1 general characteristics of the development of literature of the 19th century. General characteristics of Russian literature

Introduction

The first literature lesson in 10th grade is introductory. On it, the teacher will have to solve two problems:

• to identify the level of literary development of 10th grade students, their reading range, reading interests, literary horizons;
• in the introductory lecture, characterize the historical development of Russia in the first and second half of the 19th century, give a general description of the literature of the century, identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature, the evolution of literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.

To solve the first problem, the teacher can conduct a frontal conversation, identifying the general level of development of the class. To determine the level of literary development of each student, you can ask them to answer the teacher’s questions in writing at home, and then process the results of the survey:

• answer the teacher’s questions, and then process the survey results:
• What works of Russian literature of the 19th century did you read this summer? Rate them using a five-point system.
• What questions posed in Russian classical literature are still relevant today?
• Which heroes of 19th century literature do you like or dislike? Give reasons for your point of view.

When preparing for a review lecture, the teacher should take into account that in order to master its content, it is necessary to develop in schoolchildren the ability to draw up an outline (outline) of the teacher’s story, record its main points, prepare various types of comparative tables, select quotes, etc.

During the lecture, the teacher dwells on the most significant features of each stage of the development of literature and can draw up a reference table with the students.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the collapse of feudalism was obvious. The French bourgeois revolution, which promised that the world would be ruled by Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, led to the victory of the bourgeois system, but very soon it became clear that this system could not ensure universal happiness.

Not having the strength to do one thing

Happy, they neglected him

And they began to look for happiness for everyone

(G. Leopardi)

It turned out that the French Revolution turned people “deprived of bread into people also deprived of morality.”

The 19th century was rich in revolutions and coups. In addition to the French Revolution, in 1848-1849. Revolutions take place in Europe at the turn of 1850-1860. A revolutionary situation arises in Russia, the United States is shaken by the Civil War of 1861-1865.

In the advanced countries of Europe and the USA it continues industrial revolution(railroads, steamships, telegraph appear). However, many technical inventions designed to improve life only highlight the imperfection of the world.

Capitalism eliminated social injustice(anyone can become rich, and therefore noble), but gave rise to many other injustices. A generation comes to power that does not know what morality is. Money becomes their golden dream, and money and morality turn out to be incompatible. This has led to the fact that the heroes of almost all works are deeply immoral people (Georges Duroy, Gobsek, Tsakhes, Claude Frollo).

The contradictions of life are naturally transferred to literature. Central to the artistic trends of the era is the question of not only how a person can survive in this world, but also how how to actively participate in the historical process, how to influence it, that is, to be a person’s “hammer or anvil”(Goethe).

The literary process of the first half of the 19th century was very unique compared to previous eras. The speed of development of literature is increasing. New artistic movements emerge and form into integral systems very quickly (it takes decades, not centuries). Moreover, the emergence of a new method does not mean a complete negation of the old one. Therefore, a characteristic feature of the era is the coexistence of polar opposite directions in art:

1) romanticism (the desire to escape to another, ideal world);

2) realism (an attempt to analyze and then change this world).

Romanticism

Romanticism is an artistic movement that originated in Germany, which cultivates the individual, his subjective experiences, his rich inner world.

In the 18th century, this term had a different meaning: everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found more often in books than in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. this word was used to denote a new artistic movement, opposite to classicism.

The social basis of romanticism becomes disappointment in his era, in the new society, with which great hopes were associated, since this society was predicted by the great minds of Europe. The romantics believed that they had to live under an inglorious star, when Europe was suffering from revolutions, when all the best human impulses were vulgarized. Such disappointment was certainly accompanied by a mood of hopelessness, despair, “world sorrow is the “disease of the century.” Alfred de Musset in his novel “Confession of a Son of the Century” wrote: “Hopelessness walked across the earth, and the sons of the century, full of strength, no longer needed by anyone, dropped idle hands and drank this poisoned drink from a meager cup. The disease of our century comes from two reasons; the people carry two wounds in their hearts. Everything that happened has already passed. Everything that will happen has not yet come.” Pushkin said that the trouble with everything romantic was the premature passion of the soul: “No: the feelings in him cooled down early” (Eugene Onegin).

A person finds himself dropped out of social relations and, as a result, the illusion of individual freedom from life circumstances arises, the myth is created that one person can change the world(Napoleon's personality).

Dissatisfaction with modern reality leads to the emergence of two worlds (the real world and the ideal world, the dream world). Romantics pay great attention to childhood. Childhood was interpreted as an ideal world, a world of harmony, whose depth and charm attracts adults. “Adulthood” is a time that has lost the spontaneity and purity of childhood.

Romanticism rejected one of the basic principles of educational literature - “imitation of nature.” The Romantics believed that the author should be absolutely free, he should create only according to his own laws. Oscar Wilde wrote: “Do not attribute unhealthy tendencies to the artist; he is allowed to depict everything.”

