What is ancient society? Life and culture in ancient society. Antiquity as a cultural era

fr. antiquit?, English antiquity, German Antike) is a term that has passed into Russian. language from Romanesque and Germanic. languages ​​and going back to Lat. antiquitas - antiquity, antiquity. In a general sense, it is quite equivalent to the Russian “antiquity”. More often, however, it has a special use: in the same meaning of “antiquity,” but specifically in application to Dr. Greece and others Rome. Since the Renaissance, the term “ancient,” in contrast to “barbarian,” on the one hand, and “medieval,” on the other, has been understood as a synonym for classic, unsurpassed sample and is closely associated with the basic. direction of humanism. The concepts of antiquity emerge. art, literature, philosophy, i.e. phenomena of cultural life Dr. Greece (and to a lesser extent, Rome, whose culture was considered not so original). Will distinguish. a sign of ancient poets, sculptors, artists, in addition to high skill, is considered to exclude them. attention to all aspects of physical and spiritual life of man, to man. personality, subsequently suppressed by the feud. oppression and especially Christ. church. With increasing interest in socio-economic. history, the term “ancient,” while retaining its previous meaning, began to be used not only in relation to culture. Such concepts as “ancient city”, “ancient economic system”, etc. arise. The most comprehensive is the concept of “ancient form of property” introduced by K. Marx; analysis of the essence of the structure allows us to understand the features of both socio-economic . and political building Greece and Rome, and antiquity. culture in all its manifestations. In history, Africa means the period of ancient history (approximately from the 1st millennium BC to the 5th century AD), covering the history of Greco-Roman. slave owner societies (including Hellenistic states). A. is the highest level in the development of slave ownership. production method. Unlike the ancient about-in, where slavery due to a number of sources. The reasons developed extremely slowly and most of them did not go beyond the patriarch. slavery, antique the company is characterized by the deep penetration of slave labor into the main. industries, and workers. so arr., becomes the main. manufacturer. Antique production relations were based on antiquity. form of ownership, which always appeared in a contradictory, dual form: as state property (joint) and as private property. The essence of this contradiction was that in antiquity. slave owner company to become the owner of the main means of production (land) could only be those who were a full member of the citizenry. communities, antique property is the property of citizens. slave-owning communities. This community is well known. as a city-state (polis), in which free and full-fledged citizen-landowners were opposed by a mass of incomplete citizens and slaves. History of Athens, Sparta, a number of other Greek. state in both the east and west. parts of the Mediterranean, the history of Rome at a certain stage of its development is the history of individual policies in all the originality of their economics. and political being. Antique the world knew other types of state. formations, but the polis, the city-state, was the most specific. form. Development of slaveholding method of production led to an aggravation of the contradictions inherent in it. The basic situation became more and more aggravated. antagonistic There was a contradiction between slaves and slave owners; there was also an intense struggle between the class of small free producers and large landowners. Exacerbation of class. the struggle resulted in widespread people. movements, uprisings of slaves, and subsequently colones. The most striking manifestation of class. the struggle took place in social movements and reforms in Sparta (helot uprisings, the so-called reforms of Agis and Cleomenes, the tyranny of Nabis); in the uprising of Aristonicus (Pergamon), broad people. movements and uprisings of slaves in Rome (the Gracchi movement, the Sicilian slave uprisings, the great uprising of Spartacus (see Spartacus uprising), the Bagauda movement). The most important ist. The emergence of slave owners had progressive significance. democracy, in which full citizens