What American sociologist who singled out society. What are the main characteristics of society? General sociology
1. The concept of society
Systematic approach to the analysis of society
Today, two approaches to understanding society can be distinguished. IN in a broad sense words society- This a set of historically established forms life together and human activities on earth. IN in the narrow sense words society is a specific type of social and political system, specific national theoretical education. However, these interpretations of the concept under consideration cannot be considered sufficiently complete, since the problem of society occupied the minds of many thinkers, and in the process of development of sociological knowledge, different approaches to its definition.
Thus, E. Durkheim defined society as supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. From the point of view of M. Weber, society is the interaction of people who are the product of social, i.e., other-oriented actions. K. Marx represents society as a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint actions. Another theorist of sociological thought, T. Parsons, believed that society is a system of relations between people based on norms and values that form culture.
Thus, it is not difficult to see that society is a complex category characterized by a collection of various signs. Each of the above definitions reflects certain characteristic features of this phenomenon. Only taking into account all these characteristics allows us to give the most complete and precise definition concepts of society. Most full list characteristic features society was highlighted by an American sociologist E. Shils . He developed following signs, characteristic of any society:
1) it is not an organic part of any larger system;
2) marriages are concluded between representatives of a given community;
3) it is replenished by the children of those people who are members of this community;
4) it has its own territory;
5) it has a self-name and its own history;
6) it has its own management system;
7) it lasts longer average duration the life of an individual;
8) brings him together general system values, norms, laws, rules.
Taking into account all these features, we can give the following definition of society: it is a historically established and self-reproducing community of people.
The aspects of reproduction are biological, economic and cultural reproduction.
This definition allows us to distinguish the concept of society from the concept of “state” (the institution of governance social processes, which arose historically later than society) and “country” (a territorial-political entity formed on the basis of society and the state).
The study of society within the framework of sociology is based on a systems approach. The use of this particular method is also determined by a number of characteristic features society, which is characterized as: a social system of a higher order; complex system education; complete system; a self-developing system because the source is within society.
Thus, it is not difficult to see what society is complex system.
System- This in a certain way an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming some kind of integral unity. Undoubtedly, society is a social system that is characterized as holistic education, the elements of which are people, their interactions and relationships, which are sustainable and reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.
Thus, as the basic elements of society as social system the following can be distinguished:
2) social connections and interactions;
3) social institutions, social strata;
4) social norms and values.
Like any system, society is characterized by close interaction of its elements. Taking this feature into account, within systematic approach society can be defined as a large ordered collection social processes and phenomena more or less connected and interacting with each other and forming a single social whole. Society as a system is characterized by such features as coordination and subordination of its elements.
Coordination is the consistency of elements, their mutual functioning. Subordination is subordination and subordination, indicating the place of elements in a holistic system.
The social system is independent in relation to its constituent elements and has the ability to self-develop.
Functionalism was developed based on a systematic approach to the analysis of society. The functional approach was formulated by G. Spencer and developed in the works of R. Merton and T. Parsons. IN modern sociology it is complemented by determinism and an individualistic approach (interactionism).
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The word “society” is used everywhere, but not everyone can clearly formulate the essence of this concept. The definition of this phenomenon and the concept denoting it is given by sociology, as well as social science. The latest science in this issue has the most significant weight, since it is society that is the subject of its study. Unlike all other sciences, it purposefully examines all possible aspects of society. Other sciences highlight only one specific side of the phenomenon.
However, we will focus on the idea that sociology gives us, since in our article we are going to consider the question: “What are the main characteristics of society?” - as well as some related aspects. They will help us operate with this concept more consciously and, in general, will be useful for expanding knowledge in this area.
A look at the concept of society
Let us present some data from sociology that reflects the essence of society. Thus, this science examines the concept from two main sides, respectively, presenting diverse meanings. Let's talk about each separately, while touching on the distinctive features of society.
Historical and economic aspect
The first aspect of the study is to consider society taking into account historical, economic, geographical and political factors. According to this aspect, societies are identified as structures larger than just groups of people or communities.
Most often, such very specific types as primitive, slaveholding, feudal and others are distinguished in this vein. They differ in their common level of technology development,
When considering the same historical-economic aspect, societies formed on the territory of a certain country or continent are highlighted. This is Russian, and American, and the Western world as a whole, and the Eastern.
Based on the listed facts, let us summarize this block of information with a definition: society is a system limited in time and territory. Any era with its values and level of technological development is such a society.
