The flourishing of Russian culture in the 19th century is brief. Russian culture of the 19th century dawn in

The 19th century occupies a special place in Russian history and the history of Russian culture. It is internally contradictory, and the final unresolution of these contradictions led, ultimately, to three Russian revolutions at the beginning of the twentieth century. On the one hand, there is rapid progress in all spheres of life of Russian society. The rise of the economy (especially in the second half of the 19th century), the flourishing of science, literature, art, the creation of unsurpassed masterpieces public culture. Many discoveries and countless achievements in all spheres of culture made it possible to speak of it as not just the “golden age” of Russian literature, but also the “golden age” of Russian culture as a whole. On the other hand, autocracy, serfdom, survived in Russia longer than any European country, and many of its negative consequences were never eliminated until October revolution, bureaucratization of all public life, militarism, suppression of the revolutionary and national liberation movement on the outskirts - this is not a complete list of all the factors that held back Russian culture in the 19th century.

The history of Russian culture of the 19th century can be divided into two periods: the culture of the 1st half of the 19th century (before 1861 - the abolition of serfdom) - pre-reform and the culture of the 2nd half of the 19th - post-reform.

By the beginning of the 19th century, a special type of culture was finally taking shape in Russia - noble culture- the culture of “noble nests” and the “cherry orchard” and it is with it that all the greatest creations in Russian literature are associated. From the middle of the 19th century, at the same time, the common intellectual culture, associated with the revolutionary-democratic movement of that time, began to develop and was replaced by it.

The development of enlightenment and the public education system had a significant influence on the rise and flourishing of Russian culture in the 19th century. The opening of new universities, the creation of gymnasiums, primary public schools, zemstvo schools, etc., successes in the development of a teaching nation, the spread of literacy, the growth of education, the emergence of a new social stratum - the classless intelligentsia - these are the most important milestones in the development of the education system in Russia XIX century.

Of particular importance in Russian culture of the 19th century was the struggle between two directions of philosophical and socio-political thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. The ideas of Westerners (A.Ch. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky, N.P. Ogarev, P.V. Annenkov, T.N. Granovsky, M.N. Katkov, K.D. Kovelin, etc.) can be reduced to the fact that Russia, in the process of its socio-economic development, has lagged behind advanced countries Western Europe(especially France and England) and it was necessary to catch up with these countries in these areas, as well as reproduce examples of Western European culture in their entirety. Slavophiles (I.S. and K.S. Ansanov, A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsia, Yu.F. Samarin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, etc.) were critical of the achievements of Western culture, although it was not completely rejected, as well as its significance for Russian culture. However, they paid special attention to the study of national traditions and roots, upholding the originality of national culture and history, and asserted the impossibility of formally copying Western templates and samples. Slavophiles substantiated a special, different from Western European, path of development for Russia, somewhat idealizing social order Russia, gave special meaning the peasant community, Orthodoxy, and partly the autocracy. They asserted the priority of Russia in the development of a true Christian culture and expressed the idea of ​​the future great destiny of Russia. The dispute between Westerners and Slavophiles was especially fierce in the 40-50s of the 19th century on the eve of the abolition of serfdom, determining to a large extent the main content of Russian culture of that period. Later, the dispute began to subside, and in the 60-70s the positions of the two sides became closer. In a transformed form, this dispute was revived already in the twentieth century in Soviet period development of culture in the form of ideas of “neo-Westerners” and “neo-Slavophiles”.

In Russian culture of the 19th century, the role of printing, book publishing and library activities is significant. In 1861 in Russia there were 96 printing houses and 7 daily newspapers were published; in 1994 there were 1,315 printing houses and 112 daily newspapers were published. On the eve of the abolition of serfdom, Russian journalists came up with a new term - “glasnost”, which will reappear in the era of Gorbachev’s reforms. In the second half of the 19th century, a solid book publishing, magazine and newspaper infrastructure was created in the country, which gave the intelligentsia the opportunity to express their views on pressing issues of public life, government activities, etc. In 1890, Russia became the 3rd country in the world in terms of the amount of published literature. A network of public libraries began to develop. Democratic publishing houses appeared, producing progressive literature for low-income groups. Opened Art Gallery Tretyakov.

The 19th century is an era of rapid development and success of Russian science. Until now, the results obtained by domestic scientists in the 19th century are highly valued in world science. The undeniable merits of N.I. Lobachevsky (non-Euclidean geometry), D.I. Mendeleev (periodic law of chemical elements), I.M. Sechenov (father of Russian physiology) and his successor I.P. Pavlov, K.A. Timiryazev (photosynthesis ), I.I. Mechnikov (immunology, evolution of embryology, etc.), A.G. Stoletov (magnetism and photoelectric phenomena), K.E. Tsiolkovsky (theory of astronautics), P.L. Chebyshev (number theory, probability theory), S.V. Kovalevskaya (differential equations), A.M. Butlerov (organic chemistry), I.M. Pirogov (military surgery) and many other Russian researchers. A number of discoveries have been made in the field of technology that have global significance. The Cherepanovs designed the world's first steam locomotive. A.N. Lodygin invented the incandescent electric lamp. P.N. Yablochkov – transformer and electric arc lamp. N.L. Benordos discovered a method of electric arc welding. M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky created an asynchronous closed-loop AC motor, which became the main type of modern electric motor, A.S. Popov created a radio, A.F. Mozhaisky designed an airplane, etc. Social and, in particular, historical sciences, represented by works on Russian history by S.M. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, actively developed.

The highest achievement of Russian culture of the 19th century was Russian literature. During this period, a brilliant galaxy of writers and poets worked, which led to the emergence of the term “golden age” of Russian literature. In none of the national literatures, in no other time period was such a number of geniuses and talents concentrated as in Russian literature of the 19th century. Russian literature has become a universal form public consciousness. The development of Russian literature and art in the 19th century followed the same important directions as in European culture of the 19th century (they were discussed in more detail in the topic “World Culture of the 19th Century”): classicism, romanticism, realism, symbolism. Classicism at the beginning of the 19th century was presented in Russian literature by G.R. Derzhavin, in architecture by M.F. Kazakov, K.I. Rossi, A.D. Zakharov; in painting - D.M.Levitsky, K.P.Bryulov, A.A.Ivanov. The motives for the hero's actions in the works of representatives of classicism were guided by civic duty and public service.

In the first quarter of the 19th century, the influence of sentimentalism, which tried to convey all possible shades of human experiences through artistic means, was noticeable in Russian culture. The largest representative sentimentalism in literature became N.M. Karamzin, he is also the creator of the multi-volume “History of the Russian State” - the first major historical work By ancient Russian history. Followers of sentimentalism concentrated attention on the inner world of a person, feelings were considered as the motivating source of his actions.

Synthetic art in painting is associated with the names of V.I. Boronikovsky, F.S. Rokotov, O.P. Kiprensky. Russian romanticism is represented by the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky, K.F. Ryleev; prose M.N. Zatoikin, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marmisny; muse of M.I. Glinka, A.N. Verstavsky, A.S. Dargomyshen. Can be classified as romanticism early work A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov and N.V. Gogol. In their works, the romantics sought to contrast a generalized ideal image with reality. In the 30-40s of the 19th century, realism established itself in Russian culture. In the formation of realism, the role of I.A. Krylov and A.S. Griboedov was significant, but a special role in the final rooting of the realistic tradition on Russian soil belongs to A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol and, partly, M.Yu. Lermontov . Moreover, in Russian culture, realism immediately manifested itself in the form of critical realism, which had a negative attitude towards both all the relics of feudalism (serfdom, autocracy), and the vices of the new bourgeois society that arose at the same time in Russia. The traditions of realism were continued in the second half of the 19th century in the works of L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, M.E. Soltykov-Shchedrin, A.P. Chekhov, N. .A.Nekrasov and many other writers and poets. In the middle and second half of the 19th century, the realistic direction also dominated in Russian music. This direction should include the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky and representatives of the so-called “Mighty Handful”, created by M.A. Balakireev and including A.N. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M.P. Mussorgsky, Ts. A.Kyuk. In Russian painting of the first half of the 19th century, there was a parallel development of styles and trends. For a long time Classicism occupied a dominant position (K.P. Bryullov, A.A. Ivanov, etc.) and was dominant in the academic environment almost until late XIX century. In the works of artists A.G. Venetsianov and P.A. Fedotov, realistic features. In the second half of the 19th century, realism, represented by the works of the Itinerant artists N.N. Kransky, V.G. Perov, N.I. Ge, G.G. Myasoedov, I.E. Repin, V. M. and A.M. Vasnetsov, as well as V.I. Surikov, V.V. Vereshchagin, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, V.D. Polenov, V.E. Makovsky, K.A. Savitsky, N.A. Yaroshenko and many others.

The 19th century is also marked by the heyday of Russian theater. The work of the outstanding playwright A.N. Ostrovsky was of great importance for the Russian theater. Of the Russian actors of this century, M.E. Shchepkina, M.P. should be noted. and O.O. Sadovskikh, G.N. Fedova, M.N. Ermolov, P.A. Strepetov, P.S. Mogalov. They are all representatives realistic direction in theater arts.

The final chord in the development of Russian culture in the 19th century was a new direction in literature and art - symbolism. Its largest representatives in Russian culture were D.S. Merezhkovsky, K.D. Balmont, Z.N. Gippius, F.K. Sologub, A. Bely, V.Ya. Bryusov, A.A. Blok, V. I. Ivanov and a number of others. Symbolists focused their attention on artistic expression through symbols, because “things in themselves” that are beyond the limits of sensory perception. Their work expressed a longing for the ideal, spiritual freedom, and began a premonition of the terrible upheavals that the 20th century brought to world culture, especially in Russia. In painting, the ideas of symbolism were expressed by M.A. Vrubel, V.A. Serov, and partly by A.N. Benois and L.S. Banst.

