The heyday of Russian culture in the 19th century. Russian culture of the 19th century

Features of the period

Epic creativity continued to develop

Translated literature (about 90%):

Historical stories

Historical stories

"Zadonshchina" (Safoniy Ryazanets)

"The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev"

Historical songs

"Walking" or "walking"

"Walking" or "walking"

"The Word of Daniel the Sharper"

Genre "cries"

The emergence of chronographs

Birch bark certificates

ABC

From the 12th century a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture

Masterpieces of construction art of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

Foundation of Bogolyubov

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir

Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on the Nerl near Bogolyubov

Church of the Transfiguration in Pereslavl-Zalessky

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery near Novgorod

Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Anthony Monastery in Novgorod. 1117

Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa near Novgorod

Church of the Transfiguration of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov

Monuments of the architectural school of the Kyiv land

Architecture of Chernigov land

Culture Rus' during the period of fragmentation

For Russian spiritual culture of the mid-XII - XIII centuries. characterized by the emergence of "polycentrism" - the appearance in different regions Rus''s original cultural centers.

Receives further development chronicle. If in the XI - early XII century. the centers of chronicle work were only Kyiv and Novgorod, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing was carried out in most of the centers of the resulting feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the "regional" nature of the chronicle, the chroniclers of the XII - first half XIII V. did not isolate themselves in their narrow regional events, to one degree or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the chronicle texts that have reached us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected by the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 13th century), the North-Eastern - by the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).

At the end of the 12th century. one of the most outstanding in its artistic merit a work of world medieval literature - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It is dedicated to the above-mentioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this hike that served as the occasion for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and made a strong impression on his contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy chronicle stories are dedicated to them).

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the fall of 1188 (at the same time, perhaps its main text was written back in 1185, shortly after Igor’s escape from captivity, and in 1188 ... additions were made to it in connection with the return of his brother and son Igor from captivity). Unknown author him, the solution to whose name never ceases to amuse researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all existing versions do not stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum Old Russian nobility- boyars.

The main idea of ​​the "Tale" is the need for unity of action of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely feuds and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of a unified state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his call is directed not to state unification, but to inner peace, to consensus in actions.

Being a work about the events of its time, “The Lay” is at the same time a striking monument to historical thought. The “present” time is compared in it with past events, and national history(which was rare - usually historical examples works of ancient Russian literature were drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of Rus''s current troubles: for this purpose, the author turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his appeal to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.

In the second half of the 12th century. (the exact dating is a subject of dispute) in North-Eastern Rus' another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature appeared, “The Word of Daniel the Sharper.” It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, a native of the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince’s favor again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The "Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the 13th century, a second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner." It was addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time to Prince Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. A characteristic feature of "Prayer" is a negative attitude towards high nobility- boyars.

Another outstanding work ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu’s hordes and his death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City of Yaroslav's brother - Yuri.

This work (which remains unfinished) contains unparalleled medieval literature a hymn glorifying the native land, reminiscing about its former power (under princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion about the “disease” - strife that undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” turns to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the reasons for its present-day troubles.

In the epic genre, mid-XII - early XIII centuries. - time of appearance of such epic stories, like “Saur Levanidovich”, “Sukhman”, Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).

Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temples, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. there is a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (late 12th century) near Novgorod can be especially highlighted; in North-Eastern Rus' - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).

In the 12th century Kievan Rus splits into dozens of feudal principalities by the 15th century. their number reaches 250. They are distinguished by their own features of cultural development. Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and other art schools took shape.

Are being created epics, cycles historical songs, local (regional) chronicle.

Architecture distinguished by a combination of local traditions with Byzantine and Western European elements Romanesque style. Becoming typical single-domed temple.

After Batyev's invasion Mongol-Tatar troops destroyed many temples, destroyed books and icons, and stopped monumental stone architecture for half a century. During Mongol-Tatar rule(1240–1480) Russian culture suffered enormous damage.

In the 14th–15th centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art. Not affected by the Mongol invasion, it preserved the cultural values ​​of pre-Mongol Rus', including those found in 1951. birch bark letters.