The era of romanticism is characterized by the renewal of artistic forms and the entire system of literary genres; a reform of the stage takes place (the fusion of lyrics and drama). New, transitional genres are created (lyric-epic and lyric-epic-dramatic), a romantic poem (symbolic, morally descriptive, folklore) is created anew, romantic drama turns to the traditions of Shakespeare and Calderon, “dramatic poems” appear (Byron, Shelley). Lyricism reaches an extraordinary flowering (the words are associative, polysemantic, metaphorical). The theorists of romanticism preached the openness of literary types and genres, the synthesis of art, religion and philosophy, and emphasized the musical and pictorial principles in poetry. The most popular of the lyric epic genres is ballad, in prose poetic forms predominate - fairy tale, lyrical short story.

The prose of romanticism developed in many genre directions. Romanticism used both the classical short story, and the chivalric romance (“The Count of Monte Cristo” by Dumas the Father), and elements of the picaresque novel, and the oriental rococo fairy tale. In the 30-40s. turns out romantic social novel(J. Sand, E. Xu, V. Hugo), appears fantastic story. The historical novel, which existed in the previous period, was radically reworked and became one of the central genres.

Realism

Realism (from Latin realis - material, real) is an artistic method that involves a truthful and objective depiction of reality in artistic images.

The work of most writers of the 19th century developed in line with realism, and although realist writers of the first half of the 19th century did not consider themselves to be part of a single movement, this did not mean that such a movement did not exist. In 10-20 years. it was already maturing in the depths of romanticism, in the 30-40s. declared itself in different European countries as a noticeable phenomenon. By the 40s. realism is already an independent and significant trend in European literature.

Realists sought to penetrate into the essence of social processes; they wanted not only to discover a new world, but also to explore its laws and connections. For realists, a person was interesting both as a unique personality, and as a typical phenomenon, and as a historical figure - not in the sense that he played some important role in history, but in the fact that he belonged to history without realizing it.

The nineteenth century is the heyday of Russian literature. It was prepared by the rapid cultural growth of Russia after the reforms of Peter the Great. The brilliant reign of Catherine raised the question of creating national art for the new, great-power Russia. Among the galaxy of Catherine’s court heroes rises the majestic figure of the “singer Felitsa” - Derzhavin. The development of artistic language and literary forms occurs at an unusually fast pace. In 1815, at the Lyceum exam, Pushkin read poetry in the presence of Derzhavin. In "Eugene Onegin" he recalls this:

Old man Derzhavin noticed us
And going into the grave he blessed.

The evening dawn of the glorious Catherine's era meets the morning dawn of Pushkin's time. “The Sun of Russian Poetry,” Pushkin is still at its zenith when Tolstoy is born. Thus, over the course of one century, Russian literature was born, ascended to the pinnacle of artistic development and won world fame. In one century, Russia, awakened from a long sleep by the “mighty genius of Peter,” strains the forces hidden in it and not only catches up with Europe, but on the verge of the 20th century becomes the ruler of its thoughts.

Dunaev M.M. Russian literature of the 19th century

The nineteenth century lives at a feverish pace; directions, currents, schools and fashions change with dizzying speed. The sentimentalism of the tenths gives way to the romanticism of the twenties and thirties; the forties see the birth of Russian idealistic “philosophy” and Slavophile teaching; fifties - the appearance of the first novels by Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy; the nihilism of the sixties gives way to the populism of the seventies; the eighties were filled with the glory of Tolstoy, artist and preacher; in the nineties, a new flowering of poetry began: the era of Russian symbolism.

The preparatory period ends. The luminary of Pushkin rises, surrounded by a galaxy of satellites. Delvig, Venevitinov, Baratynsky , Yazykov , Odoevsky, Vyazemsky, Denis Davydov - all these stars shine with their pure and even light; they seem less bright to us only because they are overshadowed by the brilliance of Pushkin. The appearance of this genius cannot be explained by any continuity of literary forms. Pushkin is a miracle of Russian literature, a miracle of Russian history. At the height to which he elevates Russian verbal art, all lines of development are cut short. You cannot continue Pushkin, you can only be inspired by him in search of other paths. Pushkin does not create schools.

