General characteristics of Russian literature of the early 19th century. General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century

Introduction

The first literature lesson in 10th grade is introductory. On it, the teacher will have to solve two problems:

• to identify the level of literary development of 10th grade students, their reading range, reading interests, literary horizons;
• in the introductory lecture, characterize the historical development of Russia in the first and second half of the 19th century, give a general description of the literature of the century, identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature, the evolution of literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.

To solve the first problem, the teacher can conduct a frontal conversation, identifying the general level of development of the class. To determine the level of literary development of each student, you can ask them to answer the teacher’s questions in writing at home, and then process the results of the survey:

• answer the teacher’s questions, and then process the survey results:
• What works of Russian literature of the 19th century did you read this summer? Rate them using a five-point system.
• What questions posed in Russian classical literature are still relevant today?
• Which heroes of 19th century literature do you like or dislike? Give reasons for your point of view.

When preparing for a review lecture, the teacher should take into account that in order to master its content, it is necessary to develop in schoolchildren the ability to draw up an outline (outline) of the teacher’s story, record its main points, prepare various types of comparative tables, select quotes, etc.

During the lecture, the teacher dwells on the most significant features of each stage of the development of literature and can draw up a reference table with the students.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Development of German literature of the 19th century. takes place in accordance with the laws of the European literary process.

The main factors that determined the nature of the literary process at the end of the 18th century and the first three decades of the 19th century were the influence of the French Revolution, the political fragmentation and economic backwardness of the country, the anti-Napoleonic liberation movement and the atmosphere of the general political reaction of the Restoration period without a previous revolution.

Under conditions of feudal absolutism, the authority and general aesthetic significance of the Enlightenment continued into the 19th century. Despite all the differences and contradictions between the romantics and the enlighteners in Germany, the German romantics did not engage in such fierce battles with the enlighteners as, for example, happened in the 20s in France. On the contrary, it was the early German romantics who created a genuine cult of Goethe in Germany, basing their creative practice on his aesthetic positions. The historical principles of Herder's thinking and his research in the field of folklore gave impetus to the future flourishing of Russian German folklore in the activities of the romantics. Many significant aspects of the creative practice and aesthetics of both Schiller and Goethe indicate that German Romanticism had deep connections with the late Enlightenment and was formed in complex synchronic interactions with it.

The features of the transition period from the Enlightenment to Romanticism marked the work of two outstanding writers of that time. Outstanding German poet Friedrich Hölderlin(1770-1843) - essentially a romantic, but not associated with the schools of German romanticism due to his adherence to the peculiar ideas of Hellenistic utopia and some artistic principles of classicism. He also differed from the romantics and from many of his other compatriots and contemporaries in that, having once enthusiastically accepted the ideas of the French Revolution, he forever remained faithful to them, although the turn of revolutionary events in France towards Thermidor could not help but introduce an elegiac intonation of disappointment into the poet’s work. His works of the early 30s are solemn and pathetic hymns, inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution. Both the hymns and Hölderlin's subsequent lyrics - landscape, love, epic and, of course, philosophical itself - are notable for their distinctly philosophical sound, which absorbed his serious interests in various philosophical systems, antiquity, Spinoza, Schiller; Friendship with Schelling and Hegel, classmates at the University of Tübingen, also had an impact here. This aspiration into the sphere of philosophy was embodied in Hölderlin in his individually unique romantic utopia - the Hellenistic ideal of harmony and beauty with a distinct civic humanistic accent. He makes extensive use of the possibilities of free verse, applying the norms of both ancient prosody and modern German.

In line with the genre of “novel of education” that was widely established in German literature, a significant place belonged to Hölderlin’s novel “Hyperion”, in which the Hellenistic moral, ethical and social ideal, expressed to an even greater extent than in his lyrics, allows us to speak of Hölderlin as a poet and prose writer, whose work is associated with the appearance of an active romantic hero. His dramatic fragment “The Death of Empedocles” stands in the same row.

Another significant German writer of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, typologically associated with romanticism, was the novelist Jean Paul(present, name - Johann Paul Friedrich Richter; 1763-1825). Condemning the Jacobin dictatorship, he, like Hölderlin, still remained faithful to the ideas of the French Revolution. A number of Jean Paul's novels have romantic features of a fantastic utopia (the novel "Titan"), combined with the sentimentalist line of the German and English Enlightenment (L. Stern). The type of hero of many of his novels - an eccentric character at whom the author himself ironizes - is close to Hoffmann's eccentric enthusiasts. Without developing the theoretical foundations of romantic irony, Jean Paul widely used it in some of his works, anticipating the appeal of the romantics to it.

The sharp satire on the social system heard in the works of Jean Paul, who believed that literature should be closely connected with reality, the optimistic worldview and some other aspects of his ideological and aesthetic positions allow us to speak of him as an artist who shared the idea of ​​​​the social significance of art.

To the same significant extent as on literary movements, the influence of the French Revolution also affected the development of philosophical thought in Germany at that time. It is noteworthy that almost all known philosophical systems of Germany at the end of the 18th century

XIX century questions of aesthetics were their most important component. Both Kant, Schelling, and Hegel, in their interpretation of the system of the universe, assigned an important place to art.

The largest representative of the philosophy of classical German idealism is I. Kant(1724-1804), whose system Marx called the “German theory of the French Revolution”* Kant’s fundamentally contradictory philosophical concept, which recognized the existence of a material material world independent of the subjective consciousness of man, at the same time asserted the unknowability of this world (“the thing in itself”) , the existence of a priori forms of consciousness that lie outside sensory experience.

[* Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed. T. 1. P. 88.]

Another major German philosopher of that time experienced a significant influence of the French Revolution I. G. Fichte(1762-1814), representative of the subjective-idealistic direction of philosophical thought. Many basic provisions of the philosophical and aesthetic system of the early German romantics were associated with Fichte's ideas. Like Kant, the specific socio-political principles of the French Revolution were transformed by Fichte - in connection with the specific social development of Germany - into an abstract philosophical and ethical plan outside of concrete social practice. However, it was precisely under the influence of the French Revolution that the concept of personal freedom, absolute free will, became one of the key provisions in Fichte’s teaching.

During the years of the Napoleonic occupation, Fichte acted as a passionate propagandist of liberation ideas (“Speeches to the German Nation”), although the calls had some nationalistic overtones. This position of Fichte won him great popularity among the advanced intelligentsia and especially among student youth. In 1810 he became the first rector of the newly founded university in Berlin.

Fichte rejected Kantian dualism, denying Kant's position on the existence of a “thing in itself,” that is, an objective material world. Despite the fact that Fichte has some minor deviations towards objective idealism, in general he occupied consistent subjective idealistic positions, arguing that the active activity of the absolute “I” is the original force that creates the entire universe.

To a much lesser extent, the influence of the French Revolution affected another outstanding representative of German classical idealism - Schelling(1775-1854). In the late 90s and early 1800s, Schelling took part in the development of the aesthetic program of Jena Romanticism. At the same time, Schelling created his main works: “Philosophy of Nature”, “System of Transcendental Idealism” and “Philosophy of Art”.

Schelling's natural philosophy, which arose as an attempt to generalize the latest achievements of the natural sciences, had its positive aspects, consisting primarily in the fact that nature is considered as a universal unity of various manifestations, as a unity that develops as a result of the collision of opposing forces.

Representing a type of objective idealism in classical idealism, Schelling, in contrast to Fichte, developed the concept of idealistic monism. Removing the Fichtean antithesis of “I” and “not-I”, subject and object, Schelling affirmed the unity of nature and creation. At an early stage of development, according to Schelling, only nature existed as the embodiment of the unconscious spiritual principle, which at subsequent stages evolved to its highest expression - human consciousness. Somewhat later, the philosopher formulated this principle differently - as the identity of nature and consciousness. Therefore, Schelling's system is often called the philosophy of identity.