took part in politics. life and government. An integral part of the polis structure, without which it is generally inconceivable, was the people. meeting; however, the degree of democratization of the policies varied. Slave owner democracy, despite its class. parochialism, despite the fact that it was a democracy of only a privileged minority of the free population, was a major step forward for its time. No less important and of great importance for the overall behavior. the movement of mankind is a fact of the high development of antiquity. culture (philosophy, literature, fine art, architecture). This culture was generated by the class. slave owner about-vom, but went beyond the circle of concepts, feelings and criteria by which this society lived, creating enduring, universal humankind. values, which, according to Marx, continue to serve as “the norm and an unattainable example” (Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 12, p. 737). Ancient property and slave ownership. the production method was, however, historically limited. development opportunities. The low productivity of the slave, who was not interested in the results of his activities, set certain and very narrow limits to the progress of technology in the village. x-ve and craft. This led to the fact that the slave owner. production relations inevitably came into conflict with those producing ahead of them in their development. by the forces of the society. Antique slavery has outlived its usefulness, a long period has begun. crisis, and then the death of slave owners. building. In the Western-European era. Middle Ages studying A. as independent. history section science did not exist. By 5 - start. 6th centuries refers to the spelling Byzantine. historian Zosima's "New History", covering the time from Augustus to 410. Zosima's work, as well as the chronicles of John Malala (7th century), George Amartol (9th century), George Sincellus (9th century) were translated into ancient glory . language and influenced early Rus. historiography. The largest representative of chronicle historiography was the Athonite monk John Zonara (12th century). Systematic the study of art began during the Renaissance. Antique works were collected and collected. art, Middle Ages antique manuscripts authors, history and literature were studied. This era was dominated by blind admiration for A. The first historical-critical. research - the work of Lorenzo Valla "Speech on the Falsity of the Gift of Constantine" - appeared in mid. 15th century Franz. the scientist J. Scaliger (1540-1609) in a number of works made an attempt to create a scientific. chronology. English scientist Bentley (late 17th century) laid the foundation for the scientific criticism of the text of ancient authors. But also English. historian E. Gibbon, in his famous work “The History of the Decline and Destruction of the Roman Empire,” which appeared at the end of the 18th century, treated the ancient world with great confidence. traditions. A. in burzh. historiography. In the 18th century a new, critical thing is emerging. direction in the study of A. The founders and ancestors of this direction were: in the field of studying antiquity. culture - German scientist I. Winckelmann (“History of the Art of Antiquity” - J. J. Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums, 1764, Russian translation 1933), in antiquity. philology - German scientist F. A. Wolf (“Introduction to Homer” - F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum, 1795), in antiquity. history - German scientist B. G. Niebuhr ("Roman History" - V. G. Niebuhr, R?mische Geschichte, 1811). Wolf argued that Homer's poems are the result of the collective creativity of several generations of singers and poets; Niebuhr was critical. analysis of ancient data authors on the early period of Rome. stories. In the 1st half. 19th century the study of A. has progressed significantly. In 1825 German. scientist A. Beck began publishing the “Corpus of Greek Inscriptions” (A. B?ckh, Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum), which marked the emergence of a new branch of science (epigraphy). In the 30s "History of Hellenism" by I. G. Droyzen was published (I. G. Droysen, Geschichte des Hellenismus, Bd 1-2, 1836-43, Russian. lane, vol. 1-3, 1890-93), where for the first time the important period of