From the second floor. 14th century begins national and cultural rise, associated with the victory on the Kulikovo Field (1380) and the unifying role of Moscow.

23. Culture of the Moscow state in the 14th–17th centuries

The center of state and cultural revival becomes Muscovy. Moscow was the center all-Russian chronicle And ecclesiastical capital.

In the 16th century created under Ivan the Terrible:

10-volume "Cheti-Minei"(“Monthly Readings” - biographies of Russian saints, compiled by month);

"Step book"- a presentation of Russian history from Vladimir the Baptist to Ivan the Terrible;

vault life rules and instructions "Domostroy".

First attempts printing date back to 1553. Seven anonymous books have survived from that time.

All R. 16th century in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible creates the first state printing house, wherein Ivan Fedorov And Peter Mstislavets On March 1, 1564, the first printed "Apostle", in 1565 - "Book of Hours", then other books.

At the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. Moscow is turning into a capital single centralized state, stronghold Orthodoxy. This is supported by what was put forward by the monk Philotheus in the beginning. 16th century theory "Moscow is the third Rome", which receives monumental design in architecture.

From the end 15th century The white stone Kremlin is being rebuilt. Italian craftsmen dress it in red brick. To the beginning 16th century on Cathedral Square of the Kremlin are being rebuilt or rebuilt Uspensky, Blagoveshchensky And Arkhangelsk Cathedrals.

In the 16th–18th centuries. traditional wooden architecture is introduced into stone construction tent style(Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square, etc.).

Painting this period is represented by icons and frescoes Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The iconography of Russian Bogomaz painters is a masterpiece of not only domestic but also world culture.

non the threshold of the New Age. In the 17th century The history of patriarchal ancient Russian culture, permeated with a church worldview, ends. The “secularization” of culture begins (strengthening its secular character).

In the second half. 17th century began to appear realistic trend in painting - in the icons of Simon Ushakov (“The Savior Not Made by Hands”, etc.), in parsunah(corrupted from lat. a person- face, personality). this was the name given to portraits of real historical figures, painted in the tradition of icon painting (a transitional stage to secular portraiture).

Appears rhymed poetry(Simeon of Polotsk), dramatic works. First court theater in Russia (1672–1676) existed for 4 years at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

In 1687 (during the regency of Princess Sophia), the first in Russia opened in Moscow. higher education institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation. Kultuga of the Galicia-Volyn principality.

The development of culture took place in the difficult conditions of fragmentation of Russian lands. At the same time, despite constant civil strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, ancient Russian culture There were achievements and successes during this period. Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, and new layers of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, the customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, and ideas.

Changes took place in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and, under the influence of local conditions, began to look for new solutions. Architectural schools arose in the appanage principalities, which were distinguished by their characteristics. The Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia they began to build smaller churches of a simplified design. The interior and exterior decoration of the temples changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, half-columns, arcature belts and the so-called curb.

The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.

The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podol, Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedrals of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.

The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and various items of applied art. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often also served as amulets and amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used by master jewelers and artisans who created household items to decorate many of their products. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New chronicle writing centers appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, and Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment possible.

New original forms have appeared historical works; family and clan princely chronicles, biographies of princes, etc.
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Unfortunately, most of these works have not survived.

An ancient Russian masterpiece, fiction is ʼʼThe Tale of Igor's Campaignʼʼ. This work was written at a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the raids of the Polovtsians, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of ​​uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what the disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.

The center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities during the period of fragmentation became the Galicia-Volyn land. Just like everywhere else at that time, important role The church played a role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galician-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. The peculiarity of this chronicle is its secular nature.
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The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.

Vivid evidence high level culture was the architecture of the region. They built mainly from wood; for a long time, temples and, in some cases, chambers remained stone buildings.

Temples were built mainly from white stone with carved ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galich in the 12th century there were about 30 monumental stone structures, but only a small part of them have been studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments of the Galician land are the princely palace and the Church of Panteleimon in Galich.

Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality in the second half of the 12th century. and in the 13th century, at the time of decline Principality of Kyiv, achieve significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galician-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land became politically weaker and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Galician-Volyn book culture, which developed on the basis of the Kyiv literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively stood at a significant height. A number of copies of the Gospel text have reached us, incl. Galician Four Gospels 1144 ᴦ., Dobrilovo Gospel 1164 ᴦ. and others, the lives of Niphon and Fyodor the Studite in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandects of Antiochus 1307 ᴦ. and other handwritten books of the XII-XIII centuries. The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a “great scribe” and philosopher, the likes of which has never been seen in all the land. To one of the monasteries he donated the gospel, copied in his own hand, as well as the “Great Collectorate”, which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, incl. in Chernigov, an aprakos Gospel, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the complete life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot's Book and, probably, the Conversations of Gregory Dvoeslov were copied. He had employees similar to him, book lovers who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical books and other books. Among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time, Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned.

In the second half of the 13th century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archive Collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna Manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which contained biblical books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title ʼʼRussian Chroniclerʼʼ - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection like Izbornik Svyatoslav 1073 ᴦ.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translated and Russian historical literature Kyiv period.

Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not as intensively, even after it lost its political independence.

There should be no doubt that many literary monuments perished in that troubled historical setting, which befell the Galician-Volyn principality.

Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, undoubtedly included from the Galician Chronicle in the “Tale of Bygone Years” and in the Kyiv Chronicle (description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097 ᴦ.). Preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that have also entered Russian use Galicia-Volynskaya chronicle of the 13th century supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that druzhina poetry, highest achievement which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's campaign,

Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the 12th-13th centuries. cannot be divided by the edge of the Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, strong defensive walls of urban centers hampered the speed of the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniil Galitsky softened the hardships of the Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of public life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct destruction of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.

The art of Galicia-Volyn Rus' is connected with its origins with the treasury of artistic culture common to all ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which are also poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by archaeologically uncovered ruins of temples.

IN Kiev architecture XI-XII centuries a beginning was made to solve a number of new problems - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the princely palace temple and the ensemble of the princely or feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestov - country palace Monomakh, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kyiv itself and other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.

It is very important to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volyn and Galicia. The monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - the Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of a temple located in the Old Cathedral tract, which apparently dates back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.

Volyn in art, as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.

Galich's art followed a slightly different path and was more critical of artistic heritage and canonical patterns. The originality of Galician architecture was contributed by itself international situation Galich, which facilitated direct communication with Western Europe and direct exposure to Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities of decorative processing of buildings - carvings, play of different tones of facing stone, etc. (Back in the mid-12th century) a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The chronicle's account of the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky depicts this building to us as a collection of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "entrance" and the palace temple, interconnected by a system of passages; the basis of this composition is the significantly developed system of rich wooden housing - “mansion”, which was established during the life of the princely and druzhina elites of Kievan Rus. The foundations of the white-stone palace Church of the Savior, discovered by excavations, provide a typical example of buildings of this kind. The Galician palace reveals many similarities with composition of the Bogolyubovsky Castle of the 12th century.

Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galich, with its portals and Romanesque carvings, shows how the Kiev heritage is redesigned in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a unique appearance of architecture.

It has been developing particularly magnificently since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the above-mentioned circumstance that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life did not end. Everyone who escaped captivity and death undoubtedly rushed here cultural forces; The chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince, the Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs, went day and day, and craftsmen and craftsmen of all kinds, bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and toolmakers and forges with iron and copper and silver, and without life, and filling the courtyards around the city, the field and sat down.

It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn Chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in Kholm, which caused genuine delight and surprise of contemporaries.

Ivan's Church deserved special attention and admiration from the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted by a certain clever man,” “Roman glass,” that is, colored stained glass on the windows of the temple, created a fanciful lighting of its interior space; in the altar above the throne rose on two columns made of solid stone a beautiful canopy and a ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.

Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, in its beauty and size to other temples. A beautiful water-blessing bowl of red marble was made for this church; it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The cup was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done in the temples of that time in the West.