To summarize this topic, it should be noted some characteristic features of Russian culture of the 19th century: citizenship, patriotism, interest in public life and at the same time in the fate of the “little man”. Russian culture of this period, as in general, is also distinguished by openness, the ability to process the cultures of other peoples (especially Western European culture), along with integrity and originality. There was also a spread of Russian culture to the national outskirts Russian Empire, and in contrast to the spread of the European one.

The 19th century became the Golden Age of Russian culture. Literature becomes the dominant art form. Change literary trends determines the development of the entire era.

Russian culture of the 19th century and Europe

Since the reforms of Peter I, Russia has been under the powerful cultural influence of Europe. Features of the development of culture in the 19th century were expressed in the penetration of Western styles and trends.

A. I. Herzen said briefly about the culture of the 19th century in Russia: Russia responded to the reforms of Peter with the genius of Pushkin.

Literary styles

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Sentimentalism took hold in literature. Its leading representative was N.M. Karamzin.

In the 20s In the 19th century, sentimentalism was replaced by romanticism. First of all, this is connected with the work of V. A. Zhukovsky.

Rice. 1. Portrait of V. A. Zhukovsky. O. A. Kiprensky. 1815.

The Decembrist poets were romantics:

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• K. F. Ryleev,
• V. K. Kuchelbecker,
• A. I. Odoevsky.

Since the 30s. In Russian literature, realism becomes the leading direction. A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol laid the foundations of the modern Russian language. Russian literature has entered its Golden Age.

In the second half of the 19th century, Russian writers firmly established themselves in world literature. The works of L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov belong to critical realism. They raise the most important philosophical and moral problems of humanity.

Architectural styles

In the first third of the 19th century, a period of “strict” classicism or Empire style began in Russian architecture. It came to Russia under the influence of Napoleonic France and is represented by architects:

• K. Rossi (Alexandrinsky Theater);
• A. D. Zakharov (Admiralty);
• A. N. Voronikhin (Kazan Cathedral).

In the 30-50s. In the 19th century, a new direction was formed - eclecticism or historicism. In domestic architecture it manifested itself in the emergence of the Russian-Byzantine style. According to the designs of K. A. Ton, the following were built:

• Cathedral of Christ the Savior,
• Grand Kremlin Palace,
• railway stations in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Rice. 2. Modern view of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior.

In the second half of the 19th century, a type of eclecticism became pseudo-Russian style. It is represented by the following architects:

• A. A. Semenov ( Historical Museum in Moscow);
• D. N. Chichagov (Moscow City Duma);
• A. N. Pomerantsev (modern GUM).

Styles in painting

In the first half of the 19th century, classicism and romanticism prevailed in the work of Russian artists. The first was characterized by the use of ancient and biblical subjects. The leading representatives of classicism were F. A. Bruni and F. I. Tolstoy.

Romantic artists preferred portraiture and landscape painting. Among them are:

• S. F. Shchedrin;
• O. A. Kiprensky;
• A. G. Venetsianov.

A special place is occupied by K. P. Bryullov, whose pinnacle of creativity is the painting “The Last Day of Pompeii”.

In the second half of the 19th century, realism was firmly established in painting. In 1870, the “Partnership traveling exhibitions”, in which realist artists united:

• I. E. Repin,
• N. N. Ge,
• I. N. Kramskoy and others.

19th century sculpture

Of particular importance in Russia was monumental sculpture, presented in the following table:

Development of science in the 19th century

“Russian sailors and explorers made many geographical discoveries and made about 40 trips around the world. They began with the first trip around the world in the history of Russia by two Russian ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky (1803–1806). During the expedition undertaken by M. P. Lazarev and F. F. Bellingshausen (1819–1821), Antarctica was discovered.

In the first half of the 19th century, a whole galaxy of talented physicists appeared in Russia who made many valuable discoveries (V.V. Petrov, E.H. Lenz, P.L. Schilling, B.S. Jacobi). P. P. Anosov worked fruitfully in the field of metallurgy. Notable successes were achieved in medicine, chemistry, and astronomy. Advances in technology were also very noticeable. Serf mechanics father and son E. A. and M. E. Cherepanov built a railway at one of the Ural factories in 1834. In 1837, traffic on the St. Petersburg – Tsarskoe Selo railway was opened. Already in 1815, the first steamboats began to sail along the Neva, and a few years later they appeared on other rivers. Scientific and technical discoveries contributed to the development of the industrial revolution, which began in Russia in the 30s and 40s.”

Science and technology developed intensively. Russian scientists have achieved great success in almost all fields of knowledge, and their discoveries have had worldwide significance.

By the beginning of the 19th century, fundamental changes were increasingly brewing in the national economy of Russia. They were generated by developing bourgeois relations in various areas of the economy - the activity of the domestic market revived, international trade relations grew and strengthened, in industry the factory with civilian workers became increasingly important, gradually replacing patrimonial and possessional manufactories. Commodity relations penetrate into agricultural production, contributing to the emergence of specialized farming, the introduction of technical and agronomic innovations, and the emergence of estates working for the domestic or foreign market. Growing cities, attracting more and more workers, artisans, and traders, increased the needs of the domestic market.

Developing trade between individual regions countries demanded improved communications, transport, and waterways.

In connection with all these phenomena, the need not only for educated specialists, but also simply for competent workers capable of serving the more complex process of industrial and agricultural production is becoming increasingly acute. In this situation, public education became one of the most important conditions for the progressive development of the country.

The bulk of the Russian population were peasants, and only 4% of all Russians lived in cities. Moreover, the literacy standard at the beginning of the 19th century was extremely low. A person was considered literate if he could sign his signature with his surname instead of a cross.

“In August 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, the primary task of which was to prepare and carry out a complete reorganization of all levels educational process in Russia. The previously prepared and discussed “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” were supplemented, approved by the tsar and published in 1804 in the form of two charters - “Charter of Universities of the Russian Empire” and “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities.”

According to the charter of 1804, a harmonious and consistent system of administrative management of all educational institutions was created. Public education in Russia was divided into four levels:

1) parish schools,

2) district schools,

3) gymnasiums,

4) universities.

All these levels were interconnected in educational and administrative terms. The entire territory of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts according to the number of existing and planned universities: Moscow, Dorpat, Vilna, as well as St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov. At the head of each educational district was a trustee, who, in his person, exercised control over all educational institutions in the given district by the Ministry of Education. The rector of the university also reported directly to the trustee.

University professors, headed by the rector, were called upon to supervise the gymnasiums of those provincial cities that were part of the district, take part in the development of educational and methodological issues, and monitor the activities of the directors and teachers of the gymnasium.

Similarly, the director of the gymnasium was responsible for the work of the district schools of his province, and the superintendent of the district schools was responsible for the activities of the parish schools of the district. Thus, a harmonious system of subordination of educational institutions from lower to higher arose, and this subordination was not limited to the purely administrative sphere. The Charter of 1804, which determined not only the structure of educational institutions, but also the content and methods of the educational process, established continuity curricula all levels of lower, middle and higher school of that time.”

The reform of educational institutions in 1804 was certainly distinguished by a number of progressive features and reflected the influence of the ideas of Russian enlighteners of the 18th century and the progressive public early XIX century. A significant step forward in the field of education was the establishment of continuity at the various levels of lower, middle and higher schools, the expansion of educational programs, the approval of more humane and progressive teaching methods and, most importantly, free education.

Book business

On the issue of the dissemination of knowledge in the first half of the last century, it is natural to first of all talk about books and printing, because at a time when there was neither radio nor, especially, television, the printed word, the book, were the main thing, and sometimes the only source information, scientific knowledge. The printed word fed Russian literature and awakened social thought. However, the development of the book business was determined by various circumstances, primarily the level of literacy of the population and government policy. As already noted, the number of literate people in Russia at that time was negligible. In addition, those who were to some extent literate were not always lovers of reading, according to A. I. Herzen, then “high society did not read anything in Russian, lower society did not read anything at all.”

Many provincial landowners, who lived more or less permanently on their estates, had calendars or the “Fortune Book” by dream interpreter Martyn Zadeka as their only books. The literate urban population, merchants, and minor officials at that time rarely used printed materials also because of their high cost. There was one more circumstance that influenced the book trade - the rewriting of books or individual works, mostly small in volume and of interest. Some fans even kept albums or special notebooks in which they copied the works they liked. This happened especially often with banned publications. Lists of the comedy “Woe from Wit,” many of Pushkin’s poems, and various “underground publications” during the period of censorship oppression in the 30s and 40s circulated around.

In addition, the development of publishing activity was determined by government policy.

In 1800, Emperor Paul I banned the import of foreign books into Russia, and the senseless severity of secular and spiritual censorship led to a significant reduction in domestic publications.

However, the first years of the reign of Alexander I, marked by a number of progressive initiatives, were also favorable for the development of domestic book printing. In March 1801, the ban on the import of books from abroad was lifted. In 1802, preliminary censorship, especially severe for periodicals, was abolished, and private printing houses were allowed to open. The revival of “free” printing houses contributed to an increase in printed output. Moreover, the leading position at the beginning of the 19th century was occupied by St. Petersburg and Moscow publishing houses.

Book publishing, even in its best versions, was determined by the tastes and desires of the owners, and was intended for a very narrow circle of readers.

In significantly to a greater extent The thirst for knowledge that grew every year was satisfied by commercial publishing houses. The book trade in large cities was not concentrated only in large stores - since the late 30s of the 19th century, the number of used bookstores has been growing, where it was possible to exchange an old book for a new one with an additional payment.