Gogol's magical verbal art brings to life a whole generation of storytellers, everyday life writers and novelists. All the great writers of the 1850s – 1880s came from Gogol’s “natural school”. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat,” says Dostoevsky. From “Dead Souls” comes the line of development of the novel, the victorious march of which fills the second half of the century. In 1846, Dostoevsky’s first story “Poor People” appeared; in 1847 - Turgenev’s first story “Khor and Kalinich”, Goncharov’s first novel “An Ordinary Story”, Aksakov’s first work of fiction “Notes on Fishing”, the first big story

Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century is divided into 3 periods:

1. Literature before the 60s (1852-66/7)
2. 1868-81 (81 is an important date, since Dostoevsky dies and Alexander 2 dies)
3. 1881-94

1 period

The beginning of this period was marked by the following events. In 1852, Gogol and Zhukovsky die, a separate edition of Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” is published. In addition, in 1855, the Crimean Company ended (unsuccessfully for Russia) and the reign of Nicholas 1. This defeat is a disaster in the ideological sense, since the company itself took place under the banner of Russia’s superiority over the West (an example from Leskov in “Lefty”: let them there in the West everything is fine, but we have myrrh-streaming icons). The corruption and technical backwardness of Russia were revealed. Reforms were needed. Alexander II comes to power. Preparations for reforms begin. The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was the most liberal time of the 19th century. Politics in the full sense of the word has appeared in Russia.

In the early 60s - reforms:

• peasant
• zemstvo
• judicial (public proceedings, jury trial, competition). A competitive identification of truth appears. Portrayal of the jury in The Brothers Karamazov and the Resurrection (negative attitude).
• military

To many, the reforms seemed half-hearted. In the early 60s, the protest movement intensified, underground organizations appeared (including Earth and Freedom). The government responded with repression. As a result - 04/04/66 - Karakozov’s attempt on Alexander 2. The beginning of the reaction. Closing of many lit. magazines (Sovremennik, Russian Word). 68 – exit Crime and Punishment. Great novels begin in Russian literature. The end of this era.

Cultural traits that were formed during this time.

It's question time. Everything was questioned and discussed, from the peasant question to women's emancipation. The figure of a publicist appears who can give an answer to everything (Chernyshevsky, Leskov). Politics appears (in the 50s) and disappears (60s).

Another new character is a commoner. Begins to play an important role in literature and public life. There is a gap between the cultural elite and the authorities. In the 50s, the government tried to overcome it. For example, Grand Duke Constantine organized expeditions to various provinces to recruit sailors. Ostrovsky, Leskov and others were involved there, but nothing much came of it.

Power is unevenly distributed between these 2 groups:

• physical, above the body - in the bureaucracy
• over the minds and souls - among the intellectual elite

It can be noted that this era is distinguished by the absence of a great state. figures, commanders (well, except for Skobelev). The fact is that every culture is a field of struggle for prestige. At this time, it was more prestigious to become a publicist and revolutionary than a minister.

Russian society was divided into left (radicals) and right.

The left was keen on positivism (Feuerbach): rejection of metaphysics and transcendence, preoccupation with the external appearance of things, natural sciences - what can be known. 50-60 is generally the time of passion for natural sciences (remember Bazarov from Fathers and Sons). In the 60s, Bram’s work “The Life of Animals” was translated, everyone read it. There is a lot of amateurism, but it gives impetus to science: Sechenov, Pavlov, Mechnikov, Kovalevskaya.

For the right and moderate liberals, the main science was history. Archives were opened, historical magazines and plays began to be published. There was a lot of fuss and amateurism, but historical schools grew - Kostomarov, Soloviev.

The main literary institute remained magazine. An important metamorphosis: permission to publish a magazine with socio-political news. All the magazines took advantage of this. Literature coexists with politics. Social issues and problems of Russia demanded from her. life. Magazines differ in their political stance. Purely literary polemics are no longer conceivable. In 1856, a split occurred in Sovremennik, as Chernyshevsky arrived, brought Dobrolyubov, and a conflict occurred with old employees (Turinev, Gomarov). The “Library for Reading” and “Notes of the Fatherland” (Druzhinin, Botkin, Turgenev) continue to exist. Another old magazine is “Moskvityanin”. Was Slavophile. New, young edition (Apollo-Grigoriev, Ostrovsky). There they formulate the doctrine of pochvennism. New magazines are also appearing. Most important:

1) “Russian Messenger”. 56 years old, Katkov. First liberal, then conservative. It existed for a very long time. All the novels of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Leskov were published here.

2) Russian word (left edge; Blagosvetlov G. E.). This magazine was associated with nihilists. Pisarev collaborated here.

3) “Time” and “Epoch” in the early 60s (magazines of the Dostoevsky brothers)

All sorts of Slavophiles (Mayak, Dom. conversation, Day, etc.) ??

Literature was read almost exclusively in magazines.