These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholm buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and unique composition of the elements that compose it. The appearance of the Kholm temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of the development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques from Romanesque art. These same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir Principality; Moreover, individual details of the decoration and design of the buildings of the Bogolyubov Castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in Kholm that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other craftsmen , who built and decorated the Kholm temples.

Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion from the “Latin” world, and this feature also contributed to the enrichment of art with acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir in the 12th century. and for Galician Rus' of the 13th century, since this art more fully than Byzantine art expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the 12th century. there were Vladimir “autocrats”, and in the 13th century. - Galician-Volynian ʼʼkingʼ Daniil.

On the other hand, appealing to Western culture was a unique form of affirming one’s own paths of artistic and cultural development in general and a departure from tradition.

This also explains the significant fact that in Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpting, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church in application to religious subjects, received significant development. It was expressed here not only in the decorative plastic arts of the Kholm temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature.
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The chronicle tells about an interesting statue placed by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.

The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in Galician-Volynian painting, which can be judged only by a few miniatures.

They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color scheme and in the very construction of the pictorial image.

So, Galician-Volynian art XIII V. is one of the most striking and significant pages in history ancient Russian art. Having begun its journey together with literature from a common source for all of ancient Rus' - the Kievan-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its Western neighbors. These additions were organically mastered by Galician masters, who created quite unique and high-quality monuments of art of Galician-Volyn Rus.

The principality became the heir of K. Rus', fought for the reunification and consolidation of lands, contributed to the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongol-Tatars; raised the authority of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in conditions of feudal fragmentation.

The Galician-Volyn principality, after the decline of Kyiv, continued the existence of a state formation in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center future Ukraine.

The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” of the theologian Gregory in the middle of the 11th century. The term ʼʼUkraineʼʼ is mentioned in the Kyiv Chronicle in 1187 ᴦ. as a synonym for the concept ʼʼkrašaʼʼ, that is, the region, native land (for comparison: Serbia. In Serbo-Croatian - Serbska Kraša). Since 1335, the concept of “Little Russia”, borrowed from the Greeks, began to be used for Galicia, which later turned into the concept of “Little Russia”. Moreover, in different periods it designated different regions of Ukraine.

Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation. Kultuga of the Galicia-Volyn principality. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation. The culture of the Galician-Volyn principality." 2017, 2018.

The long historical development of the Eastern Slavs as a sedentary, agricultural people, their close contacts with other peoples and states of that time determined the high development of the material and spiritual culture of the ancient Russian state. The culture of ancient Rus' was feudal in nature and orientation, since the “dominant material force of society” was the class of feudal landowners. But the culture of the ruling class of the ancient Russian state did not and could not exhaust the entire wealth of the cultural heritage of ancient Rus', since, in addition to the ruling class, the masses created their own, own culture, feeding on the centuries-old traditions of folk poetry, painting, architecture, music, and dance.

The most complete and multifaceted folk art of ancient Rus' found its expression in oral poetic creativity- folklore. Wise proverbs, ritual songs, tales, heroic epics From generation to generation they carried the philosophy of ancient Russian man, raised him, and were one hundred companions in family life and on the battlefield.

Folk song has always accompanied cult rituals, it is not without reason that Christian literature attacks the songs and dances that accompanied the “Nogai” customs, the celebration of the “very nasty holiday of Kolyada”, the “Rusalia game”, the singing of buffoons who accompanied themselves on the harp. It is difficult for us to reconstruct from fragmentary data full picture calendar ritual poetry, in all likelihood, it was very close to its later forms, well studied by ethnographers.

Each festival in ancient Rus' was accompanied by a song that turned into a dance, which dramatized the ritual, bringing it closer to a theatrical performance. Such are the wedding “festivities”, funeral rites and lamentations. The wedding ceremony in ancient Rus' was a bizarre picture of a combination of pagan beliefs and morals (kidnapping, buying and selling, conspiracy and worldly dances) with Christian prayers. During funerals, the funeral lament for the deceased sometimes reached very expressive poetic forms (Yaroslavna's lament).