In the early years of the 19th century, commercial public libraries or, as they were then called, “reading rooms,” appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Dorpat, Vilna and Riga. For the most part, they were organized by booksellers in stores. However, neither bookstores nor commercial libraries could satisfy the growing public need for books, primarily due to their small number, as well as high prices, both for purchased publications and for “subscriptions” to “reading rooms”

“The idea of ​​creating a public library in St. Petersburg, “for the use of one and all,” belonged to Catherine II. By her order, on May 27, 1795, construction of a building for the library began. However, it was completed only in 1801.

In 1802, the books were moved to a new building and placed under the management of the chief director imperial libraries Count A. S. Stroganov; Alexey Nikolaevich Olenin became his assistant in managing the library, which was not yet open to the public, but existed. Since 1808, Olenin actually became the director of the library. Widely educated, gifted with diverse talents, a lively mind and great energy, this man played an outstanding role in cultural life Russia in the first half of the 19th century. An expert in Western European art and Russian antiquity, a capable draftsman, archaeographer, bibliophile and prominent dignitary, he headed two major cultural center of that time - the Public Library and the Academy of Arts and managed to raise them to a worthy height.”

By the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, the situation within the country began to gradually change under the influence of social upsurge, the progress of industry and trade, and minor but still tangible successes of education. All this - including the growth of cities and urban populations - contributed to the activation and expansion of cultural life and the involvement of new groups of the population in it. By the 30–40s of the 19th century, the number of publishing houses increased significantly. Book publishing and bookselling became an increasingly profitable business due to the growth of the reading public.

In addition to the metropolitan and local nobility, who were the main consumers of books, the contingent of the reading public is increasing due to professors and students of increasingly successful Russian universities, gravitating toward the education of merchants and industrialists, and, finally, an ever-increasing number of intelligentsia.

"Golden Age" of Russian culture. Sentimentalism, romanticism and realism

XIX century became for Russia a time of unprecedented rise and flowering of culture. The “Golden Age” was prepared by the entire previous development of Russian culture, especially Peter’s reforms.

“On the culture of the early 19th century. Three events had a huge impact.

First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which caused an increase national identity and an unprecedented rise of patriotism. The fight against Napoleon forced us to think differently about Russian reality, to clearly see all the vices of the country's social life and, first of all, the lack of rights of the people, serfdom. Victory in the war, which awakened among Russians a sense of pride in their Fatherland, contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance of extreme forms of admiration for everything Western that took place in the upper strata of Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on domestic art. Many artists dedicated their works to the theme of war. For example, L.N. Tolstoy and the novel “War and Peace”. The relationship between the War of 1812 and another important event of the first half of the 19th century is felt. - Decembrist movement. It is no coincidence that they called themselves “children of 1812.” The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that by defending the freedom of others, the Russian people gained nothing for themselves. He still remained in “slavery and ignorance.” The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge in social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and profound.

The third event was the abolition of serfdom. In Russia in the 19th century. factors remained that hampered the development of national culture: serfdom, which limited the possibilities of enlightenment, and tsarist absolutism, which deliberately made it difficult for the common people to access knowledge.”

In the 19th century, the greatest works of Russian classical literature were created, which received worldwide recognition. And their greatness was determined not only by artistic perfection, but also by the light of liberation ideas, humanism, and the tireless search for social justice.

A significant part of the “writing fraternity” served either in the army or in the civil service, often occupying high positions. The poets Derzhavin and Dmitriev were ministers, Griboyedov was a diplomat, Admiral Shishkov at different times combined with literary activity positions of Secretary of State, member of the State Council, Minister of Education; A. Marlinsky, a popular novelist, was a guards officer, F. N. Glinka, a writer and poet, was a lieutenant colonel, D. Davydov, a hero of 1812, a poet and fabulist, ended the Patriotic War as a colonel. There were also “uniformless” ones - Pushkin, Karamzin.

But one way or another, most of the most prominent literary nobles of the early 19th century belonged to the highest and most enlightened strata of this class. The ideas of this noble “avant-garde” formed the basis of that great spiritual potential, thanks to which Russian literature subsequently acquired global significance.

New works by Russian writers could see the light primarily on the pages of magazines; they were also the focus of artistic criticism and polemics; In magazines, the reader could obtain information about the cultural life of the country, and sometimes even Europe.

“Magazines played a prominent role in public life, presenting this or that ideological direction. Thus, “Northern Messenger” (1804–1805) by I. I. Martynov, “Journal of Russian Literature” (1805) by N. P. Brusilova, “Northern Mercury” (1805) and “Flower Garden” (1809–1810) by A. E. Izmailov and A.P. Benitsky were propagandists of educational ideas, “Russian Messenger” of S.N. Glinka defended the principles of originality and opposed gallomania, etc.”

At the end of the 18th century, a new movement arose in Russian literature, which was called sentimentalism, to replace the dominant trend of classicism. Sentimentalism, which arose on the basis of new socio-economic relations, was alien to the glorification of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism.

In contrast to the latter, he brought to the fore issues of personal life, the cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Sentimentalists contrasted the idyll with the empty social life and depraved morals of high society. village life, selfless friendship, touching love at the family hearth, in the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous “Travels”, which came into fashion after Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey”, which gave its name to this literary movement.

Later, a new direction appeared, romanticism. Romanticism was a complex ideological and philosophical phenomenon that reflected the reaction of various social groups to bourgeois revolutions and bourgeois society.

Anti-bourgeois protest was characteristic of both conservative circles and the progressive intelligentsia.

Russian romanticism, unlike European romanticism with its pronounced anti-bourgeois character, retained a greater connection with the ideas of the Enlightenment and adopted some of them - the condemnation of serfdom, the propaganda and defense of enlightenment, and the defense of popular interests. The military events of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian romanticism. The Patriotic War caused not only the growth of civil and national self-awareness of the advanced strata of Russian society, but also the recognition of the special role of the people in the life of the national state. The theme of the people has become very significant for. Russian romantic writers. It seemed to them that by comprehending the spirit of the people, they were joining the ideal beginnings of life. The desire for nationality marks the work of all Russian romantics, although the understanding of “ people's soul"was different for them.

“The interest in Russian history among romantic poets was generated by a sense of high patriotism. Russian romanticism, which flourished during the Patriotic War of 1812, perceived it as one of its ideological foundations. Artistically, romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention image inner world person. But unlike sentimentalist writers, who praised “quiet sensitivity” as the expression of a “languid, sorrowful heart,” the romantics preferred the image extraordinary adventures and violent passions. At the same time, the unconditional merit of romanticism, especially its progressive direction, was the identification of an effective, strong-willed principle in man, the desire for high goals and ideals that raised people above everyday life.”

In the 30–40s of the 19th century, realism became the dominant trend in all types of Russian art. Time has presented ever more complex problems to thinking people in Russia. It became necessary not only to condemn the negative aspects of reality, but also to deeply comprehend it. This trend social thought was also adopted by progressive writers, whose goal is a real depiction of life, not “painting”, but its analysis. Methods of artistic depiction are changing. In contrast to the “high hero” of romantic poetry and prose, “low reality” is now recognized as worthy of description. The main features of the realistic direction are true picture reality, democracy and humanism.

The features of educational realism are already present in the later poetry of Radishchev and Derzhavin, and in the work of the poet-warrior D. Davydov. The great fabulist I. A. Krylov and A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”) contributed significantly to the establishment of realism in literature. However, realism reached its true flowering in the works of A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, M. Yu. Lermontov.

Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837) is the pinnacle of national creative talent, a genius who raised Russian culture to universal heights. He is a poet, a writer, a thinker, and a historian. He made the greatest contribution to the creation of the modern literary language and new Russian literature. It is in his work that the Russian language appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. Literary critic and poet A. Grigoriev said: “Pushkin is our everything.” N.V. Gogol wrote that “Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon... perhaps the only manifestation of the Russian spirit.”

This great poet brought to the world such works as: the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1817–1820), the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin”, the novels “Arap of Peter the Great”, “Dubrovsky”, “The Captain’s Daughter” and many others.

M. Yu. Lermontov (1814–1841) became known throughout thinking Russia with a poem written on the death of Pushkin, and was perceived by many as his heir. Having lived an unusually short and creatively rich life (in the last 4 years alone he managed to write about 100 poems), the poet managed to immortalize his name by creating realistic lyrics and poems (“Borodino”, “Death of a Poet”, “Motherland”, “Farewell Unwashed Russia” "). Following Pushkin, Lermontov moved from romantic style to the realistic and vice versa. His main romantic hero Pechorin was embodied in the prose work “A Hero of Our Time,” but he extremely sharply expressed one of the main themes of the poet’s lyrics - the theme of loneliness, disappointment in the surrounding reality. Lermontov did not enjoy favor in the capital's highest society. For violating the emperor's order prohibiting duels, he was exiled to the Caucasus, where he died in a duel.

The significant contribution of N.V. Gogol (1809–1852), who gave realism a pronounced critical orientation. It is he who is considered the founder of the “natural school” in Russian literature (as they initially called critical realism). Having begun his literary career with the romantic cycle of “Little Russian stories” “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”, Gogol came to an in-depth understanding of reality. In the comedy “The Inspector General,” the writer caustically ridiculed the morals of the district bureaucrats of his contemporary Russia. Since the 1830s Until the last days of his life, Gogol worked on the “poem” Dead Souls" Creating a gallery of images of provincial landowners and inhabitants of the provincial city, he proceeded from the conviction that “there is no other way to direct society ... towards the beautiful until you show the full depth of its real abomination.”