Schelling's aesthetic views were a clear expression of the romantic concept of art and beauty. In the “Philosophy of Art,” where Schelling’s path to religious mysticism is already tangibly outlined, the essence of art is interpreted as the most perfect expression of the world spirit, the synthesis of subject and object, consciousness and nature, i.e. art is “self-contemplation of the absolute spirit.” And in the “System of Transcendental Idealism” it is stated that art is “the eternal and genuine organon of philosophy.” The Jena school fully shared this concept of art as a kind of self-valuable and comprehensive primordial principle of all principles. Thus, the Jena romantics, like Schelling, believed that science arose in the bosom of art and that it would return there in the coming harmonious universe. Unlike the enlighteners, who saw the tasks of art in imitation of nature, Schelling believes that art is the expression of the absolute idea contained in nature. And only the intuitive power of brilliant artistic insight, gifted to the artist, allows him to grasp this absolute idea in nature. Therefore, in full agreement with the romantic philosophy of the creative act in art, Schelling affirms the unconsciousness and miraculousness of the creative process.

German classical idealism reaches its peak in philosophy Hegel(1770-1831). The reactionary-idealistic features in the sociological, historical, legal and political concepts of Hegel's philosophical system came into sharp conflict with his dialectical method. Deepening Schelling's concepts, Hegel, from the position of objective idealism, considers as the basis of being, both material and spiritual, the absolute idea, which in its development goes through three stages: logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of spirit. The absolute spirit, the philosopher claims, is the highest stage of development of the absolute idea, which has three stages of self-knowledge: in art, religion and philosophy.

The main features of Hegel's system and dialectical method are defined in his main works: “Phenomenology of Spirit” and “Science of Logic”. His aesthetic concept is presented mainly in his Lectures on Aesthetics.

The development of art, according to Hegel, goes through three stages (forms) as three different embodiments of the ideal, that is, the sensual, figurative expression of the absolute idea in reality. Of these three forms (the first two are symbolic, which corresponds to oriental art, and classical with ancient art), the last - romantic - most fully embodies the implementation of the idea. But unlike classical art, in which form is in full accordance with content, romantic art is characterized by the predominance of content (ideas) over form. Hegel considered both medieval and modern art to be a romantic form.

This picture of the development of art is, of course, conditional and built according to an idealistic scheme. However, the principle of historicism is fruitful in it, according to which Hegel considers the change of styles and genres as a natural process.

The diversity of literary movements in Germany in the 30s of the last century undoubtedly reflected significant changes in the economic and socio-political development of the country in those years.

News of the revolutionary explosion in July 1830 in Paris, like a refreshing, life-giving whirlwind, swept through Germany, provincial and fragmented, deceived in its rosy hopes generated by the patriotic enthusiasm of the liberation war against Napoleon. These events were received with particular delight by German youth, whose sentiments were very clearly expressed by Heine. Having learned about the revolution in France, he wrote in his diary: “Lafayette, the tricolor banner, the Marseillaise... I seem to be intoxicated. Bold hopes rise passionately, like trees with golden fruits, with wildly overgrown branches stretching their foliage to the very clouds... I am all joy and song, I am all sword and flame!”

The July Revolution in France was the impetus that caused revolutionary outbreaks in Germany, prepared by the internal development of class contradictions in the country. These events reflected the growth of class consciousness of the German bourgeoisie, its desire to eliminate the political fragmentation of the country, which was hindering the development of trade and economy.

The opposition movement gave rise to a wave of repression from the ruling circles of Germany.

Shifts in the economic and socio-political life of the country were not slow to affect various forms of public consciousness, in particular philosophy and literature. The philosophical movements of the 30s in Germany were reflected in the formation of German realism.

In the 30s, sharp contradictions emerged in the camp of Hegel's followers - a group of old or right Hegelians (Gabler, Hinrichs, Erdmann) and a left Hegelian wing, or young Hegelians (Bruno and Edgar Bauer, D. Strauss, M. Stirner) stood out. From the position of bourgeois radicalism, the left Hegelians had a negative attitude towards Prussianism and sharply criticized the dogmas of the Christian religion.

The character of German literature of this decade changes dramatically compared to the literature of the 10-20s. In his famous work “The Romantic School,” Heine emphasized: “With the death of Goethe, a new literary era begins in Germany; with him old Germany went to the grave, the age of aristocratic literature came to an end, the democratic age begins.”

Indeed, the main phenomena in German literature of the 30s indicate its certain democratization in comparison with the previous stage of development. Moreover, these new trends affected primarily Heine’s ideological and aesthetic evolution.

The process of the formation of realism in German literature of the 30s was clearly manifested in the work of Georg Büchner(1813-1837), and above all in his drama “The Death of Danton” (1835). Social and political issues under the influence of the July Revolution and intra-German contradictions, which actively saturated German literature of the 30s, were most radically interpreted by Buchner, who led the activities of one of the secret revolutionary organizations - the “Society of Human Rights” in Hesse.

The dramatic events of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century allowed Buchner to artistically solve the problem of revolutionary violence and identify the role of the leader and the people in the revolution. The writer, naturally, also took into account the experience of the events of July 1830 in Paris, clearly showing the limitations of the bourgeois revolution.

Qualitatively new trends in the German literary process of the 30s had an active impact on creative evolution Carla Immerman(1796-1840), a writer who made a significant contribution to the development of German progressive literature, in particular to the development of the social novel genre. Immermann's creative quests led him to close personal friendship, and sometimes active creative collaboration, with Heine, despite the differences in their political views. His most significant works, which played a role in the subsequent development of German literature, were the novels “Epigones” (1836) and “Munchausen” (1835-1839). These novels reflected some of the most important moments in the socio-political development of modern Germany - the gradual displacement of the feudal nobility from the historical arena by a new emerging class - the bourgeoisie.

Close to Immermann in aesthetic positions was the playwright Christian Dietrich Grabbe(1801 -1836), whose work played a significant role in German literature of the 30s. Grabbe's central work, which most fully embodied his social and aesthetic principles, is the drama “Napoleon, or the Hundred Days” (1831). The events of the play, especially the battle scenes, reminded the Germans of the recent struggle for national liberation and aroused opposition sentiments. It is no coincidence that this play was received approvingly by the Young Germans.

A leading place in German literature of the 30s, along with Heine, was occupied by a consistent in his convictions and an active participant in the socio-political struggle Ludwig Berne(1786-1837) - representative of the radical wing of the German petty bourgeoisie, a talented publicist.

Berne's activities, which had a wide resonance in Germany, reflected a certain stage in the development of German bourgeois democracy. The process of economic development of the country, intensifying in the first half of the 19th century, entailed an increasingly deepening of the class differentiation of the third estate. Berne was precisely the ideologist of the most left-wing part of the German bourgeoisie, which protested both against the feudal regime and against the power of the emerging industrial and financial tycoons.

A significant part of Berne's articles was devoted to theatrical life. “Dramaturgical sheets”, which later formed a separate collection, were written by the pen of a militant revolutionary publicist. Berne uses the form of theater review to sharply criticize the social life of Germany at that time. After the July Revolution, Berne, prompted by the increasing persecution against him, moved to Paris.

Among Berne's works, the “Paris Letters” (1830-1833), which painted a vivid and broad picture of life in France in the first years of the July Monarchy, had a particularly great influence on the literary and social life of Germany in the 1930s.

His incorruptible honesty and consistent struggle against the feudal monarchy and big capital, as well as his extraordinary talent as a publicist, made Berne one of the leading figures in the progressive camp in Germany. Young Engels called him “the standard-bearer of German freedom, the only husband in Germany of its time"*.

[* Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed. T. 1. P. 479.]

However, Berne's positive socio-political program was marked by the stamp of utopia for many representatives of the then German democracy, the basis of which was the petty bourgeoisie and the artisan proletariat. Berne and his associates sought to achieve the establishment of a republic of small owners, the economic basis of which would be universal material equality. In his passionate struggle for the fastest solution to pressing political issues (the elimination of class privileges and the overthrow of feudal regimes in Germany), Berne did not see real prospects for historical development, and sometimes treated issues of art in a vulgar manner.

The turning point in the development of German literature was clearly expressed in the work of the literary group, which already in the 30s of the last century was called "Young Germany". The core of this group were the writers Karl Gutzkow, Ludolf Wienbarg, Heinrich Laube, Theodor Mundt, Gustav Kühne.

The Young Germans opposed the tradition of romanticism and sought to bring literature closer to reality, to socio-political life.

As a single literary group or school, Young Germany existed for a very short time. If in the early 30s there was some ideological and aesthetic unity in the literary performances of a number of young writers, then after the resolution of the Union Diet and the censorship and political persecution that unfolded, the Young Germans, with the exception of Vinbarg and, to some extent, Gutskov, turned out to be essentially renegades in relation to his former ideals, hastening to testify to his devotion to the Prussian monarchy. In general, however, the influence of Young Germany as a general trend on German literature continued until approximately the turn of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. And, of course, the Prussian king Frederick William IV perfectly understood the complete safety of the former Young Germans for the Prussian government when in 1842 he abolished censorship restrictions directed against these writers.

Defeat of the revolution of 1848-1849. dramatically changed the nature of national literature in Germany. German literature is rapidly losing the broad international authority that it gained from the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, especially in the era of Goethe and the Romantics. Fearing the activity of the social lower classes, the cowardly German bourgeoisie did not achieve in the process of implementing the revolution either the elimination of the feudal-monarchical regime or the national unity of a fragmented Germany. Having betrayed the ideals of the revolution, the bourgeoisie chooses the path of compromise with the feudal-junker elite, which has retained and strengthened political power in its hands. At the same time, this compromise gave impetus to the rapid development of the capitalist mode of production, and national unity was achieved with “iron and blood” - the Bismarckian “revolution” from above under the leadership of Prussia in 1871.

In such a political situation, philosophical thought loses its former optimistic and humanistic orientation. In this regard, the enormous popularity that it received among the German intelligentsia of the second half of the 19th century is noteworthy. A. Schopenhauer’s pessimistic work “The World as Will and Representation” (1819-1844).

Some representatives of German literature fundamentally dissociate themselves from large social and ideological content (Munich literary circle - P. Geise, E. Geibel, etc.). The so-called trivial literature is becoming widespread - entertainment and adventure (K. May), vulgar sentimental (E. Marlit) novels, literature that affirmed the imperial ideas of Great German chauvinism (F. Dan, E. Wildenbruch, etc.).

German literature finds itself within the narrow framework of provincialism, the so-called regionalism, developing a range of topics related only to the living conditions of a particular province. The term "critical realism" (inadequate as it is), with which we designate the defining trend in the literature of France and England after 1830, is completely inapplicable to the literature of these decades in Germany (and especially after 1848), where true realism can be discussed speak only in connection with the work of T. Fontane, a novelist of the 70s. And although the leading German prose writers of the 40-60s considered themselves (and with sufficient reason) realists, but again, with no less reason, they both in theory and in their work affirmed their understanding of realism, designating it as “poetic realism” ( term O. Ludwig), who set himself the task not of a merciless analysis of reality, but of its idealization, softening its contradictions. It is in this vein that many features of the work of T. Storm, W. Raabe, O. Ludwig are defined.

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1. General characteristics of Russian literature of the first third of the 19th century. Historical identity of the era

In total, the literary era of the first third of the 19th century can be divided into three “sub-periods”:

1) Literature before 1825

2) Literature of the 30s.

3) Literature of the 40s.

This is a special century: a century when several literary movements dominate and co-exist with each other: classicism is still alive, sentimentalism still exists, romanticism is flourishing and realism is beginning to emerge.

The names of this period: Baratynsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, Lazhechnikov, Zhukovsky.

Historical identity of the era:

First of all, it should be noted that Russia has always been part of the world, so world events affected the country. In 1789-1793, the “Great French Bourgeois Revolution” took place in France, which completely changed the structure of the state and raised the country to a new level - the formation changed to bourgeois, and then to capitalist.

And a series of events took place in Russia: on March 11, 1801, Emperor Paul 1 was killed. Moreover, the murder was committed in the sovereign’s bedroom by his own relatives (aristocrats).

But the new century nevertheless showed hope for something new and good. “The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning” - this is how the author begins one of his poems.

The talented reformer Speransky was also working at this time.

Personality of Alexander1. Unfortunately, he did not have all the necessary qualities to successfully govern the country; he was not decisive in matters of abolition of serfdom (especially when it came to the nobles). The emperor had two assistants who played a huge role: Speransky and Arakcheev, who were also called “Two the faces of Alexander."

But soon “only one face” remained: 1812 - Speransky was removed from his post.

1812 - the second important event that influenced the course of history: war.

It was at this moment that public consciousness awakened: enlightened people saw the truth, the true state of affairs of their country

But no one called for the abolition of serfdom: the people who created secret societies spoke only about “changes in order, reforms” - only Radishchev spoke openly about fundamental changes, about abolition - that’s why they called him a “rebel”

In Russia of that period there were two powerful forces, the largest segments of the population: the nobility and the peasantry

But after 1812, a new social thought appeared, and new layers also appeared: the intelligentsia, consisting of nobles and commoners.

It was after 1812 that slaves realized that they were slaves, and slave owners realized that they were slave owners. We compared the situation in France and understood our true situation.

Therefore, secret societies began to emerge that wanted progress for the country.

2 . The main literary movements of the era (the first third of the 19th century) and their aesthetics

Main directions: classicism with its prominent representatives Krylov, Derzhavin, in which features of realism subsequently began to appear and realism itself emerged (Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin); sentimentalism (Karamzin, early Zhukovsky), from which romanticism was born. Sentimentalism did not exist in Russia as a broad literary movement. It is also called Pre-Romanticism.

The largest movement of this period was romanticism. 3 most important motives of romanticism (motives of world sorrow): disappointment, loneliness, regret.

Aesthetics: mystery, dual worlds, the plot is based on man overcoming obstacles, the conflict between man and fate, the victory of fate over the will of man, a romantic landscape. 3 stages of Russian romanticism: 1) 1810 - Zhukovsky - psychological; 2) 1818-1825 - Decembrist poets - civil 3) 1830-40 - Lermontov, Tyutchev - philosophical

"Classicism" is a term that means "exemplary." Ancient art was most often taken as a model.

The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Aesthetics: the law of 3 unities (time, place, action), the law of the unity of style and style, the law of the unity of genres, the correspondence of the main characters to the genre of the work, creativity is subject to strict regulation by the mind.

Realism in literature - A truthful depiction of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).

Aesthetics: 1. Ideal and reality - Realists need to prove that the ideal is real, i.e. it is not achievable.

2. Man and environment are the main problem for realists. A comprehensive image of a person. Concept of max. environment expanded: material factor, education, upbringing, social circle, etc. 3. Subjective and objective - In realism there is only objectivity! Distinguishing between the author and the hero, emphasizing their differences.

5. The formation of romanticism. Direction. and 6. Romanticism as a literary method. Problems of ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective.