Proverbs and sayings, epics, fairy tales, and riddles played a huge role in the everyday life of the ancient Russian people. These forms of folklore grew independently, without connection with rituals, but they were no less important in the formation of political and ethical norms of human behavior. Fairy tales were intertwined with legends and epics, legends. These forms of folk art predate written history. Subsequently, chroniclers made extensive use of legendary material oral creativity people, including it in the chronicles as indisputable evidence, but the people created their own, unwritten story about their history. The so-called epics of the “Kyiv cycle” largely idealized the historical past, going back to those times in the life of the Slavs when the personal valor of a representative of the people allowed him to become a hero. Bogatyrs of the ancient epic - Mikula Selyaninovich, Ilya Muromets - representatives working people, this is a peasant or city-dweller artisan who became famous not only in military affairs, but also in work. The heroes of the epic epic - Dobrynya, Kazarin, Nikita Kozhemyaka and Others - are courageous heroes, always ready to defend the Russian land, their magnitude in deep patriotism, breadth of views, integrity of character.

A new period in the development of the culture of ancient Rus' begins with the spread of writing and literacy in Russian society. The question of the appearance of writing among the Eastern Slavs is resolved on the basis of a number of fragmentary data indicating the presence of Slavic writing long before the creation of the alphabet by Cyril and Methodius and the adoption of Christianity by ancient Russia. It is indisputable that the formation of the ancient Russian state in the 9th century. should have stimulated the need for writing. But we have at our disposal evidence from foreign authors confirming the presence of special graphic signs - “dash and cut”, with the help of which the Eastern Slavs wrote back in the 8th century. Thus, the Monk Khrabr says: “Before, the Slavs did not have books, but with features and cuts they read and cheat.” This remark applies to both southern and eastern Slavs. And, in all likelihood, features and cuts were a more differentiated variety of writing signs, known among the Slavs since ancient times. “The Life of Cyril” conveys the legend that Cyril, while in Korsun, saw a Russian gospel and a psalter written in “Russian letters.” Although hagiographic literature cannot be classified as a sufficiently reliable source, in this case we have no reason to doubt the veracity of the message of the “Life of Cyril”. Moreover, archaeological finds in Gnezdovo near Smolensk and in Novgorod are material evidence of the presence of the Eastern Slavs at the beginning of the 10th century. writing. In 1949, archaeologist D. L. Avsudin, during excavations of one of the Gnezdovo mounds, found a clay vessel dating from the first quarter of the 10th century. On this vessel there was the inscription “pea”, or “gorusina”. This inscription is made in graphics close to the South Slavic (Bulgarian) writing of the 10th century. Since 1951, archaeologists have found written monuments on birch bark. The largest number of them was found in Novgorod, but similar, albeit isolated, finds of birch bark with inscriptions took place during excavations in Smolensk and Chernigov.

Birch bark letters are interesting because they represent everyday correspondence of city residents. The contents of the letters allow us to draw the conclusion that literacy was quite widespread among townspeople and was not only the property of the feudal elite and clergy circles, but also of the ordinary trade and craft population. It is indisputable that before literacy, writing and the habit of using it in everyday life became a need for city residents, a significant period of time had to pass, counting more than one decade. This means that the creation of Russian writing is attributed to the 9th century. or earlier, and the activities of Cyril and Methodius in this field in the 10th century. should have limited itself only to some reformation of the already existing Russian written language and, above all, the creation of the alphabet. Although we will not say this with complete confidence.

Written literature in Rus' was first translated; penetrating from Byzantium, Bulgaria and Moravia, it found well-prepared soil in Rus' and quickly spread, especially at the end of the 10th century. and at the beginning of the 11th century. The chronicler reports that Prince Vladimir founded schools where children of “deliberate children” studied. Under Yaroslav the Wise, a great lover and collector of books, a special book depository was created at the St. Sophia Cathedral. In Rus', the book was loved and cherished, it was the first to be saved during fires, as the greatest treasure, bequeathed to the monastery “to remember souls,” and it is not without reason that the compiler of the initial chronicle speaks with delight about books as rivers that “drink the universe.”