Theater

Theater began to play an important role in social and cultural life. In the first decades of the 19th century. serf theaters are being replaced by “free” theaters – state and private. The government wanted to bring theatrical performances under its control and from 1805 in St. Petersburg and Moscow - centers theatrical arts- a monopoly is officially established imperial theaters. The directorate of the capital's theaters was subordinated to the Ministry of the Court. In the 1820s, another important event took place: theater troupes were divided into drama and opera-ballet.

“In St. Petersburg at the beginning of the century there were three state or state theaters: the palace theater in the Hermitage, Grand Theatre, and the Maly Theater near the Anichkov Bridge. In 1832, according to the design of the famous architect K. I. Rossi, a beautiful drama theater was built, equipped according to last word theatrical technology and received the name in honor of the wife of Nicholas I - Alexandra Fedorovna - Alexandrinsky. The following year, another theater opened (architect A.P. Bryullov), named after the emperor’s brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, Mikhailovsky (now named after M.P. Mussorgsky). It featured mainly French and Italian troupes. New theaters appeared in Moscow. Here in 1806 the Maly Theater was opened, which became primarily a theater theater. In 1825, on the site of the burnt private Petrovsky Theater, they finished building the Bolshoi Theater (architect O. I. Bove) - one of largest theaters Europe, which is the second largest in the world after Milan's La Scala Theatre."

In the Russian dramatic theater of the beginning of the century, classicism and sentimentalism flourished. The comedies of A. A. Shakhovsky, M. N. Zagoskin and N. I. Khmelnitsky were very popular. The tragedies of V. A. Ozerov on the themes of Russian (“Yaropolk and Oleg”, “Dmitry Donskoy”) and ancient (“Oedipus in Athens”) history were a resounding success.

Painting

In landscape painting, liberation from the conventions of the 18th century occurs, a broader and freer view of the world is born, an attempt to capture the poetic beauty of living, unadorned nature. Leading place in this genre belongs to S. F. Shchedrin, who finally overcame the idealized decorativeness and established the concept of landscape as an image of a really existing area with its unique features. The main theme of Shchedrin’s work was the nature of Italy – the “promised land” for the Russian artist of that time.

Everyday painting acquires new features, finally establishing itself as an equal in the system of the hierarchy of genres. This was greatly facilitated by the creativity of A.G. Venetsianov and his students. A new type of painting appears, compositional solutions are formed that connect elements of portrait, landscape and everyday genre. The subject of the artist’s close attention is the daily life of the people, their way of life and their work (“Sleeping Shepherd Boy”, “Zakharka”, “Morning of the Landowner”, “In the Field. Spring”, “At the Harvest. Summer”). Special role Venetsianov was also that he created his own teaching method, much more modern than academic classes. In his school, already in the early stages, the student began to work with nature, in its natural form. This helped the young artist to understand more closely the realism of the reality around him. Venetsianov’s work became the initial stage in the formation of realism in Russian painting.

In the first decades of the 19th century. The Academy of Arts is losing its monopoly role in the artistic life of the entire country. In 1801, the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and the Arts appeared. In 1820, the Society for the Encouragement of Artists united art lovers who promoted painters. The publication of the first art magazines begins: “Journal of Fine Arts” (Moscow), “Journal of Fine Arts” (St. Petersburg). The establishment of the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in Moscow in 1832, greatly contributed to the establishment of the ideas of realism in Russian art.

19th century architecture

The first third of the 19th century, after the victorious war of 1812, was marked by the extraordinary scope of Russian urban planning. Unlike the 80s and 90s. XVIII century, when the focus of architects was the creation of temples and manor buildings, now the main buildings are administrative and civil buildings, forming the center of public life of the city. At this time, Russian classicism in architecture was experiencing final stage– late or high classicism, often called Russian Empire style (from the French empire). It is characterized by monumental forms and rich decor, embodying the ideas of state power and military glory.

“The leading role in the urban planning activities of this period belongs to K. I. Rossi, the son of an Italian ballerina, who was born and lived in Russia. His style is characterized by features of special majesty, triumphality, monumentality and proportionality. One of the architect’s favorite techniques is to “ascend” columns to high ground floors, which gives the buildings a special grandeur and efficiency. It was his work that became the final stage in the design of the architectural appearance of the central part of the Russian capital. Rossi, who “thought in ensembles,” was rightly called the Mozart of architecture. Among the buildings made according to Rossi’s designs are the Mikhailovsky Palace complex (1819–1825) and the layout of the adjacent area; Palace Square with the arched building of the General Staff and the Ministries, connected by a Triumphal Arch, which is crowned by a quadriga by S. Pimenov and V. Demut-Malinovsky (1819–1829); Alexandria Theater (1828–1832), the best in Europe at that time both in terms of compositional solution, and by interior decoration interiors, with the surrounding area, including the square in front of the theater, Teatralnaya Street, the Public Library building, Chernysheva Square; building of the Senate and Synod (1829–1834)."

A distinctive feature of the work of architects of the first half of the century is the formation of an urban planning environment through the organic introduction of new structures into existing buildings. During the restoration of Moscow after the fire of 1812, the issues of designing ensembles and the harmony of new and old buildings also came to the fore.

Russia has gone from cultural isolation to integration with European culture.

For the majority of the country's population - the peasantry, urban dwellers, merchants, artisans, and clergy - the new culture, which had absorbed the juices of European enlightenment, remained alien. The people continued to live by old beliefs and customs; enlightenment did not touch them. If by the 19th century in high society university education had become prestigious and the talent of a scientist, writer, artist, composer, entertainer began to command respect regardless of social origin man, the common people saw mental work as “lordly fun,” entertainment from idleness, and looked at the intelligentsia “as an alien race” (Berdyaev).

A gap arose between the old and new culture. This was the price that Russia paid for sharp turn its historical path and exit from cultural isolation. The historical will of Peter I and his followers was able to fit Russia into this turn, but it was not enough to extinguish the force of cultural inertia that controlled the people. Culture could not withstand what was created at this turn internal tension and came apart at the seams that had previously united its various guises - folk and master, rural and urban, religious and secular, “soil” and “enlightened”. The old, pre-Petrine type of culture retained its folk, rural, religious, “soil” existence. Moreover, having rejected all alien foreign innovations, he became isolated and froze for a long time in the almost unchanged forms of Russian ethnic culture.

The gap between ethnic and national culture left its mark on the life and morals of the Russian people, on the socio-political life of the country, on the relationships between different social strata of society. In social thought, it gave rise to ideological polemics between “Slavophiles” and “Westerners.” It determined the characteristics of the Russian intelligentsia, which painfully experienced its isolation from the people's soil and sought to restore the lost connection with it.

The 19th century was the heyday of Russian artistic culture

Essay

The 19th century is the heyday of Russian artistic culture

1. Artistic culture of the first half of the 19th century

The development of artistic culture in this era was characterized by a rapid change in ideological and artistic directions compared to the previous century and the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. In the artistic consciousness of the first decades of the 19th century, there was a gradual departure from the normativity of educational ideology, which underlay the style of classicism and determined the motives for the hero’s actions, primarily civic duty and public service. And as a result, attention to the person increased, and not duty became an important motivating motive for actions.

Romanticism had the most profound influence on Russian artistic culture at the beginning of the century. In Russia it arose during the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of the romantic style was the desire to contrast reality with a generalized ideal image of a hero, whose bright individuality and unique appearance did not fit into the framework of generally accepted stereotypes of thinking and behavior. The personality is in conflict with the reality around it - this is the starting point of romanticism.

Russian romanticism was inseparable from the pan-European one, but at the same time it had a pronounced specificity, determined by the entire course of previous historical and spiritual development. Attention to national history was characteristic of the entire artistic culture as a whole. Many writers, poets, and composers turned to historical issues. But the Russian artistic intelligentsia, in accordance with its mission as a herald of freedom and liberalism, was not committed to the abstractions of dreams and illusions, to fantasies far from reality. Russian artists of the 19th century perceived the surrounding world as the main subject of creativity. This stimulated the development of realistic education, which was combined with romantic means of artistic expression. Historians of Russian culture rightly believe that romanticism became a link in the general process of development of artistic culture from classicism to realism. It was the simultaneous interweaving of styles that gave an excellent artistic result and contributed to the emergence of outstanding works of Russian art.

1.1 Dominant position in Golden Age fiction

Literature occupied a dominant position in the artistic culture of the “golden age”. It played the main stabilizing and creative role, since it was, perhaps, the only type of art that could most fully express the needs of its time. The classics of Russian literature have always gravitated towards a three-dimensional, multidimensional worldview that preserves ambiguity and imagery. Classical literature of the 19th century was more than literature. It became a synthetic artistic phenomenon and turned out to be, in fact, a universal form of social consciousness, performing the functions of other types of art.

1.2 Establishment of Romanticism

The establishment of romanticism in Russian literature occurred largely as a result of the creative searches and artistic discoveries of Vasily Zhukovsky (1783-1852). Like many young nobles of the beginning of the century, Zhukovsky began to realize the difference in his views on the world of traditional norms of enlightenment. However, among the existing literary forms, he did not find such visual and expressive means with the help of which it would be possible to achieve the most complete artistic expression of this new type of vision and feeling of the world. Reflecting the disharmony of the surrounding world, his poetry is imbued with an awareness of the short duration of human existence. The writings are dominated by a melancholic contemplation of God’s world, which must be parted with without much regret and with the hope of eternal life. Beauty, earthly and heavenly, moment and eternity - these are the categories that the poet constantly uses.

Zhukovsky worked in a variety of genres. These were friendly messages, romances, elegy, fables, fairy tales. But still he gave a clear preference to the ballad. The ballad, which developed in English and German literature, was an epic work in which fantasy motifs were strong. This genre was extremely loved by romantics, not only by poets, but also by musicians. In Zhukovsky’s work, the main features of the genre were preserved, but they were supplemented with Russian national everyday images (the ballad “Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Cup”, “Glove”).