The period 1810-1820 is considered to be the heyday of Russian romanticism. By the age of 30, a new stage in the development of Russian romanticism is observed (follow the chain of Lermontov - Baratynsky - Tyutchev) In Russia, romanticism was different from Western, which is why it is sometimes called “complex romanticism”

Romanticism in France - a reaction to revolution, defeat, the hero is disappointed in the world Hence the motives of loneliness and regret - from this - the motive of world sorrow - therefore the romantic hero is not satisfied with the entire world order, therefore there is no hope for the future

Until 1925, it was believed that romanticism was just a fashion, because in Russia until that year there was no reason for total disappointment - this is a special feature of romanticism

3 stages of romanticism in Russia:

And another problem of the romantics: assessing the national identity of each culture

The romantics' reasoning about form is a rejection of classicist canons. Motivation: the law interferes with creative freedom

Civic romanticism considered the utilitarian role of art in the life of society.

Problems of Romantics

1) the relationship between ideal and reality: through the application of the principle of dual worlds - rupture and collision, antithesis: there-here, otherworldly-earthly, heaven-earth, our (their) time - ancient cities. Often the ideal world can be the world of the past

2) the relationship between man and environment: man - the inner world, the world of feelings, passions, interest in the manifestation of passion, but what kind of passion it is - does not matter; in Russian romanticism - man, but what passion drives him?; about the environment: (this concept first appeared among the romantics) the national environment, as a more extensive local point

3) the problem of the relationship between the subjective and the objective: the subjective perception of the author, the romantic does not follow the objective, the world is through the author’s perception, rejection of society, the idea that the individual plays a decisive role in history. Hence the motive of the poet and the crowd. The author and the hero often coincide in psychological mood and assessment.

The hero is not satisfied with the world, the motive of escapism, the principle of dual worlds - the real and ideal worlds.

Romanticism (main rulings):

1) Landscape of the soul instead of a real landscape 2) the hero does not need a name and biography 3) reader-co-author of the work

3 . Traits and features of Russian romanticism. Psychological, civil and philosophical romanticism

The largest literary movement of the first third of the 19th century was romanticism. It arose as a reflection of a new historical era in Europe after the Great French Revolution (1789-1793)

The mood of hopelessness, despair, “world sorrow” is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset.

In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose several years later than in Europe. We can talk about some imitation of Russian romanticism, about the absence of real reasons for the mood of hopelessness in Russia - romanticism was initially considered as a fashionable literary movement.

The Patriotic War of 1812 awakens the public consciousness of the people - progressive youth will unite in secret societies. She is disappointed by the lack of change in people's social inequality. - The first reasons for the emergence of True Russian Romanticism (this literary movement is no longer just an imitation, it is also felt by Russian writers).

1810-1820 is the most active period of Russian romanticism. by the 30s, a new stage in the development of romanticism began (Lermontov, Baratynsky, Tyutchev)

At the heart of romanticism is the conflict between man and society, the motive of escape from reality, the ideal world and the real world (two worlds), the motives of world sorrow, in the foreground is the inner world of man, the environment is just scenery, the author’s subjective perception of everything that happens (feelings).

The problem of nationality. Romanticism solves it through showing nationality, national color, in contrast to the method in realism (showing social manifestations)

Therefore, all the motives characteristic of romanticism as a whole were only reflected, not passed through one’s soul, the situation.

3 stages of romanticism in Russia:

1) 1810s: psychological romanticism (interest in the internal state of the hero, Zhukovsky (and the poets of his school))

2) 1818-1825: civil romanticism (call for change, the main participants were Decembrist poets)

3) 1825-1830: philosophical romanticism (motives: no hope of self-realization due to the era of the reaction of Nicholas 1, assessment of oneself and others, Lermontov, Tyutchev,)

A special feature of Pushkin’s romanticism: he combined in his works the features of civil and psychological romanticism (“To Chaadaev”)

In general, romanticism is the first literary movement in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed

Therefore, the term “nationality” (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (nationality-nationality)

But soon problems began: the same problem of nationality. The problem of national character - the question arose: “if you create a national flavor, take it from history - what should the hero be like? By whom?" - that is, a problem of a national character. (what are characters? And are the characters of different nations different?)

And this merit belongs to the Decembrists: it was they who discovered the peculiarities of national character traits

But the solution to problems did not end there, because character was first perceived as a constant, not subject to change

4. Literary movements of the first third of the 19th century. Literary struggle and literary criticism. The formation of literary societies and their aesthetics

The need for the emergence of a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical and parodic nature of two literary associations - “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (1811-16) and the “Arzamas Society of Unknown People” (1815-18).

5 . Periodization of Russian literature of the first third of the 19th century. Characteristics of stages

The historical situation is approximately as follows. All kinds of popular peasant unrest spoil the blood of the government of Paul 1. The courtiers also do not lag behind and from March 11 to 12, 1801. stage a palace coup. The new Tsar Alexander 1, seeing this state of affairs, initially makes some concessions to a liberal-minded society - he allows private printing houses, the import of books from abroad, introduces a new censorship charter limiting administrative interference in press affairs, opens a bunch of universities and gymnasiums, etc. P. The next point on our program is the war of 1812, which, as a popular and sacred war, awakened the people's self-awareness and revealed the enormous strength of the nation. How noble rage boiled up like a wave, like a Russian. the people liberated all of Europe from the French goats, and so they directly felt the need for a national. liberation. Hence all the civilians and the roar. themes in literature. Big talk about the abolition of serfdom, the barrel of autocracy and societies. structure of the country.

The literature of this period is extremely poignant. Literary trends and directions collide.

1801 - 1848:

Stage 1: until 1825 - noble period

Stage 2: 30s

Stage 3: 40s

Early 19th century - sunset time classicism. Derzhavin is still alive, the poets are Radishchevites. The position of classicism in drama is still strong (Ozerov, Griboyedov)

The satirical tradition continues to develop (Kantemir - founder, early 18th century; Fonvizin - late 18th century): Krylov, in whose fables realism originates.

- Satirical-moral (didactic) literature. Izmailov’s novel “Eugene, or the harmful consequences of upbringing”, Narezhny - Gogol’s predecessor: “Russian housing estate, or the adventures of Chistyakov.”

- Sentimentalism in Russia. It is inherent in all literary genres: poetry, prose, drama. Karamzin, Dmitriev. The boundaries of sentimentalism and early romanticism have been erased.

Works of Zhukovsky. He starts out as a sentimentalist, then goes beyond the boundaries and becomes the first Russian romantic.

- Romanticism (1810-1820)

3 stages: 1810 - Zhukovsky (psychological); 1818-1825 Decembrist poets (civil); 1830 - another outbreak of romanticism - Lermontov, Tyutchev (philosophical).

1823-1825 the first realistic works were created: “Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov, “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin.

1840s - realism.

6 . The problem of the romantic hero. The main motives of romanticism

Romanticism is a literary movement and artistic method, the emergence of which is associated with an era of crisis, with a transitional time when there is a change in social relations and a change in public consciousness. This is the expectation of something new, anxiety in front of this new, a hasty desire to know it.

The emergence of romanticism in Europe is associated with the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789. In Russia, the formation of Romanticism occurs against the backdrop of a powerful social upsurge that gripped Russian society after the Patriotic War of 1812.

The main idea is the glorification of a self-sufficient personality, feeling its independence, inexhaustibility and self-worth, with its desire for independence, unwillingness to obey the laws of the surrounding world that limit the capabilities of the individual.

Romantic hero.

This is a non-domestic, non-social person, tragically lonely and restless. It embodies a rebellious beginning, a challenge to reality. But he is internally static, his character does not develop. It is always subjective, it reflects the character of the author. He strives for this unusual and exotic.

The romantic hero, eager to explore the vastness of life, is usually associated with nature. Nature versus city. Some romantics like the peace and quiet of nature, others - restless forces - symbols of liberty and freedom. Many romantics tend to turn to folklore. Little attention was paid to the uniqueness of the spiritual world and character of the people.