Main features
Scientist E. Shils gives us a number of characteristics by which a society is distinguished, based on the formative factors considered:
As an integral functioning system, it is not included in any major systems);
Has its own clearly defined territory;
Has a name, history of education and development;
The replenishment and growth of society occurs at the expense of human resources, who are its own representatives (with rare exceptions);
As a sign complementary to the previous one, representatives of one association enter into marriage;
There is a functioning own control system;
It is characteristic that representatives have common norms and traditions that shape culture;
The lifespan of a society is necessarily longer than the lifespan of an individual representative.
- territory - it also plays the role of the main material basis for the existence and development of social relations;
- autonomy - self-sufficiency, allowing one to exist without economic and other ties with other societies;
- integrativeness - the unification of all individuals in the process social life, maintenance and reproduction of generations;
- universality - all-encompassing (for individual participants).
Sociological and philosophical aspect
So, we have already learned what the main characteristics of society are in accordance with the economic-geographical aspect of the study. It is time to consider the second aspect of the study of this topic in sociology.
The second meaning of society is purely sociological and philosophical when viewed as a whole. In research in this area, sociology relies on the results of practical observations and experiments on smaller structures - small communities (families, clans, nations). A kind of hierarchy of structures is built, from smallest to largest. As a result, we obtain the functional unity of communities.
Considering various institutions of society from this practical point of view, sociology touches on the problems of the universe - the origin of society, the single purpose of its existence. Every society has its own history. So, American theory“the beginning of the beginning” takes as its basis certain founding fathers. Reflections on this topic by sociologists during the Soviet Union revolve around October revolution 1917
Let us briefly summarize what has been said within the framework of the sociological aspect: society is the largest, embracing all others, making them its part. We continue to consider the question of what are the main characteristics of society.
in a sociological context
Sociological researcher R. Koenig attributes the following characteristics to society:
- a certain way of life of individuals;
- economic and ideological associations formed based on agreements;
- the presence of social unities (different nations);
- integrity of social unities, i.e. smaller structures;
- historical prerequisites for the formation and development of this particular society;
- social reality - the processes in which relationships between individuals are established.
Some Fundamental Properties
Before this, we have already examined two aspects of the study of society in sociology, and mentioned some forms of society as examples. We also learned about the characteristics inherent in society when studied from the economic and sociological sides. Now we consider it appropriate to dwell in more detail on some of its most important properties. In sociology, these include autonomy and self-sufficiency.
Autonomy and self-sufficiency as properties
Earlier we only briefly mentioned the property of autonomy of the structure of society. Now about this in more detail.
The ability of a society to exist separately from others, to support the functioning of smaller structures that are part of it, is autonomy. This property, at first glance, somewhat fades into the background in the conditions of total globalization of absolutely all world processes at the moment. However, this is a misleading impression: the strengthening of international contacts has some signs that autonomy is becoming less obvious, but this process is of a completely different kind.
A clear confirmation of the autonomy of societies, which include the population of countries around the world, is the presence of their own systems of power in them. Within countries there are smaller communities of people who are hierarchically integrated into society as a whole.
Studying further the institutions of society, let's say a few words about self-sufficiency. Self-sufficiency is inherent in the people of a particular country, a property that provides the opportunity to exist completely in isolation from all other societies. After the division of labor (production specialization) occurred between the territories of the world, self-sufficiency is not observed in any country. U modern societies a new inherent quality appeared - complementarity for economic reasons.
Other properties
An important part of any society is its cultural array. This concept includes many phenomena; there is no need to consider them within the framework of our topic. Let's just say that based on common traditions, self-awareness, moral values individuals are formed cultural society. Its formation is preceded by a rich history.
Smaller communities are able to perform their functions in unified system society of the country independently. This is the main manifestation of the property of self-regulation.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, let us conclude: society and its characteristics are considered in sociology in various aspects. This takes into account economic, geographical, historical, cultural and other factors. Modern societies appear mainly in the form of countries and their populations. Their most important properties are autonomy and self-sufficiency.
Thus, we have understood the question of what are the main features of society that form it as a phenomenon. We hope that the information received will be useful for an informed look at modern society.
In sociology, attempts have been made more than once to give a final definition of society and highlight its essential features - the most typical, stable and recurring moments of its life. Thus, Emile Durkheim sees the fundamental basis of stability and unity of society in the signs of the presence of collective consciousness, a common will that prevents the destructive force of human egoism. Neil Smelser defines the presence of geographical boundaries, a common legislative system and a certain national identity as the distinctive features of a society as an association of people. American sociologist Edward Shils believes that the basis of society is such a characteristic as the functioning of public authority, which ensures control over the entire territory and inculcates a common culture.