Zhukovsky is known not only as a romantic poet, but also as a wonderful translator. Many of his works are free translations of romantic European poetry. He introduced the domestic reader to the best authors of England, France, and Germany. Thanks to his translations, Homer and Ferdowsi, Virgil and Schiller were published in Russian for the first time.

Zhukovsky's work captured the world of an extraordinary, internally unique personality of the Decembrist era, recognizing the intrinsic value of every person, regardless of his social status.

1.3 A new way of reproducing reality (critical realism)

The character and content of Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century was significantly influenced by Decembrism, which gave it special features of citizenship and political freedom. This influence of the liberation movement served as the reason for the emergence of a new way of reproducing reality, which later received the name critical realism, one of the main methods in Russian literature of the 19th century. The ideas of struggle and personal freedom are reflected in the works of remarkable Russian writers: Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov.

The founder of Russian critical realism was Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837). It is with his work that the beginning of the “golden age” in Russian literature is associated, since he was essentially the founder of new literature, reflecting Russian activity in unsurpassed artistic images. Thanks to Pushkin, our culture became an integral part of the pan-European culture and took its rightful place in it. Of exceptional importance in this was the creation by Pushkin of the Russian literary language, which contributed not only to the further flourishing of Russian literature, but also to its recognition throughout the world.

Pushkin created wonderful works of various genres both in poetry and prose: the verse novel “Eugene Onegin”, the prose work “Belkin’s Tales”, the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the historical story “The Captain’s Daughter”, the tragedy “Mozart and Salieri” , the brilliant poem “The Bronze Horseman”, dedicated to the fate of a little man in a huge empire, lyric poems, etc. However, Pushkin’s role in Russian poetry turned out to be especially important and significant. It was here that he found new artistic ways to embody human feelings and experiences.

1.4 M.Yu. Lermontov and his boundless maximalism

Pushkin’s younger contemporary and successor in Russian literature was Mikhail Lermontov (1814-41), who already at the age of 16 declared his powerful talent.

His early poems expressed the romantic apotheosis of personality, formed a unified poetic language, expressive and metaphorical, and created the image of a lyrical hero. The classical type of romanticism was close to the individual make-up of Lermontov the poet. Therefore, his early works are imbued with a dream of freedom, a longing for a rebellious hero.

However, from the second half of the 30s, realistic elements noticeably increased in Lermontov’s work. The poet's new worldview gave birth to a new type of hero in his works. Therefore, his writings were characterized by boundless maximalism, which turned into a thirst for absolute harmony and a complete transformation of the existing world order. This is expressed in his novel “A Hero of Our Time.”

1.5 N. Gogol. The transition from lyrical romanticism to realism

Pushkin’s friend and contemporary Nikolai Gogol (1809-52) gained fame and glory after the publication of a series of Little Russian stories “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka,” where he painted a surprisingly romantic picture of folk life. Combining fantasy and mystical grotesque, satire and religious problems, stern moralism and social utopia, the author poetically conveyed the world of folk beliefs in a combination of fairy tales and Christian ideas.

In the mid-30s, Gogol’s work underwent a turn from lyrical romanticism to realism. In this turn, the writer’s conviction was expressed that the artist cannot remain indifferent to good and evil, he must resign himself to the creative embodiment of his views, help transform life through art. Therefore, on the advice of Pushkin, Gogol begins to write the novel-poem “Dead Souls,” the main theme of which was the writer’s contemporary life, which represents a blatant contradiction between the spiritual power of the Russian people and their slavish social status. In this work, Gogol demonstrated fluency in a variety of plot composition techniques, using the means of expressiveness of realism and romanticism, turning now to satire, now to lyricism, now to pathos. These techniques helped him convincingly and reliably show the moral character of his contemporary society with such artistic psychological force that many of Gogol’s characters acquired a household name.

The realistic direction of Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century sought to resolve the irreconcilable conflict between the needs of the country's spiritual life and the reactionary nature of the social structure. Therefore, starting with Pushkin and Gogol, Russian writers constantly sought to embody a high social and humanistic moral ideal in their works.

1.6 New generation of writers 40-50s.

In the 40-50s of the 19th century, a new generation of writers came to Russian literature. This is I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, F. I. Tyutchev and others, who also followed this ideal and sought to realize it with various artistic techniques.

2. Artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century

In the first half of the century, social and cultural life took place most fully and variedly in the capitals, since all cultural potential was concentrated in the nobility. The nobility was the main bearer of artistic culture until about the middle of the century, when new socio-political forces emerged in Russia - raznochintsy, people from new artistic strata, revolutionary-minded intelligentsia, who quickly took a leading position in the cultural and historical development of the country. The new social forces saw their historical mission in solving two main problems - the fate of Russia and the fate of man. The solutions to these problems have received varied and spiritual expression. In the work of writers, composers, artists, architects, the solution to these problems and their corresponding expression acquired the features of a new artistic picture of the world, in which the social role and significance of all types of art was reassessed.

In addition, the raznochintsy made artistic culture more social in its issues and much more democratic in its direction and forms. In it, the realistic principle of reflecting life is further developed and the main social conflicts of Russian activity are realized much more actively and critically. Never before has artistic culture participated so directly in major social movements, reflecting all aspects of social life in its works. Hence, its characteristic features were citizenship, high morality and democratic orientation.

2.1 Critical realism

The style of realism increasingly takes on a critical character and, as such, becomes the main artistic direction of the time. Critical realism significantly changed the social functions of art, which was supposed not only to reproduce and explain life, but also to pass “a verdict on its phenomena.” This function represented a new aspect in the understanding of art.

The literature of critical realism contained deep and original content, since it reflected reality and comprehended visual phenomena from the point of view of their correspondence to the social process. A huge artistic scope of life, a progressive accusatory spirit, an appeal to topical problems - this is what defined the literature of the post-reform period. Ideological completeness, deep penetration into life phenomena, rejection of injustice, and the richness of the artistic embodiment of literary works determined the leading role of literature in the development of other types of art.

Russian literature of the post-reform era was a “bright constellation of great names.” During these years, the greatest Russian writers created their works, whose creative path began in previous decades. The new generation of realist writers, who came to literature in the 60s and 70s, brought new themes, genres, ideological and artistic principles. Rethinking and reworking of old principles and forms of depicting life led to the development of the genre of social and everyday novels and stories. The greatest achievements in this genre belonged to I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.

2.2 I.S. Turgenev - as a great realist

The work of Ivan Turgenev (1818-83) was largely formed under the influence of the idea of ​​liberal-noble enlightenment, which played important role in the development of Russian literary realism. The beginning of Turgenev's creative activity dates back to the 40s, when the writer was interested in the philosophy of romanticism. Under her influence, Turgenev's life credo was formed - he was opposed to violent measures to solve any problems, including social ones. However, the fascination with romanticism was quite rapid, and already from the mid-40s, Turgenev’s work became realistic in style.

At the turn of the 40s and 50s, a new generation of intelligentsia, distinguished by its sharp radicalism and rejection of serfdom, made itself known more and more clearly in the public life of Russia. Turgenev was the first Russian writer to reflect the views of the “new people” in his novels “On the Eve” and “Fathers and Sons.” In them, he showed the inevitability of the historical end of the noble class, reflected the conflict of generations as the antagonism of the worldviews of noble liberals and raznochintsy revolutionaries. The writer, being a nobleman himself, considered the nobility to be the bearer of the highest spiritual values ​​of Russian culture. In his novels, the writer revealed the best features of the Russian noble intelligentsia, their love for the people, and devotion to the interests of the country. However, he understood that the “time” of the nobility was running out, and it was no longer able to actively resist the extremism of the “new people.” The writer presented their views as a destructive force that breaks the usual foundations of social life. At the same time, the author himself did not approve of their radicalism, but he treated Key’s moral principles with sympathy and respect. Without sharing the views of the commoners, Turgenev as great realist, shows their courage, dedication, asceticism.

2.3 F. Dostoevsky and his refusal to romanticize the images of the “common people”

A completely different role in Russian artistic culture was played by the brilliant writer Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-81), who enriched world culture with works equal in their artistic power to the works of Shakespeare. Possessing a unique gift of prophecy and the ability to analyze the human soul, the writer professed ideas that went beyond the ideas of a specific historical time into the sphere of “eternal” interests of people.

He immediately entered Russian literature as an established master. Already in his first novels (“Poor People”), the writer addressed the problem of the “little man.” However, unlike his predecessors, he does not idealize poverty. The desire to show the realism of life forced Dostoevsky to abandon the romanticization of images of a “simple house”. He portrays them in accordance with the logic of their characters and the truth of life, combining good and evil in their characters.

The 60s and 70s of the 19th century became the most important stage in Dostoevsky’s work, since at this time his most outstanding works were created - “Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “Demons”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, in which he substantiated and developed a number of deep philosophical ideas. Expressing his disagreement with the existing world order, the writer at the same time denies violent measures to restructure the world. He believes that Russia's special historical path and the rapprochement of the people with the intelligentsia will help resolve social problems without revolutionary upheavals. Dostoevsky warned that social means of combating evil alone are not enough. He believed that a person necessarily needs moral support, which he saw in God.

2.4 L. Tolstoy, founder of Russian nihilism

The pinnacle of Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century was the work of Leo Tolstoy (1829-1910), who went down in the history of Russian and world culture not only as a realist writer, but also as the founder of Russian nihilism, the creator of a unique philosophy and pedagogy. Tolstoy saw his destiny in criticizing the socio-historical system, as well as contemporary philosophical, religious, and ethical teachings. The writer considered the opinion of the people to be the source of his judgments. The theme of the search for a moral ideal corresponding to the “natural life” of ordinary peasants runs through all of his works (novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, stories and dramas).