Aesthetic principles differed from the rules of classical art. The romantics rejected a clear division of heroes into positive and negative, a sharp demarcation of good and evil, subordination to genre regulations, the rule of 3 unities...

The Romantics put forward the principle of creativity based on inspiration and asserted the priority of genius in art. The main thing is free poetic individuality.

Peculiarities:

1) Romantics reject the world around them. They are looking for an ideal outside of real life. (Zhukovsky looked for an ideal in the depths of the human spirit; Batyushkov - in pleasures, joys; Decembrists - in the heroic past)

2) The contrast between dreams and reality. Heroes strive to achieve an ideal, but do not achieve it and are defeated.

3) Romanticism is a reaction to the normative aesthetics of classicism. It is better to comprehend reality with feeling rather than with reason - the cult of the artist.

7 . Formation of Russian literary criticism. The term “nationality” in the aesthetics of Russian romanticism. Formation of realistic and philosophical criticism

The reasons and necessity of criticism are to establish rules, because contradictions began within romanticism.

Accompanying the development of literature is literary criticism. Literary struggle stimulates the development of criticism, which becomes a special form of literary art. The literary struggle was conducted orally, in lit. Salons. Everyone was for his own direction, even different trends arose in the directions.

The need for the emergence of a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical and parodic nature of two literary associations - “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (1811-16) and the “Arzamas Society of Unknown People” (1815-18).

In the early 1800s, Karamzin wrote several articles (“Why is there little authorial talent in Russia”), in which he argued that Russians do not know how to express psychological and philosophical points in their native language, but they do it fluently in French. It is necessary to bring bookish and spoken languages ​​closer together, erase differences, and create a new one based on the “Middle” style. Changes should come naturally, without withdrawal. Karamzin’s articles immediately met with the decisive disapproval of Admiral Shishkov, who responded to them with a treatise “Discourse on the old and new syllable of the Russian language.” In it, he defends Russian culture, identity, denies that the nation that unleashed the Jacobin terror, destroyed the monarchy and rejected religion is an example to follow. Shishkov declares that Russia should not adopt the false Hebrew. Enlightenment, and to preserve and protect our national. Basics. Thus, if Karamzin walked forward, then Shishkov turned his entire gaze back. For this purpose, he turns to the Slavic language of church books, which was no longer spoken in everyday life. So, Karamzin and Shishkov agreed on the need for a single lit. Language, but differed in its creation. Karamzin chose the “Middle” syllable, Shishkov - the “high” and vernacular styles.

In order to educate future young writers, Shishkov organizes a literary. The Society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word”, its core consisted of Derzhavin, Krylov, Golenishchev, Shirinsky and others. In addition to them, Kuchelbaker, Katenin, Griboyedov, Gnedich took part in the meetings. Since 1810.

Then the patience of Karamzin’s supporters ran out, and they decided to respond. Karamzin himself did not take part in the controversy.

8 . The formation of romanticism in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky. Genre originality of Zhukovsky’s creativity. Reflections of the events of 1812 (“Singer in the camp of Russian warriors”)

1st period of creativity - Pre-romantic. The main genre is elegy. The main work is a translation of the elegy of the English poet Gray “The Country Cemetery”. The features of Zhukovsky’s poetic genius are clearly manifested. This work is a reflection on life, on the fate of man in the face of the eternal. It is based on thoughts about life. Interest in the world of the human soul, with its motives of the secret and mysterious. The peculiarity of the work is its amazing musicality, which allows you to feel a hidden connection with the world of human experiences and moods.

It was the individual that determined the essence of Zhukovsky’s poetry. Already in the poet’s first elegies, the inner structure of his soul was reflected, the literary mood, emotional coloring, and spirituality of the poet were manifested.

2nd period of creativity - The most important is the formation of romanticism. Elegies, songs, ballads.

The messages revealed feelings caused by the circumstances of the poet’s personal life and his social self-awareness. The subtext of Zhukovsky’s poems revealed the deep drama of the poet’s experiences and his complaints about life. The theme of human loneliness, the inevitability of his suffering in an imperfect world.

Motives of melancholy and longing, eternal dissatisfaction, striving for the unattainable. Light and reconcilable motives also sound. The inexhaustible riches of the human soul are contrasted with the tragedy of external existence; a joyless life - possible happiness in your inner world.

The theme of the poet and poetry, friendship. Often uses national and foreign material.

During this period, he wrote “A Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors,” where, on behalf of the warrior-poet, he glorifies the Russian knights who fought in the War of 1812. In it, he gave the patriotic theme a personal, intimate sound, and it became close to every contemporary. Patriotism ceased to be coldly solemn, warmed by the warmth of the poet’s soul. The wonderful property of poetry - to spiritualize and animate everything that exists - was brilliantly manifested in the elegy “The Sea”. With thoughts of man, J. spiritualizes the sea; nature is not indifferent, not dead. Just like in the soul of a person, the soul of the sea also has its own special secret hidden.

In order to express the inner world, the “soul,” in the image of a lyrical hero, Zhukovsky needed to transform the then poetic structure of Russian poetry. The word contains primary and secondary meanings. Rationalistic poetics was built on the basic, objective meanings of words. Based on Zhukovsky’s descriptions, it is difficult to determine the physical reflection of the object; the emotional reflections of the perception of l.g. are brought to the fore. subject meanings. If we compare the same word “Quiet” in Zhukovsky and Derzhavin, it is clear that in Zhukovsky it will mean “Pacified”, “giving consent”, etc. Thus, Zhukovsky revives in the word additional emotional shades hidden in the word itself. It is important for the author not just to paint a picture, but to convey his soul and experience through it. In Zhukovsky, the landscape is always associated with mood.

It is Zhukovsky who is credited with expanding the poetic vocabulary of Russian lyrics. With his elegies, Zhukovsky breathed new content into Russian poetry and transformed its structure. Their content is sad not because the canons say so, but because of “the poet’s prevailing worldview.” The predominant tone of J.'s poems is fascination with Being, the world created by God, and disappointment with society. Since in the real world there is an abyss between an enlightened, deeply moral person with her great spiritual needs and a skeletal society, Zh.’s personality is always desperately lonely. The human soul is immense and contains the entire Universe. The poet believed that in the end the beautiful and the sublime would win. Dual worlds are fully reflected in Zhukovsky’s TV.

9 . The ballad genre in the works of V. A. Zhukovsky. Dispute about the ballad genre within the romantic movement

1) Initially, the ballad was a synthesis genre of two types of art (music and literature), because it was a dance song of love content. Moreover, the entire Universe in the ballad was divided into two worlds (“earthly” and “terrestrial”), and its goal was to show the human soul in both of these worlds. The Russian ballad is associated with the name of V. A. Zhukovsky. In total, he wrote thirty-nine ballads, five of which are original. However, his poetic translations can truly rival the original. After all, the poet takes only the outline of the plot, changing and making his own amendments to the depiction of the state of mind. It must be said that all of his poetry is very autobiographical, therefore, unlike Western balladeers, Zhukovsky does not separate himself and his heroes, his fate and their life's ups and downs. Thus, the poet complicates his task: to reveal the human soul. Therefore, a huge number of motives are introduced into the narrative. It is interesting that in this case the narrative itself is divided into many plots, because the motive is the unit of its construction, which creates the image of an immense and inexplicable soul.

The main motif that “permeates” all of Zhukovsky’s ballads is the motif of wandering, the path. All heroes are shown on the road.

Moreover, very often this path is symbolic.

A new motive arises - the motive of two worlds, the line between which is marked by death, also a kind of journey.