There are few authentic books and manuscripts of the 11th - 12th centuries left that survived the Tatar-Mongol pogroms and terrible fires of subsequent centuries, but even the little that has survived to this day from the rich book heritage of the ancient Russian state testifies to the high art and love of books of the people of that time. time.

In 1700, in the Armory, an apra-inert gospel was discovered, rewritten by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir (Joseph) (1056 - 1057). Previously, the book was in the Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral. After Ostromir’s name, it is usually called “Ostromir’s Gospel.” In 1806, the book was discovered in the rooms of Catherine I and transferred for storage to the St. Petersburg Public Library.

“The Ostromir Gospel” is written on very good parchment in two columns, on 294 sheets. The text is given by a large Charter, the book contains images of the first evangelists John, Luke, Mark, as well as a blank sheet on which Matthew should be depicted, but the sheet remained blank. The book is decorated with handwritten old Byzantine ornaments, and there are initials richly painted in gold. “The Ostromir Gospel” was written from the Bulgarian original with a large number of Russianisms in the Slavic text. The Gospel is richly bound with a gold clasp.

Another ancient monument of writing is the so-called “Izbornik of 1073”, or “Izbornik of Svyatoslav”. This is a kind of theological encyclopedia. It was rewritten and translated from Greek for Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich by Deacon John. In terms of its content, the Izbornik, along with theological considerations, also contains special treatises on figures, metaphors, allegories (Heroboek), and the months of various peoples (Eusebius).

The “Izbornik” is written on parchment on 266 sheets, in two columns. The charter is smaller than in the Ostromir Gospel. Four sheets of paper are filled with colorful illustrations. One depicts Prince Svyatoslav with his family. The astronomy section provides images of the zodiac signs.

From the written monuments of the 11th century. The “Izbornik 1076” has still been preserved. and the “Arkhangelsk Gospel” of 1092 and three Novgorod menea of ​​the 90s of the 12th century.

XII century brought to this day only eight genuine monuments of writing: four gospels, two festive stichera and two main monuments. These documents amaze with the careful finishing of the book, as well as the richness of its design.

Old Russian literature, known from later copies of the 12th and 15th centuries, was mostly composed of dogmatic literature, so necessary for church rites.

Among this church literature, hagiographic literature occupies a special place. Although it is close in content to the motives of dogmatic works, it already contains all kinds of teachings and instructions of purely secular content, a description of facts that actually took place in the life of one or another canonized figure Orthodox Church. But not only church books the circle of reading and education of circles of Russian society was limited. Among the translated books, in addition to church books, the works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Democritus, Pythagoras and other ancient authors were copied. The range of historical reading was represented by the history of Alexander the Great - “Alexandria”, written in the form of a historical story, “Chronographs” - reviews of world history by George Amortol and John Malla, “Cosmography” by Kozma Indikoilov, “The Jewish War” by Josephus and a number of other historical works.

Acquaintance with Greek historical literature greatly contributed to the compilation of original historical works in the ancient Russian state. Original historical works were formed under the impression of the enormous political and cultural successes of ancient Rus'.

Naturally, the main theme of such works is the independence of the ancient Russian state, a hymn of praise to its princes, and the identification of the world-historical role of the Slavs among other peoples of the world.

Chronicles became the form of historical writings. A chronicle is a work of literature that has a very complex compositional appearance, plot lines, and unique architectonics. The compilers of the chronicles were in no way like Pushkin's Pimen; they did not create in the quiet of monastery cells, but in the thick of political passions; they did not write impartially, but pursued a certain political and class concept. The later form of writing and the ethical rigor of the language served only as a traditional form. The oldest chronicle was compiled in 1034 in Kyiv. The Kiev chronicler in a concise, clear and intelligible form tells about the history of the Slavs and extols the Kyiv princes Oleg, Svyatoslav, Vladimir, Yaroslav, who, according to him, exalted the ancient Russian state. Subsequently, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery became the center of chronicle writing in Kyiv. At the same time, in another largest city of ancient Rus' - Novgorod, chronicle writing also began, a characteristic feature of which was the interest of the chronicle in the events of the Novgorod land.