Tolstoy's work was devoted to depicting post-reform Russia. In his works, he posed many great questions, conveyed the mood of the masses, their indignation and protest against the existing order. A wide coverage of reality, the deepest penetration into human psychology, a reflection of the history of a people through the private life of an individual, a tireless search for a spiritual ideal - all this makes the phenomenon of Tolstoy a unique phenomenon in Russian and world literature.

3. Artistic culture of the “Silver Age”

Russian artistic culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries is one of the most interesting periods in the cultural development of Russia. This time represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of the country. The great upheavals that the country experienced over a relatively short historical period had a very significant impact on its cultural development. First of all, this was expressed in an increased interest in the individual, his spiritual world and, conversely, in a decrease in attention to the problem of sociality in art.

The approximately forty-year period (from 1880 to 1921) in the history of Russia turned out to be an extremely complex, contradictory, ambiguous and crisis time in many spheres of public life.

Russia was then experiencing an incredibly intense cultural upsurge, which was reflected in the concept of the “Silver Age”. The expression and name “Silver Age” is poetic and metamorphic, not strict or definite. It was invented by the representatives of the “Silver Age” themselves. This very name suggests some kind of opposition to the previous golden age of Pushkin’s era, which radiated bright sunlight to the whole world, striking with power, brilliance and splendor. On the contrary, the art of the “Silver Age” strives to be only art. The light emitted by it appears lunar, reflected, twilight, mysterious, magical and mystical.

The demarcation of creative forces provided the “Silver Age” with an intensive nature of artistic activity. Artists in all spheres of art were cramped within the framework of established classical rules. An active search for new artistic forms contributed to the emergence of symbolism, acmeism, futurism in literature, and cubism. Their representatives sought to enrich and deepen the artistic capabilities of each type of art under the influence of the other. The combination of different artistic languages ​​made it possible to perceive the figurative content of the synthetic work from different sides and from different angles.

Under these conditions, the artistic culture of the “Silver Age” seems to be a combination of mysteries and contradictions that are difficult to analyze logically. At first glance, it seems that numerous artistic movements, creative schools, individual and non-traditional styles are intertwined in it - symbolism and futurism, acmeism and abstractionism.

The unity and integrity of the artistic culture of the “Silver Age” lay in the combination of old and new. The “Silver Age” did not abolish realism in the general palette of artistic creativity. Adherents to the depiction and study of external circumstances and social root causes in literature. They found the embodiment of their ideas in the later works of L.N. Tolstoy (“Resurrection”, “The Living Rod”), in the theatrical dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov (“The Seagull”, “Uncle Vanya”, “Three Sisters”, “The Cherry Orchard”), in the stories and stories of V.G. Korolenko, V.V. Veresaeva, A.I. Kuprina, I.A. Bunin, young M. Gorky.

3.1 Symbolism

This direction in the development of artistic culture was pan-European, but it was in Russia that symbolism acquired a deep philosophical meaning, expressed in great works of literature.

Russian symbolism was formed in the 90s and received predominant development in the first decade of the 20th century. The appearance of program manifestos of the Symbolists, outlining the aesthetic principles of the new direction, dates back to this time: the book by D.S. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline in new trends in modern Russian culture” and K.D. Balmont’s article “Elementary words about symbolic poetry.” The key word in the aesthetics of symbolism was the philosophical concept of “symbol”, which was interpreted as “a connection between two worlds”, as “a sign of that world in this world”.

Symbolism included two generations of poets. The first included D.S. Merezhkovsky, V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, in the second – A.A. Blok, A. Bely, V.I. Ivanov.

Dmitry Merezhkovsky (1866-1941) was the first to make the statement that any artist should proceed in his work from “passionate ideal impulses of the spirit.”

Konstantin Balmont (1867-1942) viewed art in the same spirit. He defines symbolic poetry as poetry in which two contents “organically,” without force, merge: hidden abstraction and obvious beauty.

Symbolism as art and poetry received its most vivid and complete embodiment in the work of Alexander Blok (1880-1921). A great poet, he was also a great thinker, a true exponent of the highest insights of Russian culture, an idol of the intelligentsia. Among his first works, the best were “Poems about a Beautiful Lady,” written under the direct influence of Vl. Solovyova about Sofia, Eternal Femininity. The theme of revolution occupies a significant place in Blok’s work. However, while accepting the revolution, he saw that the real revolution was far from its ideal.

3.2 Acmeism

Symbolism in Russian literature of the “Silver Age” was replaced by acmeism (from the Greek “acme” - the highest degree of flowering). It arose as the opposite of symbolism; supporters of Acmeism rejected the ambiguity and hints, polysemy and immensity, abstraction and abstraction of symbolism. Instead, the Acmeists proclaimed the cult of real earthly existence, “a courageous, firm and clear view of life.” They rehabilitated a simple and clear perception of life, restored the value of harmony, form and composition in poetry. The Acmeists brought poetry down from heaven to earth and returned it to its natural earthly world. At the same time, they retained high spiritual poetry, the desire for true artistry, deep meaning and aesthetic perfection.

The founders and theorists of Acmeism were N.S. Gumilyov and S.M. Gorodetsky, views and beliefs shared by A.A. Akhmetova, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Kuzmin and others.

The greatest contribution to the development of the theory of Acmeism was made by Nikolai Gumilev (1886-1921). He defined this new direction in Russian poetry as its completely new type, replacing symbolism, which does not aim to penetrate into transcendental worlds and comprehend the unknowable.

Acmeism was associated with the beginning of the creative path of Osip Mandelstam (1891-1938), who in his works most consistently pursued a line of rejection of boundless worlds, cosmic spaces, immeasurable abysses, from everything mysterious, mysterious and incomprehensible. He contrasts all this with the desire for “beautiful clarity,” earthly and human. Mandelstam's poems can be called "poetry within poetry."

3.3 Futurism (Cubo-Futurism)

Simultaneously with Acmeism, another type of modernism arose - futurism (from the Latin Futurum - future), which proclaimed a revolution of form independent of content, absolute freedom of poetic speech. In an effort to create “the art of the future,” the futurists declared the denial of not only traditional culture, its moral and artistic values, but even natural language, replacing words with arbitrary sound combinations. This movement was not homogeneous and consisted of several groups, including ego-futurists (I. Severyanin, B. Pasternak) and cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky), each of which claimed to be the only exponent of the artistic values ​​of true futurism. There was another group of absurdist poets (I. Zdanevich), who wrote in an absolutely incomprehensible, absurd language - the language of zaumi.

In its cultural orientation, futurism acted as a kind of rebellion against the respectable bourgeois worldview, against philistinism, although it itself did not go beyond the boundaries of the bourgeois worldview.

One of the founders of futurism, Velimir Khlebnikov (1885-1922), saw his main task in a radical reform of poetic language. For this, he considered it necessary to bring science and poetry closer together, since as a result a new mythology and superlanguage of the future man would be created.

Like no one else, Khlebnikov went beyond the bounds of poetry. This direction of his work found expression in the book “Time of the World”. He dreamed that in the new world a global brotherhood of people would be established and the harmony of people with nature would be restored (poem “Ladomir”). Khlebnikov assigned a special role to the poet in reorganizing the world. He defined this role as missionary, saving. The poet saw him as finding a seer who would open the way to mastering the numerical “laws of time.”

Among the futurist poets, Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893-1930) began his creative career, who subjected a devastating critique to traditional classical art, as well as the contemporary movements of modernism - symbolism and acmeism. He was one of the most decisive reformers of poetic language.

From the very beginning of his work, Mayakovsky stood out in the poetry of futurism in that he introduced his own theme into it. He always spoke out not only against “all sorts of old things,” but also for the creation of something new in public life. Therefore, the artistic language of his works is distinguished by bright expressiveness, filled with deep drama, originality of graphic construction, thanks to the use of “column” and “ladder”. Proclaiming forms to the dictator, Mayakovsky sought to fill his works with relevant life content and meaning (“Cloud in Pants”, “Flute-Spine”, “Mystery - Bouffe”).

4. 19th century theater

4.1 Origin of the theater

Origin of the theater

In winter, sometimes there is a funeral feast for bacchanals,

When the maenads are mad choir

Confusion of funeral cries

The sleep of the desert mountains disturbs, -

On the heights where Melpomene

The terrible voice has long fallen silent

And between the ruins of the ancient stage

The Bacchic altar has faded away, -

In incense and sorrow

Calling upon the one whose house this was

A new maenad was crowned

We are the crown of Dionysus:

Fiery roses intertwined

With ivy, the joy of daring bliss,

And on the sheets, like someone’s tears,

Trembling, the diamond snow sparkled...

Then captivatingly rebellious

You suddenly announced with a song

Covered in a shroud of snow

Sacred Bacchus semicircle.

Vyacheslav Ivanov

The German poet and philosopher of the 19th century, professor of classical (ancient) philology at the University of Basel, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), called his first scientific work, written at the age of 24, “The Origin of the Tragedy of Their Spirit of Music.” Indeed, theater as a synthesis of all musical (and not only plastic) arts, unites many artistic principles, but the origins of theater are intonated words.