antiquity was covered in detail and scientifically. history, beginning with the collapse of the monarchy of Alexander the Great. The development of capitalism and the aggravation of class. struggle in Europe countries in the middle 19th century influenced the study of A. More and more clearly, it began to be used as a tool in politics. struggle. Thus, in a work on the history of Greece in English. scientist J. Grote (J. Grote, History of Greece, v. 1-12, 1846-56) ancient Athens was portrayed as an ideal and model for the bourgeoisie. democracy. An even more striking example of the “political actualization” of A. was the “Roman History” in German. scientist T. Mommsen (the first three volumes were published in 1854-56 - Th. Mommsen, R?mische Geschichte, Russian translation, vol. 1-3, 5, 1936-49). It reflects the aspirations of certain circles. bourgeoisie, who dreamed of creating a kind of “democratic monarchy” in Germany, a prototype Mommsen found in the empire of Caesar. Mommsen's "Roman History", written with great brilliance and erudition, had a huge influence on the entire further development of the city. historiography of antiquity. T. Mommsen also owns "Roman State Law" ("R?misches Staatsrecht", Bd 1-3, 1871-78) and "Roman Criminal Law" ("R?misches Strafrecht", 1899), edited by him. important legal documents were issued. monuments from the Roman era. empire, and from 1863 - the “Corpus inscriptionum latinarum” (“Corpus inscriptionum latinarum”) (continues to the present day). End 19 - beginning 20th centuries mark the advent of an era of outstanding archaeological. discoveries. They began with the excavations of G. Schliemann (in the 70s), first at the site of Homeric Troy (M. Asia), and then on the Balkan Peninsula - in Mycenae and Tiryns. Important excavations in Delphi and on the island date back to approximately the same period. Delos (French archaeological school), as well as in Olympia and Miletus (German archaeological institute). For the first time they were put on a strictly scientific basis. the basis of the excavations of Pompeii in Italy (G. Fiorelli). In the beginning. 20th century English archaeologist A. Evans as a result of excavations on the island. Crete revealed the grandiose centers of Minoan culture (the cities of Knossos and Phaistos). Archaeological the discoveries of these years yielded not only a large number of monuments of material culture and antiquity. claims, but also extremely expanded the epigraphic literature available to science. and papyrological material. The publication of a complete set of Greek has begun. inscriptions, papyri began to be studied and published (W. Wilken, B. P. Grenfell), which led to a number of valuable discoveries (for example, on the reverse side of one papyrus containing household items. report, the text of the most important history was discovered (1890). monument - "The Athenian Polity" of Aristotle). The accumulation of huge factual material on economics and social problems, the revolution produced in the science of society by the works of Marx and Engels could not but influence the development of the bourgeoisie. historiography. Denying Marxism and fighting it, bourgeois. historians, however, were forced to pay more serious attention to problems of economics and social relations. So, for example, a special direction arises, dealing with Ch. arr. studying socio-economic. questions in antiquity society. The largest representatives: German. scientists E. Meyer ("History of the Ancient World" - E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, Bd 1-5, 1884-1902, Russian translation 1898, which provides a synchronous account of the history of the countries of the Ancient East, Greece and early Rome), R. Pöhlmann ("History of ancient communism and socialism" - R. P?hlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Sozialismus, Bd 1-2, 1893-1901, Russian translation 1910; the last edition in 1925 was published under the title "History of the social question and socialism in the ancient world" - "Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Sozialismus in der antiken Welt") and Italian. scientist G. Ferrero (“The Greatness and Fall of Rome” - G. Ferrero, Grandezza e decadenza di Roma, v. 1-5, 1902-07, Russian translation, vol. 1-5, 1915-23). On the works of these historians, on their specific. interest in social