At the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. The Kiev and Novgorod chronicles were edited first in the Pechersk and then in the Vydubitsky monasteries, supplemented with information gleaned from Byzantine chronicles (material from the “Chronograph” of George Amortol was especially widely used). This chronicle is known in historical science called “The Initial Chronicle”, or “The Tale of Bygone Years”. “The Tale” sets itself the task of telling about “where the Russian land came from, who is more important than the prince in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came from.” Moreover, the history of the Kyiv state is considered by chroniclers as part of world history; the chronicle is imbued with a ardent sense of patriotism, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe closeness of all Slavic peoples.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” simultaneously played the role of a historical work and a work intended for fiction reading. In medieval historical literature, “The Tale of Bygone Years” has practically no similar works equal in artistic power impact on the reader and clarity of the historical and political concept.

In addition to chronicles, individual educated people of ancient Rus' spoke with teachings and instructions, glorifying the Russian state, the valor of its princes, and the greatness of its people. Such a work is “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion.

The most outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The plot of this deeply patriotic work, imbued with folk poetry, was the unsuccessful campaign of 1185 - 1187 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor and his brother Vsevolod (descendants of Oleg of Chernigov) against the Polovtsians.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a heroic story about the courageous struggle of the Russians with the Polovtsians. This incomparable pearl of ancient Russian poetry was born in the heart of the unknown national poet, excited by the disasters of his homeland and imbued with deep love for it. The author of the Lay condemns princely civil strife, which undermines the power of the state and drains the strength of the people. Grieving over Igor’s failure, and trying to awaken sympathy for the sad fate of the inhabitants of the Severn principalities, the singer of “The Lay” makes a fiery appeal to rally all Russian forces for the sake of the national interests of defending the homeland; an unknown bard calls to repay the Polovtsians “for the insult of this time, for the Russian land, for Igor’s brines.”

In this call for the defense of the homeland and in ardent love for the Russian land, expressed with genius artistic skill, the secret of the irresistible charm that captivates this monument of ancient Russian creativity to this day is hidden.

Other artistic, in the full sense of the word, works of the Kievan period have not reached us, although they undoubtedly existed, as evidenced by numerous hints from the author of the Lay (hints to the work of Bayan) and the general direction of development of all written literature of ancient Rus'.

Reached a high level in ancient Rus' material culture, craft production, architecture, painting. From the end of the 10th century. In Kyiv and other cities of Rus', widespread construction of stone and wooden churches, cathedrals, princely and boyar palaces, and fortifications began, which most fully reflected high craftsmanship And artistic taste ancient Russian builders. At the end of the 10th century. Kyiv was decorated with the magnificent Church of the Tithes. Under Yaroslav, the famous St. Sophia Temple and the churches of Irina and George were erected in the ancient Russian capital. Yaroslav's brother Mstislav erected the Cathedral of the Savior in Chernigov and a similar cathedral in Tmutarakan. In the middle of the 11th century. their “Sophias” are being erected in Novgorod and Polotsk, the St. George Church is being built in the Novgorod-Yuryevsky Monastery, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov (XII century) and a number of other churches and cathedrals.

Little of what was created by the architects of ancient Rus' has survived to this day. A large number of architectural monuments ancient Rus' died already in the 12th century, during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. But even those few buildings that have reached us testify to the maturity and originality of the culture of ancient Rus'.

The most remarkable monument of ancient Russian architecture is the St. Sophia Church in Kyiv. Yaroslav the Wise, who founded the Kyiv Sophia, built it as a rival to the famous Justinian Cathedral in Constantinople. For more than 900 years of its existence, the St. Sophia Cathedral was destroyed and rebuilt again, distorted by reconstructions, so that its appearance now bears little resemblance to its former one. But interior decoration and the preserved ancient structure of Sofia allow us to get an idea of ​​the greatness and splendor of this temple. In its plan, Sophia is a quadrangle, almost a square, the entire building is crowned with a large dome on a drum, the dome rises above the middle part of the cathedral, and twelve chapters rise above its western and eastern parts. The interior is lavishly decorated with mosaics and frescoes, which amaze with their skillful composition and color. Remarkable is the huge image of the Mother of God, made in mosaic on a golden background in the upper part of the hemispherical vault of the main altar. The figure of the Mother of God stands on a quadrangular pedestal, which is decorated with pearls and precious stones. Along with religious themes, there are also images with everyday subjects. One fresco, for example, depicts the family of Yaroslav the Wise, walking in a solemn procession with lit candles in their hands. Other frescoes depict princely hunting, musicians and buffoons.