E. Shils identifies the following characteristics of society:
– marriages are concluded between representatives of this association;
– it is replenished mainly by the children of those people who are already its recognized representatives;
– the association has a territory that it considers its own;
– the society has its own name and its own history;
– it has its own control system;
– the association exists longer than the average life expectancy of an individual;
– it is united by a common system of values (customs, traditions, norms, laws, rules), which is called culture.
And yet, by what criteria can one judge a society?
The first sign of a society is usually the territory on which consolidation occurs social connections. Our planet has provided the opportunity for many communities to find their ecological niche to ensure that the vital needs of people are met and to give the life of individuals their own unique features, determined by the diversity of climatic conditions and natural landscape. Territory is the basis of the social space in which relationships and interactions between individuals take shape and develop.
The second distinctive feature of society is its ability to maintain and reproduce a high intensity of internal relationships. While noting sustainability as the most important characteristic of society, sociologists differ in explaining its underlying causes. E. Durkheim saw the fundamental basis of stability and unity of society in the “collective consciousness”, in the presence of a common will that prevents the development of the destructive force of human egoism. R. Merton believes that society is preserved thanks to “fundamental values” that are absorbed by the majority of the population and orient each individual towards compliance with the norms of joint life activity. E. Shils is convinced that society as such exists only under the influence of “common power”, which ensures control over the entire territory and inculcates a common culture.
The third distinctive feature of society is its autonomy and high level of self-regulation. The autonomy of society is achieved by its multifunctionality, that is, the ability to create the necessary conditions to satisfy the diverse needs of individuals and provide the latter with ample opportunities for self-affirmation and self-regulation. Only in society can a person engage in narrowly professional activities, knowing at the same time that he will always be able to satisfy his needs for food and clothing. Only in society can he acquire the necessary skills and become acquainted with the achievements of culture and science. Only society can provide him with the opportunity to make a dizzying career and rise to the top of the social hierarchy. In other words, society has that self-sufficiency that allows it to fulfill its main purpose without outside interference - to provide people with forms of organization of life that make it easier for them to achieve personal goals.
The autonomy and self-sufficiency of society are manifested precisely in the absence of external management impulses. Society is regulated and governed exclusively by those institutions and organizations and on the basis of those norms and principles that arise and are created within itself. Self-regulation is an important property of society, ensuring its independence regardless of size.
Fourthly, society is distinguished by great integrating power. It socializes each new generation of people, includes it in the existing system of relations, and subjects it to generally accepted norms and rules. Thanks to this quality, society turns out to be receptive to innovation, because it organically absorbs new social formations, institutions, and norms, thereby ensuring renewal and continuity of development. And the people themselves, connected to society by invisible threads of common language, culture, and origin, gravitate towards it. It provides them with the opportunity to use familiar patterns of behavior, follow established principles, and creates a unique atmosphere of spiritual unity.
The main feature of society is its organic integrity, systematicity, since people are united in it on the basis of the common way of existence necessary for them. However, in the process of historical development, the secondary features of society changed, which was analyzed by me in this paragraph.
Society existed in that distant era when there were no countries and states. Therefore, the concept of society is applicable to any historical era, to a group or association of people of any size. Society is the largest group living in a given territory. The signs that E. Shils expressed in concentrated form are applicable to him.
Both modern powers, numbering hundreds of millions of citizens, and ancient tribes, located in the territory of the current urban microdistrict, meet these criteria. Both have consanguineous systems (marriage and recruitment of new members), their own territory, name, culture, history, governance, and most importantly, they are not part of another whole. But many other human associations do not correspond to them, say, a village or village, although at first glance they have everything necessary for this: a consanguinity system, territory, history, culture, name, management.
The concept of society takes on a very definite meaning when we talk about<российском обществе>having geographical boundaries, a common legal system and some kind of national unity. Sociologists argue approximately in this direction when they create a set of specific definitions of society. In 1967, R. Marsh tried to determine the conditions under which social association should be considered a society:
1) permanent territory - for example, Spain in its state borders;
2) replenishment of society mainly through childbearing, although immigration also plays some role in this;
3) highly developed culture - cultural models can be diverse enough to satisfy all needs public life;
4) political independence - society is not a subsystem or part of some other system, therefore colonial societies such as the Belgian Congo before independence could not be considered as such.