relations and economics was also undoubtedly influenced by the further development of capitalism and its transition to the highest and final stage of its development - imperialism. In this same connection, they are related to each other by the extreme modernization of antiquity. society. They “discover” capitalism in it. relationships, they talk about antiquity. the proletariat and are essentially apologists for capitalism. building. However, this direction and the associated modernization of antiquity. the stories met with sharp opposition even among the bourgeoisie themselves. scientists. Against the understanding of antiquity. x-va as capitalist (especially clearly in E. Meyer) came out mute. economist K. Bucher, who argued that the ancient. the farming did not go beyond the scope of natural “home” farming and thus, in principle, differed from capitalist farming. Against modernization, ancient Greek. history was made by a number of French. scientists: P. Giro, G. Glotz and others. Another characteristic direction in the bourgeoisie. historiography con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries is hypercriticism. Its development is due to the fact that a number of representatives of the bourgeoisie. historiography in its struggle against materialism. understanding of history actually moves to the position of agnosticism. Yes, Yu. Beloch in “History of Greece” (J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, Bd 1-4, 1893-1904, Russian translation, vol. 1-2, 1905; 2nd ed. in 1911-27 in 4 vols .) denies the Dorian invasion and casts doubt on the plural. events of early Greek history, italian historian E. Pais in “Critical history of Rome during the first five centuries” (E. Pais, Storia di Roma sino all´intervento di Pirro, 1898, new edition “Storia critica di Roma durante i primi cinque secoli”, 1913-20 ) completely denies the authenticity of Rome. traditions: in his opinion, the characters, names and events of the early history of Rome are etiological or fictitious based on Greek models. stories; about the reliability of Rome. history can only be talked about from the 3rd century. BC e. In the 20-30s. 20th century A number of multi-volume collective works were published abroad, mainly compilative nature; in bourgeois historiography there is no single and scientifically consistent concept of antiquity. society. These works are valuable as a summary of facts. material, introduction of new data into circulation, criticism of sources ("Cambridge ancient history" - "The Cambridge ancient history", v. 1-12, 1923-39, and "General History" edited by G. Glotz - "Histoire g? n?rale", publ. par G. Glotz, 1926-39). The last major representative of the trend characterized by the modernization of socio-economic. relations in antiquity world, was M. I. Rostovtzeff (“Socio-economic history of the Roman Empire” - M. J. Rostovtzeff, The social and economic history of the Roman empire, 1926, and “Socio-economic history of the Hellenistic world” - “The social and economic history of the hellenistic world", v. 1-3, 1941). Since the early 50s. The ten-volume "World History" ("Historia Mundi") and "General History of Civilization" edited by M. Crouzet ("Histoire g?n?rale de civilisations", par M. Crouzet) began to be published. In 1953, the English scientist M. Ventris (jointly with J. Chadwick) published a work in which an attempt was made to decipher the Mycenaean writing (M. Ventris, J. Chadwick, Evidence for Greek dialect in the Mycenaean archives). Although the decryption system proposed by Ventris evokes in the present day. While there were some objections, a number of prominent philologists and historians consider it fundamentally correct and are working on its further improvement. Large-scale excavations continued in the area. Greece (Ceramics in Athens, Pylos), Italy (Ostia, Rome, a number of centers of Etruscan culture, for example Spina), on the island. Crete, in Syria (Palmyra), Dura-Europos, etc. Archaeological and epigraphic discoveries of recent years have radically changed the picture of the early history of Greece (Crete, Mycenae, Achaean Greece) and Italy (pre-Roman period). In modern bourgeois The historiography of A. lacks large, authoritative schools or trends. The overwhelming majority of scientists are engaged in the study of individual particular issues and deliberately avoid k.