Magnificent in their external forms and interior decoration Novgorod Sofia, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, Spassky Chernigov Cathedral, the Church of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, the Church of the Kirillov Monastery and especially the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on Perli near Bogolyubov.

Of the civil buildings, only the remains of the palace chambers in Bogolyubovo and the Golden Gate in Vladimir have survived. The stone fortress is in Ladoga, the foundations of the princely stone palace are in Kyiv. In the Galicia-Volyn principality outstanding monument architecture there was a temple of St. John Chrysostom in the city of Kholm, a detailed description of which was preserved in the Galician Chronicle.

Magnificent stone temples Kyiv, Novgorod, Suzdal were erected, as a rule, in princely residences and large monasteries. But along with these temples, there were wooden churches in villages and towns. Not a single one of these wooden churches of antiquity has reached us, and we judge them from the surviving drawings on icons and from later examples. The ancient architects, who built from wood, were not constrained by the obligation to imitate Byzantine models and could freely use the techniques and principles of construction developed by the people in the construction of dwellings, boyar mansions, and princely palaces. A wooden church is a quadrangular frame; previously, a hexagonal or octagonal frame was covered with two - or a hipped roof with a cross or a small dome at the top. Sometimes on one, middle log house, another, smaller one was placed, adding majesty to the structure, and attached to the church covered wings(porch), food sheds, etc.

If the stone cathedral was decorated with frescoes and mosaics, stucco pediments and magnificent cast doors, then the wooden churches were decorated with woodwork, well known to Russian skilled carpenters. The churches were covered with a scaly roof, under it various valances, pediments in the form of kokoshniks, figured lattices - all this was a product of folk ingenuity.

The architect’s departure from Byzantine models of temple construction inevitably led him to the folk construction tradition of wood, and it is no coincidence that more late times stone construction of churches began to reproduce their wooden model forms.

The fine arts of ancient Rus' were represented by fresco and mosaic painting, icon painting and book miniatures. Old Russian master painters were fluent in the technique of fresco painting, that is, painting walls with water paints on fresh, damp plaster. The mosaic technique was no less perfect. Old Russian masters laid out images from multi-colored glass (smalt) that were huge in size and very perfect in execution.

Fresco and mosaic painting were an integral part of temple architecture. For a long time, this branch of art in Rus' had an almost exclusive purpose of serving the church and remained strictly subordinate to its statutes, not daring to deviate from the Greek canons. The images of saints produced by painters, biblical stories In the eyes of the people, they were not paintings, but rather sacred objects, consecrated by legends and tradition.

Ancient Rus' was also known for such a type of painting as icon painting. The names of our most ancient icon painters remained unknown, with the exception of one - the Kiev-Pechersk monk Alimpiy.

The spread of books in Rus' was associated with the appearance of book miniatures, which are bright colorful illustrations. The oldest highly artistic miniatures are contained in the “Ostromir Gospel” and “Svyatoslav’s Collection”.

Handicraft production, and in particular, artistic craft, flourished in the ancient Russian state. Jewelry Russian craftsmen, decorated with enamel, precious stones, pearls, the finest fabric, etc., were famous in the states of Eastern and Western Europe.

Old Russian state in the XI - XII centuries. in my own way cultural level in no way inferior to other advanced states of that time. The Old Russian state was connected by political and dynastic interests with large European states and was a powerful power. In Europe, all states considered the country called Russia.

Only Tatar-Mongol invasion slowed down its development, including cultural, and for a long time determined the lag behind other countries in the future.