The roots of the theater go back to ancient times, to the so-called ritual games of primitive man. By reproducing the actions of a hunter, fisherman or warrior, accompanying them with singing and dancing, a person thereby sought to influence unknown, mysterious forces on which success in a fight with a wild animal or enemy, a good harvest, offspring, etc. depended. As ancient societies developed, agricultural cults and cults of dying and resurrecting gods, in whose fate people saw a reflection of the changing seasons, played an increasingly important role in their lives. In Ancient Egypt, Osiris was revered as such a dying and resurrecting god, in Syria and Phenicia they revered Adonis, in Ancient Greece - Demeter and Dionysus, in Ancient India - the giver of blessings to the rain god Indra, as well as the gods Vishnu and Shiva. As a rule, the ceremonies associated with the veneration of these deities (some of them were called mysteries) lasted several days and some of them were “given over” to grief and tears (mourning for the deceased god), while others were to fun and feasting (joy at the return deities). Similar ritual games and actions existed among almost all ancient peoples, but their development proceeded differently. In some cases they stopped at the level of purely cultic, religious ceremonies. In Ancient Greece, theater was born from them. This process was long and complex, and its details are still not completely clear. But it is characteristic that, even having already formed as an independent phenomenon, Greek theater retains many of the features and elements of ancient ritual games, and the theatrical performances themselves remain part of a complex and developed cult.

Greek theater grows out of the rites of veneration of two most important and very ancient agricultural deities - Dionysus and Demeter. An integral part of such rituals were special ceremonies, processions, even entire performances that reproduced certain moments of a particular myth - the mournful wanderings of the goddess Demeter in search of the daughter Persephone kidnapped by Hades, the joyful return of the daughter to her mother, the solemn and secret wedding of the basilissa queen (elected from among Athenian citizens) and Dionysus, or the frantic dances of the song of Dionysus’s companions - maenads, sileni, goat-footed satyrs. All this was accompanied by lighting effects (part of the ceremony takes place at night), music, songs, dances, special masks and clothes were used, i.e. all these elements, which will then go into the theatrical action itself.

Similar ceremonies and performances accompanied almost all holidays, quite numerous, in honor of Dionysus and Demeter. But only for the great Dionysia, the most solemn and magnificent holiday celebrated in March, special theatrical performances became an integral part. (It is believed that this first happened in 534 BC). They took place in the form of an agon - a competition. Typically, during the first day of performance, five comedies were shown, and on subsequent days, three tetralogies, each of which included three tragedies and one satyr drama. On the last day, at the end of the performance, the judges named the best performances and awarded prizes.

The close connection between theatrical performances and cult rituals in honor of Dionysus has been preserved in many names and terms that have been adopted for that area of ​​art. The very definition of “drama”, combining three ancient theatrical genres - tragedy, comedy and satyr drama, is translated as “action”. “Tragedy” is a compound word formed from two: “tragos” - “goat” and “ode” - “song”, literally “song of goats”. It is believed that this type of drama received its name from the choir, the participants of which, portraying the companions of Dionysus, dressed in goat skins. Accordingly, “comedy” is “komos” and “ode” is “song of komos”, i.e. participants in the procession of mummers during the holidays of Dionysus. Satyr (or satyr) drama originates from cheerful performances, the main participants of which were satyrs, companions of Dionysus, and where the heroes of tragedies found themselves in comic situations.

On the days of such general civil holidays as the Great Dionysia, everyday life in Athens came to a standstill. During the week, residents of the city and numerous guests who came from all regions of Greece took part in solemn processions, sacrifices, noisy feasts, and were present at competitions of choirs of boys and adults. On the fourth day of the Great Dionysius holiday, dramatic competitions began that lasted three days. So that poor citizens could also attend theatrical performances (and admission was paid), during the time of Pericles (he was the strategist of Athens from 444 to 429), they received a special allowance from the state treasury - theorikon (spectacle money).

The 19th century in Russian history was a direct continuation of the previous one. Russia continued to expand its territories. After joining North Caucasus. Central Asia and other lands, it became not just a huge, but truly immense country - empire. The transformations begun by Peter I also continued. Russia slowly and as if reluctantly emerged from its medieval past and became increasingly drawn into the New Age. However, its development was uneven.

The most profound and impressive changes occurred in spiritual culture. In this area, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. If in the 18th century. Russia loudly declared its existence to the whole world, then in the 19th century. she literally burst into world culture, occupying one of the highest and most honorable places there.

The main credit for this belongs to two great Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky And L.N. Tolstoy. Acquaintance with their work was a real discovery, revelation and shock for the West. Their enormous success contributed to the elevation of the authority of the entire Russian spiritual culture, strengthening its influence and rapid spread throughout the world.

Concerning material culture, economic and socio-political areas, then Russia’s achievements here were much more modest. Of course, there have been some successes in these areas as well. In particular, already in the first half of the 19th century. Domestic mechanical engineering is being born in Russia. Steam engines are becoming widespread. The first steamship appears (1815). The first railway began operating between Moscow and St. Petersburg (1851).

The basis of the emerging industry is the rapidly developing metallurgy, where the Demidov factories in the Urals play a key role. The textile industry is developing successfully. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities and an increase in their population. Cities are increasingly beginning to dominate the countryside.

However, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is slow. The main obstacle is the persistence of serfdom and autocracy. In this respect, Russia was still a medieval feudal society.

The reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, changed the situation. However, this reform was inconsistent and half-hearted, it retained many factors constraining development, so its impact was limited. In addition, the political system of autocracy remained practically unaffected. At the same time, the same factors had a stimulating effect on spiritual life. They encouraged the Russian intelligentsia to again and again pose and seek answers to the eternal questions that had become for them: “Who is to blame?”, “What to do?”

In general, the main and most important events and the phenomena that determined the development of Russian culture in the 19th century were the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrist uprising of 1825, serfdom and the reform of 1861 to abolish it.

Patriotic War of 1812 caused an increase in national self-awareness and an unprecedented rise in patriotism. It awakened in the Russians a sense of pride in their fatherland, in their people, who managed to defeat such a strong enemy, who defended not only their national freedom, but also the freedom European peoples. All this contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance of extreme forms of admiration for everything Western that took place in the upper strata of Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on Russian art. Many artists dedicated their works to the theme of war. As an example, we can point to L. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace.”

The Patriotic War was also one of the main reasons for the emergence Decembrist movements - movements of the Russian revolutionary nobility. The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that the Russian people who won it did not gain anything for themselves. It was as if his victory was stolen from him. Having defended the freedom of others, he himself remained in “slavery and ignorance.”

Based on the liberation ideas of Western philosophers and thinkers and influenced by the French and American revolutions, the Decembrists set radical tasks for their movement: the overthrow or limitation of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a republican or constitutional system, the abolition of estates, the establishment of individual and property rights, etc. . They viewed the implementation of these tasks as fulfilling a “duty to the people.” For this reason, they went to an armed uprising and were defeated.

The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge of social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and profound. A.S. expressed his closeness to the ideas and spirit of Decembrism in his work. Pushkin, as well as other artists.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. This theme came in the 19th century. from the previous century. It tormented the Decembrists and was inherited by two important trends in Russian thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. Both movements rejected the existing regime of autocracy and serfdom, but they deeply diverged in their understanding of the ways to rebuild Russia. They also looked at the transformations of Peter I differently.

Westerners - among whom were P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky - stood on the positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly appreciated Peter's reforms and advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it universal and inevitable for all peoples. Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, the determining role of laws and rights in the organization of public life.

Slavophiles, who were represented by I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevskie. A.S. Khomyakov, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed Peter's reforms, which, in their opinion, disrupted the natural evolution of Russia. Slavophiles rejected the Western European path of development, insisted on the original development of Russia, and emphasized its religious, historical, cultural and national identity.

They did not reject the need to create modern industry and agriculture, trade and banking, but believed that in doing so they should rely on their forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which were the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.

Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, etc.) laid the foundation for the development of an original and original Russian philosophy, the basis of which is not Western rationalism, but Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. Slavophiles develop the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities - feelings, reason and faith, as well as will and love - participate in cognition.

Truth, moreover, does not belong to an individual person, but to a collective of people united by a single love, from which a collective consciousness is born. Sobornost opposes individualism and disunity. Considering freedom, the Slavophiles emphasized its conditioning by internal motives and motivations and rejected its dependence on external circumstances. A person in his actions and deeds must be guided by his conscience, spiritual, and not material interests.

Slavophiles were skeptical about legal forms of regulating people's behavior. Therefore, they were not worried about the modest role of the legal principle in the life of Russian society. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith and the true Church. Slavophiles believed that only the Christian worldview and the Orthodox Church could lead humanity onto the path of salvation. They were convinced that it was Russian Orthodoxy most fully embodies truly Christian principles, while Catholicism and Protestantism have moved away from true faith. In this regard, they put forward the idea of ​​Russia's messianic role in the salvation of humanity. The ideas of Slavophilism had big influence on the subsequent development of Russian philosophy, they were continued in ideology of pochvennichestvo, one of the main representatives of which was F. Dostoevsky.

Russian science and education of the 19th century.

The basis of the cultural rise of Russia in the 19th century. were her significant successes in business development of education. By the beginning of the century, education in the country lagged noticeably behind the level of Western countries. The overwhelming majority of people who were illiterate were not only the lower classes - peasants and townspeople, but also the upper classes - merchants and even many nobles. The need for educated and knowledgeable people was acutely felt at all levels of government and society.

Therefore, already at the beginning of the century, the government of Alexander I decided to create unified system education, which includes four levels: parish one-class schools - for the lower strata, district two-class schools - for townspeople, merchants, and townspeople; provincial four-year gymnasiums - for nobles; universities and other higher education institutions.