-l. broad sources generalizations and conclusions. A characteristic feature of modern bourgeois historiography of A. - the appearance of a large number of popular semi-journalistic works. sense, in which the most unjustified and unscientific are carried out. analogies between Africa and modernity; Often these works are ideological. modern weapons reactions. Interest in the study of A. in Russia arose very early. Even in Kievan Rus, works were translated. ancient authors (Josephus), in the collections of ancient Russian. manuscripts contain translations of the speeches of Demosthenes (14th century). In the 18th century The Academy of Sciences has published a number of good translations of antiquity. authors. The first major researcher, whose work became famous abroad, was M. S. Kutorga. His dissertation on Attic. tribes was written in Latin (1832) and then translated into French. and German language The founder of the Greek epigraphers in Russia are F. F. Sokolov (also the author of a number of studies on the history of Greece 3-2 centuries BC); founder of Russian schools lat. epigraphy should be considered I. V. Pomyalovsky. "The Code of Ancient Inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Region" was published by V.V. Latyshev (3 vols., 1885-1901). Important works on the history of Athens have been published. V. P. Buzeskul ("Pericles", 1889; "History of Athenian Democracy", 1909, etc.), according to Hellenistic. Egypt - M. M. Khvostov ("History of eastern trade of Greco-Roman Egypt", 1907, etc.), on the history of early Rome - V. I. Modestov ("Introduction to Roman history", parts 1-2, 1902- 04). R. Yu. Vipper, a historian of wide range, owns works both on the history of Greece ("History of Greece in the classical era", 1916, etc.) and on the history of Rome ("Essays on the history of the Roman Empire", 1908, 2nd ed. . 1923). For Russian pre-revolutionary historians of A., with a few exceptions, typically deny. attitude towards modernization of antiquity. history, as well as hypercritical. conclusions and constructions. Important for the study of A. archaeological. excavations in southern Russia were carried out back in the 20s. 19th century, but systematically study of Panticapaeum (Yu. A. Kulakovsky), Chersonesus (K. K. Kostsyushko-Valyuzhnich), Olbia (B. V. Farmakovsky) and other antiques. settlements began in the 70-90s. 19th century The most valuable archaeological and epigraphic the monuments discovered during these excavations adorned the collections of our fatherland. museums (primarily the Hermitage) and provided important material for studying the connections of the Greek. and the local population, and in some cases for studying the history of antiquity. about-va as a whole. Studying A. in the USSR. After Oct. revolution, the study of art in the USSR received a new and higher development. Sov. historians based on Marxist-Leninist methodology, relying on the progressive traditions of the pre-revolutionary. rus. historiography, began to create new and valuable research in various areas of ancient history. peace. An extremely important role in folding in owls. historians of a correct understanding of the driving forces of development of antiquity. society played the teachings of Marx and Engels about forms of ownership, classes, classes. struggle, socio-economic. formations and laws of societies. development. Of great importance were also specific statements of the founders of Marxism, directly related to A. (K. Marx - in “Capital”, in “Forms preceding capitalist production”, F. Engels - in “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, etc. ). Sov. Historians spoke out primarily against the vulgaristic interpretation of the problems of antiquity. economics and history of social movements in the bourgeoisie. historiography. Back in the 20s. A.I. Tyumenev published “Essays on the economic and social history of Ancient Greece” in 3 volumes. (1920-22), in which he sharply objected to the modernizing tendency to identify socio-economic. relationship dr. Greece from modern times capitalist relationships. Large owl. orientalist V.V. Struve, in his work “Plebeians and Helots” (1933), highlighted one of the most important social problems of Africa; S. A. Zhebelev, widely known for his pre-revolutionary works. works ("Achaica. In the field of antiquities of the