It is precisely as the greatest happiness that it is perceived, for it is a transition to Eternity, a movement towards peace. And in order to contrast life before and after death, Zhukovsky deliberately alternates in the ballad “The Forest Tsar” the last tense picture of a horse race:

“The rider is galloping, the rider is galloping...” (the poet recreates the clatter of horses and the general state of anxiety by repeating words and syllables: rider-rider, galloping) - and the quiet, peaceful state of death: “In his hands the dead baby lay "

Almost all the heroes of Zhukovsky’s ballads dream “of a sweetheart, of a different world.” This largely explains their impulse to wander, to look for something similar. Their homeland is not their homeland, but only a temporary place of residence. Their homeland is the afterlife. This division of the Universe into a moment and eternity contrasts the possibility of feelings in both worlds. It turns out that the motive of another world is revealed with the help of others. Thus, the two worlds are tested by the possibility of love. According to Zhukovsky, love on earth is a faint reflection of heaven. True love is possible only after death (this is another reason for such a passionate desire to bring this hour closer). Having received a “moment of happiness” on earth, the heroes always mourn.

Zhukovsky tests his heroes with the ability of the feat of one soul in the name of another. This is the only way they can earn the right to “get into” the heavenly world.

Earthly life itself is perceived as a test

Zhukovsky's other world always communicates with the outside. So, with the help of motifs of the road, another world, death, separation, love, faith, retribution, the unity of man with nature and leitmotifs, Zhukovsky conveys all the doubts and sensations of the human soul and for the first time in Russian literature raises the question of the priority of the spiritual over the material.

2) about the dispute over the ballad genre

The dispute arose after Zhukovsky’s translation of Burger’s ballad “Lenora” (his version is “Lyudmila”). This is how the polemic between Armazas (Zhukovsky) and the young archaists began in 1816. Many believed that “Lyudmila” lacked Russian flavor. Therefore, after Katenin decided to write his own version - “Olga”. Olga was full of vernacular, so the difference between the two options is in style and language. Griboyedov and Somov also spoke out against Zhukovsky’s ballads (in “On Romantic Poetry”)

"Arzamas" - (1813) arose as a society focused on polemics with "Conversation". It included Zhukovsky, Vyazemsky, Dashkov, Orlov, Uvarov, Batyushkov, Bludov, Uvarov, young Pushkin. In contrast to the official "Conversation", the Arzamas people emphasized the provincialism of the "Society of Unknown People", chose a goose as their emblem and playfully began to repel the attacks of the "Conversation". The language of Arzamas speeches, replete with quotes and reminiscences, was designed for a European-educated interlocutor capable of grasping subtle irony. The language of the initiates. The Arzamas residents contrasted the ponderous, stately darkness of the writings and speeches of Shishkov’s supporters with the light, dandy style of Karamzin as well as “Arzamas nonsense.”

But within the Russian romantics (“Arzamas”) there is a split:

“Young Archaists” is a movement based on criticism of Gallomania - French fashion. They stood for the national character of Russian literature. The language should be as close as possible to the vernacular. It included Griboyedov, Katenin, Kuchelbecker.

A dispute arises between “Arzamas” and “Young Archaists”, which results in a contradiction about the ballad genre. After Zhukovsky wrote “Lyudmila,” Katenin calls his translation “Olga” (Burger). The difference is in style and language: Katenin translated and wrote in colloquial, folk language, the work turned out to be rude and dissonant.

romanticism is the first literary movement in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed

Therefore, the term “nationality” (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (nationality=nationality)

10. The formation of realism in Russian literature. Realism as a literary movement I 11. Realism as an artistic method. Problems of ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective

Realism is a truthful depiction of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).

Realism was faced with the task of not only reflecting reality, but also penetrating into the essence of the displayed phenomena by revealing their social conditionality and identifying historical meaning, and most importantly, to recreate the typical circumstances and characters of the era

1823-1825 - the first realistic works are created. These are Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”. By the 40s, realism was on its feet. This era is called “golden”, “brilliant”. Literary criticism appears, which gives rise to literary struggle and aspiration. And thus the letters appear. society.

One of the first Russian writers to embrace realism was Krylov.

Realism as an artistic method.

1. Ideal and reality - realists had the task of proving that the ideal is real. This is the most difficult question, since in realistic works this question is not relevant. Realists need to show that the ideal does not exist (they do not believe in the existence of any ideal) - the ideal is real, and therefore it is not achievable.

2. Man and environment is the main theme of realists. Realism involves a comprehensive depiction of man, and man is a product of his environment.

a) environment - extremely expanded (class structure, social environment, material factor, education, upbringing)

b) man is the interaction of man with the environment, man is a product of the environment.

3. Subjective and objective. Realism is objective, typical characters in typical circumstances, shows character in a typical environment. The distinction between the author and the hero (“I am not Onegin” A.S. Pushkin) In realism there is only objectivity (reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist), because realism sets before art the task of faithfully reproducing reality.

An “open” ending is one of the most important signs of realism.

The main achievements of the creative experience of realism literature were the breadth, depth and truthfulness of the social panorama, the principle of historicism, a new method of artistic generalization (the creation of typical and at the same time individualized images), the depth of psychological analysis, the disclosure of internal contradictions in psychology and relationships between people.

11 . The work of I. A. Krylov in the first third of the 19th century. Innovation of Krylov the fabulist. Genre features of fables. Dramatic beginning

One of the first Russian writers to embrace realism was Krylov. Krylov's fables. 1809 - 1 collection of fables. Krylov also found himself under the influence of the French Revolution - understanding events. Krylov is the son of the Enlightenment, which fostered the kingdom of reason. Life is not subject to imagination; there are laws independent of man. And Krylov decides to write the laws of life - which is our reality. Krylov associated the choice of the fable genre with the problem of nationality. This genre, in his opinion, is the most adequate with the help of which public opinion can be clearly expressed. One of the tasks was to overcome class distinctions. Here the concept of nationality is something that is understandable to the people, so that it fits their intelligence. In Krylov’s opinion, the fable became the optimal genre that could reflect Russian reality and erase class boundaries. Realism was more evident in the language. The language reform of the fable prepared the language of Russian realism. Krylov was the first to see in the language of fables the need for a moral and psychological separation of the speeches of the heroes.

He wrote about 200 fables: “The Oak and the Reed,” “The Cuckoo and the Nightingale,” “The Fox and the Cheese,” “The Monkey and the Glasses.”

Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826) insists in his works that he is, first of all, a citizen, and valued their citizenship, fighting character, and revolutionary spirit in his works. Ryleev believes that the artist should renounce narrow and personal themes. Only that which contributes to the happiness of the fatherland can become the subject of inspiration for a poet. Love themes are alien to him. On days when the “fatherland is suffering,” only military anxieties can give consolation to the fighter-poet.

For the first time, Ryleev’s civic patriotism manifested itself in his poem “To the Temporary Worker” (1820). It was directed against the temporary worker Arakcheev, the tsar’s favorite and organizer of military settlements. Rendering merciless condemnation to the despotic favorite, the poet turns to the harshest epithets: “arrogant”, “mean and insidious” temporary worker, “frantic” tyrant, “cunning flatterer”, and finally - a scoundrel. But next to the image of a temporary worker in the poem, the image of a Poet, a Citizen, a proud, independent person appears. The poem clearly shows Ryleev's civic position - to evaluate a statesman not by the rank he holds, but by the benefit he brought to the Fatherland, by what he did for the people. Ryleev's civic courage was manifested in his angry words addressed to the tyrant:

Oh, how I try to glorify him with the lyre,

Who will deliver my fatherland from you?