After the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, the development of the education system accelerated. In post-reform times, Russia's literacy increased from 7 to 22% of the population. By the end of the century there were 63 higher educational institutions, including 10 universities. The total number of students was 30 thousand. Since 1819. Women's education is developing, and in the 1870s. higher education for women begins. In 1869, the Lubyanka Higher Women's Courses opened in Moscow, and in 1870, the Alarcha Courses opened in St. Petersburg. The Bestuzhev Women's Courses in St. Petersburg became the most famous. However, the formation female education it did not go without difficulties. Therefore, in the 1870s. At the University of Zurich, girls from Russia made up 80% of all foreign students.

Advances in education and enlightenment contributed to further progress Russian science, which is experiencing real prosperity. At the same time, one unusual, but characteristic for Russia, tradition is emerging: to develop successfully without having the necessary and sufficient conditions for this, and to remain unclaimed by society. In the 19th century Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries and achievements alone looks quite impressive.

In area mathematicians they are associated primarily with the names of N.I. Lobachevsky, A.A. Markova and others. The first created non-Euclidean geometry, which revolutionized ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. The second developed the so-called Markov chains, which laid the foundation for a new direction in probability theory.

IN astronomy The works of V.Ya. have received worldwide recognition. Struve, who made the first determination of stellar parallax (mixing), established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world.

Russian scientists made a huge contribution to the development physicists, especially in the study of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc, which has found wide practical application. E.H. Lenz formulated a rule (later named after him) that determines the direction of the induction current; experimentally substantiated the Joule-Lenz law. B.S. Jacobi invented the electric motor, created electroplating, together with the submarine. Shilling invented the electric telegraph and designed the first telegraph recording apparatus that operated on the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line. Russian scientists have great merit in creating the theory of electrolysis, in the development of electronic, atomic and quantum physics.

The progress of chemistry also owes a lot to Russian scientists. D.M. Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements, which became greatest achievement world science. N.N. Zinin discovered a method for the production of aromatic amines, synthesized quinine and aniline for the first time. A .M. Butlerov created new theory chemical structure of matter, laying the foundations of modern organic chemistry, discovered the polymerization reaction.

IN geography in January 1820 Russian sailors made greatest discovery: expedition F.F. Bellingshausen - M.P. Lazarev discovered a sixth of the world - Antarctica.

Development marked great achievements biology And medicine. Russian doctors were the first to use painkillers - anesthesia. N.I. Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions, and created the atlas “Topographic Anatomy,” which gained worldwide fame. N.F. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

We also developed successfully social Sciences, leading among them was story. Russian scientists paid their main attention to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created the twelve-volume “History of the Russian State,” which had unprecedented success and was reprinted more than once. A major and authoritative historian was CM. Soloviev. He owns the “History of Russia since Ancient Times” in 29 volumes, containing rich factual material. Made a significant contribution to the study of the history of the fatherland IN. Klyuchevsky. He wrote “A Course in Russian History,” as well as works on the history of serfdom, classes, and finance.

Made significant achievements linguistics. Here special mention deserves activity IN AND. Dalia, compiler " Explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language", on which he worked for about 50 years and which has retained its significance to this day.

The 19th century was the time of formation as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought in the person of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Nietzsche, etc. At the same time, it develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements - from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, B.S. Soloviev.

The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also experiencing a period of active formation.

Russian literature of the 19th century.

The most favorable and fruitful 19th century. turned out to be for artistic culture, which experienced an unprecedented rise and flourishing and became classical. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. the main role belonged to literature.

Founder and central figure sentimentalism was in Russia N.M. Karamzin. In the story " Poor Lisa"he clearly showed the characteristic features of this direction in art: attention to to the common man revealing his inner world of feelings and experiences, praising the “natural simplicity” of the patriarchal way of life. To one degree or another, sentimentalism was present in the works of many Russian writers, but as an independent movement it was not widespread.

Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. There were several currents in it. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets: K.F. Ryleeva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Kuchelbecker. Civil and freedom-loving motives are also heard in the works of A.A. Delviga, I.I. Kozlova, N.M. Yazykova. Depths and condition spiritual world with a touch of fantasy and melancholy constitute the content of V.A.’s works. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkova. Philosophical lyrics, deep psychologism, Slavophile ideas and reverent love for Russia found expression in the works of F.I. Tyutchev and V.F. Odoevsky.

By the beginning of the 1830s. in Russian literature it is stated realism and becomes the main focus. The creativity of A.S. played an important role in its development. Griboedova And AND.A. Krylova. However, the greatest names of Russian realism, of all Russian literature and culture are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.

A.S. Pushkin became the founder of Russian literature, the creator of the Russian literary language. It is in his work that the Russian language for the first time appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. His early works - “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Gypsies”, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, etc. - are in line with romanticism.

Then he moves to the position of realism. All types and genres of literature are represented in his work. In poetry he acts as a singer of freedom. In the novel “Eugene Onegin” he paints large-scale pictures of Russian life. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" and the story "The Captain's Daughter" are dedicated to significant events in the history of Russia.

A.S. Pushkin was not only a great artist, but also an outstanding historian and thinker. In a dispute with P. Chaadaev, he gives a more subtle, deep and convincing understanding of the place and role of Russia in world history. Critically assessing the Asian ignorance, wild tyranny and violence, and lack of rights of the people existing in Russia, he opposes violent methods of changing the existing situation. A.S. Pushkin had a huge influence on the subsequent development of Russian literature, philosophy and all culture.

F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Russian literature and culture owe their world fame and recognition to Tolstoy. In my creativity F.M.Dostoevsky struggled with what he defined as “the mystery of man.” His main works are devoted to solving this mystery - “Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, etc. In them he examines the problems of the meaning of life, good and evil, goals and means of achievement, faith and unbelief, freedom and responsibility, passion and duty. At the same time, Dostoevsky goes beyond literature and acts as a profound philosopher and thinker. With his work he had a huge impact on such philosophical movements as existentialism And personalism, to all modern spiritual culture.

In the works of L.N. Tolstoy One of the central themes is the search for a moral ideal and the meaning of life. This theme runs through almost all of his works - the novels “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, the story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”, etc. In the grandiose epic “War and Peace” Tolstoy examines the origins of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, which he sees in the extraordinary rise of the patriotic spirit.

Tolstoy is the creator of religious and philosophical teachings, the basis of which is the development of the “true religion” of universal love, goodness and non-violence. He had a huge influence on world literature and culture.

Among the great Russian writers who have received worldwide recognition are also M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.WITH. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov.

Along with literature, the Russian music. Already in the first decades of the 19th century. A number of excellent composers appeared, many of whom gravitated towards romanticism. The leading genre is romance. He is represented by A.A. Alyabyev, P.P. Bulakhov. A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, A.L. Gurilev et al.

Most popular romances A.A. Alyabyeva became “Nightingale”, “Beggar”. P.P. Bulakhov is the author of no less popular romances and songs - “Troika”, “There’s a big village on the way”. A.E. Varlamov He became famous primarily for the song “A blizzard is blowing along the street” and the romance “Don’t wake her up at dawn.” In total, he wrote about 200 romances and songs. A.L. Gurilev belongs to “Separation”, “Bell”, “Mother Dove” and other romances and songs. A .N. Verstovsky is one of the main representatives of Russian romanticism in music. In addition to romances, he also created the famous opera Askold's Grave.

The greatest names in Russian musical art are M.I. Glinka And G1.I. Chaikovsky. Glinka became the pinnacle in the development of Russian music in the first half of the 19th century. He is the founder of Russian classical music. His main works are the operas “A Life for the Tsar” and “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. With his compositions “Kamarinskaya”, “Spanish Overtures” and others, the composer laid the foundations of Russian symphonism. Everything that follows is Russian musical art developed under the strong influence of Glinka.

Tchaikovsky became the pinnacle of the development of Russian music throughout the 19th century. It is to him that she primarily owes her world fame. He created true masterpieces in all musical genres. His most famous operas are Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades. World recognition received ballets " Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty". "Nutcracker". He created six symphonies, several piano and violin concertos. Tchaikovsky's musical genius is comparable to that of Mozart.

A huge contribution to the development of Russian and world musical culture contributed " Mighty bunch" - a group of outstanding Russian composers, which included M.A. Balakirev (leader), A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

The successful development of Russian music was facilitated by the opening of conservatories in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866).

Russian painting and art of the 19th century.

Great achievements have also been noted in the development of fine arts, especially painting. Romanticism in Russian paintings of the 19th century V. represented by O.A. Kiprensky and S.F. Shchedrin. The first is known mainly as a portrait painter, who painted “Self-Portrait with Brushes Behind the Ear”, “A.S. Pushkin", "E.P. Rostopchin” and others. The second created poetic images of Italian nature, in particular the series “Harbors in Sorrento”.

In creativity K.P. Bryullov Romanticism is combined with classicism. His brushes include such famous paintings as “The Last Day of Pompeii”, “Bathsheba”, etc.

From the middle of the 19th century. Realism becomes the leading direction in Russian painting. Its establishment and successful development was facilitated by the Association of Itinerants, which arose in 1870, which included almost all the best Russian artists of that time. Realism in painting reached its highest peak in creativity I.E. Repina And IN AND. Surikov. The first created such masterpieces as “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “ Procession V Kursk province", as well as portraits "Protodeacon". “Mussorgsky” and others. The second is known for the paintings “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Mentikov in Berezovo”, etc.

Outstanding realist artists were also I.N. Kramskoy, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, P.A. Fedotov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin.

It is also developing very successfully Russian theater. Its heyday is associated with the name of the great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky, creative destiny which was connected to the Maly Theater in Moscow. He created the plays “The Thunderstorm”, “Profitable Place”, “Forest”, “Dowry”, the production of which made Russian theater classic. An outstanding actor on the Russian stage was M.S. Shchepkin.

The impressive successes and achievements of Russian culture still seem surprising and incredible today. But they really existed and allowed Russia to take its rightful place among the leading countries of the world.