province of Achaia", 1903, etc.), published a study "The Last Perisad and the Scythian uprising in the Bosporus" (1938) - one of the most important works. works on the history of slave movements in antiquity. A. V. Mishulin’s monograph “The Spartac Uprising” (1936) provides a complete and comprehensive study of this major slave uprising. A number of works by V. S. Sergeev are devoted to the study of socio-economic. problems of history of Rome. empire ("The Decomposition of the Slave System and the Beginning of Colony in the Roman Empire", 1938, etc.). In the post-war owl time historians have published large generalizing works on antiquity. stories that advanced the Marxist study of slave history. formations: N. A. Mashkin - “History of Ancient Rome” (1947), V. N. Dyakov - “History of the Roman People in Antiquity” (1947), S. I. Kovalev - “History of Rome” (1948), V. S. Sergeev - “History of Ancient Greece” (2nd ed., 1948). Major studies have appeared on the most important problems of socio-economics. and cultural history of A. The early period of the Greek. history, which has recently attracted special attention, is devoted to the monograph by K. M. Kolobova “From the history of early Greek society” (1951) (history of Rhodes 9-7 centuries BC), the work of S. Ya. Lurie “Language and culture Mycenaean Greece" (1957), built on the further development of the decipherment of Ventris; these works enrich our knowledge about the most ancient periods of the Greek. stories. Much attention from owls. Historians devote their time to studying the Hellenistic era. The work of V. V. Struve “The significance of certain demotic papyri of the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin for the history and culture of Ptolemaic Egypt” (1956) is extremely important. The monograph by A. B. Ranovich “Hellenism and its historical role” (1950) is a general work, which provides an outline of the history of the largest Hellenistic. state-in. The work of K. K. Zelin “Research on the history of land relations in Hellenistic Egypt” (1960) is valuable for its coverage of the problem as a whole and for its detailed analysis of the economy and social relations in Egypt in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. History of Rome. empire and its provinces are explored in the works of N. A. Mashkin “Principate of Augustus” (1949), E. M. Shtaerman “The Crisis of the Slave System in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire” (1957), O. V. Kudryavtsev “The Hellenic Provinces of the Balkan peninsula in the 2nd century AD." (1954), G. G. Diligensky "Roman Africa in the IV-V centuries." (1961). These works highlight the most important turning points in the history of Roman slave society from the perspective of Marxist methodology: the transition from republic to empire, the crisis of the 3rd century. n. e. and others. In 1955, “World History” began to be published, the 2nd volume (and part of the first) is dedicated to A. The publication of “Bulletin of Ancient History” (founded in 1937) continues - the center. organ of the owls historians of antiquity. Excavations are being carried out on a wide front in the south of the USSR: Panticapaeum (V.D. Blavatsky), Olbia (L.M. Slavin, A.N. Karasev), Chersonesus (G.D. Belov, S.F. Strzheletsky), small towns of the Bosporus (V.F. Gaidukevich), Tanais (T.N. Knipovich, D.B. Shelov), the rural territory of the Bosporan kingdom (I.T. Kruglikova), etc. The largest studies written on the basis of the study of history. materials and archaeological monuments of the North The Black Sea region are the works of V. D. Blavatsky “The Art of the Northern Black Sea Region of the Ancient Era” (1947), V. F. Gaidukevich “The Bosporan Kingdom” (1949), D. P. Kallistov “Essays on the History of the Northern Black Sea Region in the Ancient Era” (1949), T. N. Knipovich “Tanais” (1949), as well as an extensive series of dissertations and monographs under the general title “The Black Sea Region in the Ancient Era” (editor-in-chief V. N. Dyakov), which continues to be published to this day . time. Study of A. by foreign progressive historians. Foreign progressive historians, using the experience of the Marxist study of antiquity, strive to approach the solution of important problems in the history of antiquity. society from the perspective of Marxist-Leninist methodology. The range