2nd period

The era of great novels begins (with Crime and Punishment); with the death of Dostoevsky, this era ends. The assassination attempt of Karakozov, the closure of radical leftist magazines, the beginning of the reaction. 1868 is very important because this is the year when the first populist works and organizations appear. One of the most notorious events of the late 60s was the Nechaev affair, which Dostoevsky quite reliably reflected in The Possessed. Members of the Nechaev group killed one of the members of the organization, cat. I decided to get out of it and possibly report it to the police. The case had a wide resonance. The government acted very wisely by making the case public. At the same time, the first populist circles appeared, and already in the 70s. the campaign among the people begins (1874). This outing to the people ended rather disastrously: most of these people were arrested. The authorities reacted to all this extremely inadequately: huge sentences, hard labor. The next wave was called “life with the people,” but this enterprise ended in much the same way. Gradually, those involved in this popular movement began to experience a feeling close to despair or even bitterness. And now the second “Land and Freedom” is being created. By 1878, it split into two organizations, which differed in fact: one was the “Black Redistribution” (it was they who professed peaceful measures to change the situation), the second, “People’s Will,” was inclined to violent actions. The wave of terror that swept Russia began in 1878, when Vera Zasulich shot at Governor Trepov. She was acquitted, and the revolutionaries were not tried again by a jury. On the one hand, this event showed society’s sympathy for terror, on the other, the duality of power. The next terrorist act is associated with the name of Kravchinsky, who committed an attempt on the life of the chief gendarme (he killed him with a dagger, jumped into the carriage and disappeared). Since 1878, the terrorist struggle begins. The government responded in kind, and also issued an appeal to the people asking them to counteract moral terror. The terrorists had a clear moral advantage.

History is gradually being replaced by historiosophy. Danilevsky “Russia and Europe” - this treatise largely precedes Spengler. During the same period, what is politely called Russian philosophy began to take shape (late 70s). 1870-1871 – “The ABC of Social Sciences” by Bervy, “the situation of social classes in Russia.” At the center of the idea of ​​progress is the labor of the population, the people, and the fruits of this progress are enjoyed by a very narrow circle of people, while those through whose efforts this is accomplished receive nothing. Lavrov coined the term “critically thinking person.” So this person must realize the situation and feel indebted to the people. The idea of ​​community and the belief that the Russian people already have such an institution and can come to socialism, bypassing capitalism.

In 1868, Nekrasov began editing Otechestvennye zapiski. Throughout the 70s. This magazine is moderately populist. Their ally and competitor is Delo magazine. Vestnik Evropy tried to take a rather liberal position. The centrist position traditionally turned out to be the most vulnerable. An important phenomenon is the “Diary of a Writer”, published by Dostoevsky. Slavophile ephemeral publications continued to appear and were quickly closed. Lit level Critics were very low.

This is still the time of prose, the era of the great novel. As for dramaturgy, it’s about the same as it was. What could be called Ostrovsky’s theater is taking shape. Nobody still reads poetry. Only one person could gain popularity - Nekrasov (and his epigones). The flourishing of revolutionary poetry.

3rd period

1880s politically one of the most boring eras. The reign of Alexander 3 the Peacemaker, during which Russia did not wage a single war. A time of intellectual decline and stagnation. The only new intellectual passion is Social Darwinism. Literature as an institution is characterized by the decline of the thick magazine. Chekhov is indicative in this sense: for a long time he did not publish in a thick magazine and did not consider it necessary. But small-scale journalism is flourishing. Big Idea Fatigue: Writers give up the moral right to teach someone. No heroic characters are created; the place of novels is taken by a short story or short story (again, Chekhov, Korolenko, Garshin). Interest in poetry is awakened. The main figure of the era in this regard was the poet Nadson, who enjoyed enormous popularity. At the same time, there are no new forms. There was no brightness of talents. Garshin is a man of an interesting and tragic fate. He took part in the Balkan War, which greatly affected him. A model Russian intellectual. It is Garshin who is depicted in the face of the son killed by Ivan the Terrible. He committed suicide. His entire legacy is a 200-page book. The feeling is secondary in relation to everything that has already been written. G. had a conscious attitude: the priority of ethics over aesthetics. Another characteristic figure is Korolenko. The writer is so-so, but a good person.

The 19th century gave birth to a large number of talented Russian prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century have become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.

Story

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in the 18th century Russia was relatively measured, then the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and trends in literature.

The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to his comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But by the 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. The poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the glorification of folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.

The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples of romantic prose are the early works of Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensual and focuses on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.

Satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting his creative career with a description of his small homeland, this author later moved on to all-Russian social themes. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.

A masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel “The Golovlevs,” dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

Realistic novel

In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”

Folk poem

In the years when the realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allows us to trace the long path from dreamy poetry to a truthful novel. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be classified as one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his creative career, critics accused the writer of coldness towards current social topics, his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image of the “little man” created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that developed at the end of the 19th century could not help but influence the lives of individuals.

Late literature of the 19th century was dominated by revolutionary sentiments. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.

The general characteristics of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Each major representative of this period created his own artistic world, the heroes of which dreamed of the impossible, fought against social evil, or experienced their own small tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.