The author of this classification recognized the incompleteness and controversial nature of his criteria. For example, is it possible to apply the criterion<высокоразвитая культура>to a country where representatives of various religious beliefs And ethnic groups, be it the USA, India or the USSR. There is no common values and ideals accepted by the entire population. It would be more correct to call their culture a collection of subcultures, united with great difficulty by political and legislative power. Perhaps that’s why it turned out to be so fragile Soviet Union. Criterion<политическая независимость>is no less controversial. On the territory of the USSR there were established and very ancient ethnic groups that had a highly developed culture, but did not have political independence, but existed as a union republic, in particular Armenia, Georgia, and Estonia.
Shils Edward Albert
(1911) - American sociologist. In sociology, Shils is a proponent of the concept of equilibrium, according to which society is viewed as a system that restores “social order” in conditions of disruption of its equilibrium. Shiles is one of the ardent supporters of the concept of deideologization. It was he who gave the name to this concept, putting forward the slogan “the end of ideology” as an attempt to substantiate a pure social science free from value judgments.
E. Shils identified the following characteristics of society:
1. It is not an organic part of any larger system.
2. Marriages are concluded between representatives of a given community
3. It is replenished by the children of those people who are members of this community
4. It has its own territory
5. It has its own name and its own history
6. It has its own control system
7. It lasts longer than the average life expectancy of an individual
8. He is united by a common system of values, norms, laws, rules.
Related information:
- I. In the Garden of Eden there were two trees, one was the tree of life, the other was the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and this means that man was given freedom of choice in spiritual matters.
Society -- social organization country that ensures the joint functioning of people. This is a part of the material world isolated from nature, representing a historically developing form of connections and relationships between people in the process of their life.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the family is the most ancient of all societies. She is the likeness of a father, the people are like children, and all those born equal and free, if they alienate their freedom, do so only for their own benefit.
Hegel tried to consider society as a complex system of relations, highlighting as the subject of consideration the so-called civil society, that is, a society where there is a dependence of everyone on everyone.
The works of one of the founders were of great importance for the scientific understanding of society scientific sociology O. Comte, who believed that the structure of society is determined by the forms of human thinking (theological, metaphysical and positive). He viewed society itself as a system of elements, which are the family, classes and the state, and the basis is formed by the division of labor between people and their relationships with each other. We find a definition of society close to this in Western European sociology of the 20th century. Thus, according to Max Weber, society is a product of the interaction of people as a result of their social actions in the interests of everyone.
T. Parsons defined society as a system of relations between people, the connecting principle of which is norms and values. From the point of view of K. Marx, society is a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint activities.
American sociologist E. Shils identified the following characteristics of society:
§ it is not an organic part of any larger system;
§ marriages are concluded between representatives of a given community;
§ it is replenished by the children of those people who are members of this community;
§ it has its own territory;
§ it has a self-name and its own history;
§ it has its own control system;
§ it exists longer than the average life expectancy of an individual;
§ it is united by a common system of values, norms, laws, rules.
According to a number of domestic sociologists, the criteria of society include the following:
§ the presence of a single territory, which is the material basis for the social connections that arise within its boundaries;
§ universality (comprehensive nature);
§ autonomy, the ability to exist independently and independently of other societies;
§ integrativeness: society is able to maintain and reproduce its structures in new generations, to include more and more new individuals in a single context of social life.
At the same time, a number of scientific theories emerged:
The instrumental concept puts human intelligence first. Man invented special tools - tools. Well-being increased, which led to the division of labor, the functional division of the community, as well as the emergence of economic differences between people living in the community.
The sexual concept is based on physiological characteristics person. The establishment of birth control is associated with the emergence of families and the establishment of norms regulating sexual, and with them, other relationships of community members.
The gender concept is based on distributional analysis social roles between the sexes. Men create an artificial counterbalance to the female monopoly of reproduction, in the form of a male monopoly on the establishment of order. Feminist theorists argue that social organization arose when men agreed to distribute women.
The cratic concept is based on general theory systems and deduces the emergence of society from the development of control subsystems.
A person’s personal qualities (intelligence, strength, ingenuity, etc.) are distributed unevenly among people, and therefore turn into a monopoly. A person who has these qualities takes a leadership position. Leaders (elite) form and maintain a system of rules (norms) that maintain inequality. These rules formed the basis of social organization.
The semantic concept is based on the recognition of the weakness of man as a biological being. The law of survival requires the unification of human efforts, which is associated with their coordination, division and combination of functions of individuals. There is a need for preliminary approval and immediate adjustment. This is only possible through the use of language. By developing symbols and signs, rules for their interpretation, and actively using speech, people shape the world of communications. It precedes, mediates and completes the cycles of people’s material activities. As a result, a system of ordered collective interactions and special functions arises, and a society is formed.