of interests of these scientists is extremely wide: the history of the Aegean world, the decipherment of Minoan writing, Homeric Greece, agriculture. relations in early Italy, problems of ancient Greek. philosophy, etc. Such scientists can be classified as capitalist. countries J. Thomson (England), E. Sereni (Italy), A. Bonnard (Switzerland), and in the countries of people's democracy - A. Salach (Czechoslovakia), R. Taubenschlag, K. Kumanetsky (Poland), W. Hartke ( GDR), V. Georgiev, D. Dimitrov, X. Danov (Bulgaria), A. Graur, E. Konduraki (Romania), I. Trenchenyi-Valdapfel (Hungary), etc. Scientific institutions studying the history of antiquity (press organs of the institution are given in parentheses after the name of the institution). Austria - Institut f?r alte Geschichte, Archeologie und Epigraphik der Universit?t Wien, main. 1876. Algeria - Soci?t? Arch?ologique du d?partement de Constantine, base. 1852 (“Recueil annuel de notices et de m?moires”); Soci?t? Historique Algerienne, main. 1856 ("Revue Africaine"). Belgium - Soci?t? Royale d´Arch?ologie de Bruxelles, base. 1887 (“Bulletin de la Soci?t? Royale d´Arch?ologie de Bruxelles”); Soci?t? Arch?ologique, main. 1845 (“Annales de la Soci?t? Arch?ologique de Namur”); Academie royale d´Arch?ologie de Belgique, main. 1842 ("Bulletin de l'Academie d'Arch?ologie de Belgique", "Annales de l'Academie d'Arch?ologie de Belgique"). Bulgaria - Archaeological Institute at the Bulgarian Academy on Naukite. Great Britain - British Academy, main. 1901, department of ancient history, department of archeology; Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, main. 1879 ("Journal of Hellenic Studies"); Ancient Monuments society, main. 1924; British Archaeological Association, main. 1843 ("Journal of..."); British Numismatic Society, main. 1903 ("British Numismatic journal..."); Egyptian Exploration Society, main. 1882 ("Archaeological Survey", "Graeco-Roman Memoirs", "The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology"); Palestine Exploration Fund, main. 1865 (“Palestine exploration quarterly”); Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, main. 1843 ("Archaeological Journal"); Royal numismatic Society ("Numismatic chronicle"); Society of Antiquaries of London, main. 1707 ("Archaeologia", "Antiquaries Journal"); Classical Association, main. 1903 ("Classical Review", "Classical Quarterly", "Greece and Rome"); Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, main. 1910 ("Journal of Roman Studies"); Institute of Classical Studies, main. 1953 ("Bulletin of..."). Hungary - Magyar R?g?szeti M?v?szett?rt?neti es ?remtani T?rsulat (“Archaeologiai Ertesit?”); Magyar Tudom?nyos Akad?mia, main. 1825 ("Acta Antiqua"). German Democratic Republic - Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, main. 1700, with her: Institut f?r griechischr?mische Altertumskunde (“Klio”, “Das Altertum”, “Philologus”); Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ("Forschungen und Fortschritte", "Mitteilungen aus der ?gyptischen Sammlung"). Greece - American School of Classical Studies at Athens, main. 1881 ("Hesperia") British School at Athens, founded. 1886 ("British School Annual"), Ecole Fran?aise d'Ath?nos, main. 1846 (“Bulletin de correspondance hell?nique”, “Biblioth?que des Ecoles fran?aises d´Ath?nes et de Rome”, “Fouilles de Delphes”, “Exploration arch?ologique de Delos”, “?tudes thasiennes” , "?tudes cretoises", "Travaux et m?moires", "Recherches fran?aises en Turquie", "?tudes peloponnesiennes"). Denmark - Det Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab, main. 1825; Societas Danica Indagalionis Antiquitatis et Medii aevi, main. 1934 (“Classica et Mediaevalia”). West Berlin - Deutsches Arch?ologisches Institut, main. 1829 ("Jahrbuch des Deutschen Arch?ologischen Instituts", "Mitteilungen..."), has branches in Athens, Rome and a number of other cities. Iraq - American School of Oriental Research..., main. 1923 ("Bulletin", "Iraq"). Spain - Real Academia de la Hist?ria, main. 1738 (“Memorias”,”Memorial hist?rico espa?ol”,”Bolet?n”); Comisaria General de Excavationes Archeol?gicos, main. 1939 (“Acta arqueol?gica”, “Noticiario arqueol?gico hispanico”, etc.); Institut d'Estudis Catalans, main. 1907 (there is a section of classical history and philology). Italy - Associazione Archeologica Romana, main. 1902; British School