The cycle of historical “Dumas” by Ryleev, written in the spirit of civic-heroic romanticism in 1821 - 1823, is also imbued with the pathos of citizenship. In the printed preface, the poet explained their purpose with the words: “to remind youth of the exploits of their ancestors, to acquaint them with the brightest eras of folk history, to unite love for the fatherland with the first impressions of memory.” The historical range of thoughts is very wide - from the 10th to the beginning of the 19th century, from the exploits of Oleg Prophetic to the death of Derzhavin. Thus, a kind of Russian history in verse was created - a series of paintings restoring the heroic deeds of past centuries. The poet praises the courage shown in the struggle for national independence and independence of the homeland, for the liberation of the people from foreign rule. And in his thoughts the images of Vadim, Olga, Dmitry Donskoy, Ermak, Susanin, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, fighters against internal tyrants trampling on individual rights and freedoms (images of Kurbsky and Volynsky), patriots who distinguished themselves with military exploits for the sake of the greatness of their fatherland (images of Svyatoslav and Prophetic Oleg. Turning to the past, the poet wanted to show that the ideals of the most progressive people of his time were based on the best traditions of the people in their battles for national independence and freedom. For this purpose, he deliberately neglected historical authenticity and deliberately transformed his heroes, endowing them with traits of his time.To resurrect history in order to arouse the valor of contemporaries with the glorious deeds of their ancestors - this is Ryleev’s main intention.

The highest achievement of Ryleev’s political evolution is the poem “Voinarovsky” - a work that resurrected episodes of Mazepa’s treasonous policy. The main theme of the poem is the struggle for the national independence of Ukraine. The poet portrays his hero Voinarovsky as a brave tyrant-hater, accustomed from childhood to “honoring Brutus,” the soul of a “truly free” and noble “defender of Rome.” This is an ardent patriot, ready to make any sacrifice for the sake of his homeland. For Ryleev’s contemporaries, these words sounded like an oath of allegiance to the homeland and a call to civic sacrifice.

Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voinarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Thanks to the broad historical background against which a real historical hero appears - an extraordinary, strong-willed, purposeful personality, in “Voinarovsky” the narrative element is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as the bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activities, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to preserve the high image of the hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thought languishing in prison or exile, who remain integral individuals, do not at all doubt the rightness of their cause and the respect of posterity, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope of popular memory, lost and forgotten.

12 . Russian romantic poem. Structural and genre features. Kozlov “Chernets”, Ryleev “Voinarovsky”, Baratynsky “Eda”

The poem is an expression of Kozlov’s conscious desire to create an independent romantic poem based on Russian material. Kozlov is one of the first Russian “Byronists”. Kozlov is trying to create an apotheosis for Byron, to cover his entire life, his social and family conflicts, talking about the poet’s love of freedom, about the flame of fatal passions. “Chernets” (1825) is a poem that brought fame to Kozlov. The unfortunate fate of the bedridden poet, who was also about to lose his hearing and sight, extremely fueled interest in Kozlov. And the “Byronic” image of the hero - Chernets - received psychological authenticity. The content of the poem is as follows: in one of the Kyiv monasteries a monk, a “young sufferer,” takes refuge. He arrived there at night, in a storm, his fate is mysterious. One day he told the monastery elder about himself. He grew up as a homeless orphan, did not know his native affection: “When my peers were playing, I was already thinking.” He had no one to love, he lived unsociablely:

I had nothing to lose.

I had no one to part with.

And so a gray-haired warrior with his wife and seventeen-year-old daughter arrived from the banks of the Neva to his native land. The young man fell in love with the girl, and her parents betrothed them. The wedding was already coming up. But suddenly a rival, a distant relative of the beloved, appeared and began to insidiously flatter and forcibly force the girl into marriage. To humiliate the opponent, it is said that he betrayed his honor when he served as a cornet in the Polish army. The mother of the beloved maiden dies, and an insidious rival began to take possession of the soul of her father, and he betrays his word. The hero of the poem decided to act boldly:

He despised the villain, took his daughter away

And he secretly married her.

The couple lived happily for a whole year and were already expecting a baby. But an evil rival slandered the lovers and said that the daughter was cursed by her father. The daughter cannot withstand the ordeal and dies in terrible agony. The newborn son also dies. The hero buried them and left the region where he became orphaned. But in his soul he always carried the image of his wife and baby, imagined them blissful in paradise and wanted to quickly unite with them. And then one day, visiting their grave in a clearing, he meets his rival on horseback, the killer of his son and wife. There is no forgiveness for him. The hero strikes the villain with a dagger when he tried to draw his saber. In terrible mental shock, he wanders through the fields, suddenly hears the bell for matins and finds himself in the temple. But what can he pray for now? In spiritual depression, he realizes that now it is even more difficult to unite with his beloved . The murderer came to the monastery for repentance. He prays in front of the icons. And then one day his wife appears before him, in a white veil. Etane was a trick of the imagination. It was she with the baby in her arms. She tells her husband that he is forgiven by heaven. He rushes towards her, and her shadow disappears. The hero dies in terrible torment.

The mastery of the verse is impeccable, almost Pushkin's lightness, you can even catch the features of the brewing sharp Lermontov contrast. Here are some more examples:

I had everything, I lost everything... This all adds elasticity to the style. Kozlov perceived “Byronism” in a suffering way. Only Lermontov - a “Byronist” with a Russian soul - will convey all the power of Byron’s grief and protest, the thirst for active action against evil.

Ryleev has always been distinguished by exceptional honesty and selflessness. He kept the title of revolutionary pure. Ryleev poeticized these noble moral qualities in the heroes of his works. The central image of the poem “Voinarovsky” belonged to them. In it, Ryleev strove for historical truthfulness. He attached serious importance to descriptions of the Siberian region, achieving ethnographic, geographical and everyday accuracy. Ryleev introduced into the poem many real details concerning the nature, customs and life of the harsh region.

Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voinarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Thanks to the broad historical background against which a real historical hero appears - an extraordinary, strong-willed, purposeful personality, in “Voinarovsky” the narrative element is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as the bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev’s image of Voinarovsky is split in two: on the one hand, Voinarovsky is depicted as personally honest and not privy to Mazepa’s plans. He cannot be held responsible for the secret intentions of the traitor, since they are unknown to him. On the other hand, Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activities, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to preserve the high image of the hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thought languishing in prison or exile, who remain integral individuals, do not at all doubt the rightness of their cause and the respect of posterity, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope of popular memory, lost and forgotten.

Toning down the love plot, Ryleev brings to the fore the social motives of the hero’s behavior and his civic feelings. The drama of the poem lies in the fact that the hero-tyrant fighter, whose sincere and convinced love of freedom the author does not doubt, is placed in circumstances that force him to evaluate the life he has lived. Voinarovsky does not reproach himself for his feelings. And in exile he adheres to the same convictions as in freedom. He is a strong, courageous man who prefers torture to suicide. His whole soul is still turned to his native land. He dreams of the freedom of his homeland and longs to see it happy. However, hesitations and doubts constantly break into Voinarovsky’s thoughts. They relate primarily to the enmity of Mazepa and Peter, the activities of the hetman and the Russian Tsar. Until his last hour, Voinarovsky does not know who his homeland found in Petra - an enemy or a friend, just as he does not understand Mazepa’s secret intentions, but this means that Voinarovsky is not clear about the meaning of his own life: if Mazepa was driven by vanity, personal gain, if he wanted “ erect a throne,” then, consequently, Voinarovsky became a participant in an unjust cause, but if Mazepa is a hero, then Voinarovsky’s life was not in vain. The poet does not hide Voinarovsky's weaknesses. Civic passion filled the hero's entire soul, but he is forced to admit that he did not understand much about historical events, although he was a direct and active participant in them. In his poem, as in his thoughts, the content of history was the struggle of tyrant fighters and patriots against autocracy. Therefore, Peter, Mazepa and Voinarovsky were portrayed one-sidedly. Peter in Ryleev's poem is only a tyrant, and Mazepa and Voinarovsky are freedom-lovers who oppose despotism. Meanwhile, the content of the real, historical conflict was immeasurably more complex. Mazepa and Voinarovsky acted quite consciously and did not personify civic valor.

