev “Notes of a Hunter. The day before. Fathers and Sons". Publishing house " Fiction» Moscow 1971

5. “Russian literature of the 19th-20th centuries: in two volumes”, T. 1. Textbook for those entering universities. Comp. and scientific ed. B.S. Bugrov, M.M. Golubkov. - 12th edition. - M.: Moscow University Publishing House, 2013

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