In the poem “Voinarovsky,” Ryleev came face to face with a life situation that would interest him in the future. Wojnarowski acknowledges the possibility of personal error. His subjective intentions diverged from the objective meaning of the social movement to which he joined.

romanticism realism lyrics literature

13 . Civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets. The genre of the romantic poem (V. F. Raevsky, F. N. Glinka, V. K. Kuchelbecker, P. A. Katenin)

1) The poetic movement associated with Decembrism grew out of the struggle against the foundations of the feudal-serf system. The Decembrist poets established the social role of poetry and its civic purpose.

In search of an effective and politically purposeful artistic expression, the Decembrist poets sharply diverged from the sentimental-elegiac direction of Zhukovsky’s school and became the heirs and continuers of Radishchev’s revolutionary traditions. The political differentiation among the Decembrists, who were divided into more left-wing and more right-wing, also determined the degree of progressiveness of their literary activity. From this point of view, of course, the political positions of Ryleev, this most revolutionary Decembrist poet, are incommensurable with the positions of F. Glinka or Katenin: it is no coincidence that Glinka belonged to the extremely moderate wing of the Welfare Union, and Katenin, an active figure in the Decembrist movement in its early stage.

The most characteristic feature of the work of the Decembrist poets was a deep interest in Russian national history, patriotic pride in the heroic past of their homeland. The most important thematic line of Decembrist poetry was the reproduction of great historical events and images of heroes of the past, reflecting the freedom-loving spirit of the Russian people in their struggle for freedom and national independence. Ancient Novgorod with its veche system and republican liberties aroused particular sympathy among the Decembrists. In their literary activity, the Decembrists did not confine themselves to the confines of Russian history and culture, widely drawing materials from the history of other peoples. Antique images became unique conventional symbols for designating very specific phenomena of modern Russian political and social life.

The system of “adaptations” of the Decembrist poets, pursuing certain goals of circumventing censorship, at the same time also reflected a characteristic feature of their artistic method. Along with the critical current in the depiction and assessment of social reality, elements of propaganda and political symbolism and allegorism appear quite clearly in Decembrist poetry. Allegorical forms were, in particular, F. N. Glinka’s favorite method.

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The 19th century as a cultural era begins in the calendar 18th century with the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1793. This was the first bourgeois revolution on a global scale (previous bourgeois revolutions of the 17th century in Holland and England had a limited, national significance). The French Revolution marks the final fall of feudalism and the triumph of the bourgeois system in Europe, and all aspects of life with which the bourgeoisie comes into contact tend to accelerate, intensify, and begin to live according to the laws of the market.

The 19th century was an era of political upheaval that redrew the map of Europe. In socio-political development, France stood at the forefront of the historical process. The Napoleonic Wars of 1796-1815, the attempt to restore absolutism (1815-1830), and the series of subsequent revolutions (1830, 1848, 1871) should be considered as consequences of the French Revolution.

The leading world power of the 19th century was England, where early bourgeois revolution, urbanization and industrialization led to the rise of the British Empire and dominance of the world market. Profound changes took place in the social structure of English society: the peasant class disappeared, there was a sharp polarization of rich and poor, accompanied by mass protests of workers (1811-1812 - the movement of machine destroyers, Luddites; 1819 - shooting of a demonstration of workers in St. Peter's Field near Manchester , which went down in history as the “Battle of Peterloo”; the Chartist movement in 1830-1840). Under the pressure of these events, the ruling classes made certain concessions (two parliamentary reforms - 1832 and 1867, reform of the education system - 1870).

Germany in the 19th century painfully and belatedly solved the problem of creating a single national state. Having met the new century in a state of feudal fragmentation, after the Napoleonic wars Germany turned from a conglomerate of 380 dwarf states into a union of initially 37 independent states, and after the half-hearted bourgeois revolution of 1848, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck set a course for creating a united Germany “with iron and blood.” The unified German state was proclaimed in 1871 and became the youngest and most aggressive of the bourgeois states of Western Europe.

Throughout the 19th century, the United States of America explored the vast expanses of North America, and as its territory increased, the industrial potential of the young American nation also grew.

In 19th century literature two main directions - romanticism and realism. The Romantic era begins in the nineties of the eighteenth century and covers the entire first half of the century. However, the main elements of romantic culture were fully defined and revealed the possibilities of potential development by 1830. Romanticism is an art born of a brief historical moment of uncertainty, crisis that accompanied the transition from a feudal system to a capitalist system; When by 1830 the outlines of capitalist society were determined, the art of realism replaced romanticism. At first, the literature of realism was the literature of individuals, and the term “realism” itself arose only in the fifties of the 19th century. In the mass public consciousness, modern art continued to be romanticism, which in fact had already exhausted its possibilities, therefore, in literature after 1830, romanticism and realism interact in a complex manner, giving rise to an endless variety of phenomena in different national literatures that cannot be unambiguously classified. In essence, Romanticism did not die throughout the nineteenth century: a straight line leads from the Romantics of the beginning of the century through late Romanticism to the symbolism, decadence and neo-Romanticism of the end of the century. Let us sequentially consider both literary and artistic systems of the 19th century using examples of their most prominent authors and works.

The 19th century is the century of the formation of world literature, when contacts between individual national literatures accelerate and intensify. Thus, Russian literature of the 19th century had a keen interest in the works of Byron and Goethe, Heine and Hugo, Balzac and Dickens. Many of their images and motifs are directly echoed in Russian literary classics, so the choice of works for considering the problems of foreign literature of the 19th century is dictated here, firstly, by the impossibility, within the framework of a short course, of giving proper coverage of various situations in different national literatures and, secondly, by the degree popularity and significance of individual authors for Russia.

Literature

1. Foreign literature of the 19th century. Realism: A Reader. M., 1990.
2. Maurois A. Prometheus, or the Life of Balzac. M., 1978.
3. Reizov B. G. Stendhal. Artistic creativity. L., 1978.
4. Reizov B. G. Flaubert's creativity. L., 1955.
5. The Mystery of Charles Dickens. M., 1990.

Read also other topics in the chapter “Literature of the 19th Century”.

The nineteenth century in Russian literature is the most significant for Russia. In this century, A.S. began to show his creativity. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Ostrovsky. All of their works are unlike anything else and carry great meaning. Even to this day, their works are shown in schools.

All works are usually divided into two periods: the first half of the nineteenth century and the second. This is noticeable in the problems of the work and the visual means used.

What are the features of Russian literature in the nineteenth century?

The first is that A.N Ostrovsky is generally considered a reformer who brought many innovations to dramatic works. He was the first to touch upon the most exciting topics of that time. I was not afraid to write about the problems of the lower class. Also, A.N. Ostrovsky was the first to show the moral state of the soul of the heroes.

Secondly, both I.S. Turgenev is famous for his novel Fathers and Sons. He touched on the eternal themes of love, compassion, friendship and the theme of the relationship between the old generation and the new.

And, of course, this is F.M. Dostoevsky. His themes in his works are extensive. Faith in God, the problem of little people in the world, the humanity of people - he touches on all this in his works.

Thanks to the writers of the nineteenth century, today's youth can learn kindness and the most sincere feelings through the works of great people. The world was lucky that these talented people were born and lived in the nineteenth century, who gave all of humanity new food for thought, discovered new problematic topics, taught compassion for one’s neighbor and pointed out the mistakes of people: their callousness, deceit, envy, renunciation of God, humiliation of another person and their selfish motives.

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