at Rome, main. 1901 ("Papers of..."); American Academy in Rome, main. 1894; Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, main. 1926; Istituto papirologico Girolamo Vitelli, main. 1908 (“Papiri Greci e Latini della Societ? Italiana”). Canada - Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Montreal, main. 1862 ("Journal of..."). China - Institute of History at the Academy of Sciences; Institute of Archeology at the Academy of Sciences; Chinese Historical Society, main. 1952. UAR: Egyptian region - Hellenic Society of Ptolemaic Egypt, op. 1908; Soci?t? Arch?ologique d'Alexandrie, base. 1893 (“Bulletins”, “M?moires”, “Monuments de l´Egypte Greco-Romaine”, “Cahiers arch?ologiques”, “Publications speciales”). Syrian region - National Museum, main. 1919 (“Les Annales Arch?ologiques de Syrie”). Poland - Polskie Towarzystwo Archeologiczne, main. 1953 (“Zapiski archeologiczne”, “Wiadomosci Numismatyczne”, etc.). Portugal - Akademia portuguesa da Historia, main. 1720; Associa??o des arqueologos Portugueses, main. 1863 (“Arqueologia e historia”, “Boletim”); Instituto Portugu?s de Arqueologia, Historia e Etnografia ("Ethnos"). Romania - Institutul de Arheologie, main. 1864; Institutul de Istorie. USSR - Sector of Ancient History at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences ("Bulletin of Ancient History"); Sector of Ancient Archeology at the USSR Institute of Archeology; Sector of Ancient Literature at the Institute of Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. USA - Archaeological Institute of America, main. 1879 (has branches in Athens and Rome); American Antiquarian Society, main. 1812; American Numismatic Society, main. 1858. Tunisia - Institut National d'Arch?ologie et Arts ("Notes et Documents"). Türkiye - British Institute of Archeology at Ankara, main. 1948 ("Anatolian studies"). Federal Republic of Germany - R?misch-Germanische Kommission des Deutschen Arch?ologischen Instituts, 1829 in Frankfurt am Main ("Jahrbuch...", "Berichte der R?misch-germanischen Kommission", "Germania"). Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn, main. 1820 (“Bonner Jahrb?cher des Rheinischen Museums und des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden in Rheinlande”); R?misch-Germanisches Museum in K?ln ("K?lner Jahrbuch f?r Vor-und Fr?hgeschichte"); R?misch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum zu Mainz, main. 1852 ("Jahrbuch..."). France - Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, main. 1663 (“Comptes Rendus”, “M?moires”, “Monuments Piot”, etc.); Soci?t? Fran?aise d´Arch?ologie, main. 1834 ("Bulletin monumental", Congr?s arch?ologiques de France"); Soci?t? Nationale des Antiquaires de France, founded 1803; Soci?t? Fran?aise de Numismatique, founded 1866 ("Revue numismatique" , "Bulletin mensuel"); Center International de Documentation Classique, founded 1929 ("Bulletin..."); Société Internationale de Bibliographie classique, founded 1922 ("L´ann?e Philologique", etc.) ; Association pour l'Encouragement des ?tudes greques en France, founded 1867 ("Revue des ?tudes greques"); Soci?t? des Etudes latines, founded 1923 ("Revue des ?tudes latines", "Collection des ? tudes latines"); Institut d'Epigraphie et d'?tudes greques, Institut de Droit Romain, Institut d'?tudes Latines at the Sorbonne. Czechoslovakia - Historicky ?stav ceskoslovenske akademie ved Archeologicky ?stav ceskoslovenske akademie ved; Historicky ?stav Slovensk? akademie vied; Archeologicky ?stav slovenske akad?mie vied. Switzerland - Antiquarische Gesellschaft, main. 1832 (“Mitteilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft”); Historische und Antiquarische Gesellschaft zu Basel, main. 1836 (“Basler Zeitschrift f?r Geschichte und Altertumskunde”);Soci?t? d´Histoire et d´Arch?ologie, main. 1838 (“Bulletin”, “M?moires et documents”); Soci?t? vandoise d'histoire et d'arch?ologie, main. 1902 (“Revue historique vandoise”). Yugoslavia - Arheolosko drustvo FNRJ ("Archeologia Jugoslavica"); Numizmaticno drustvo, main. 1930 (“Numizmatika”, “Numismaticke Vijesti”). Many universities are centers for the study of agriculture. Periodic publications on the history of antiquity: "Meander" (Warsaw), "Historia" (Wiesbaden), "Lustrum" (Göttingen), "Gnomon" (Munich). See also above, at scientific institutions. Lit.: Buzeskul V.P., Introduction to the history of Greece, 3rd ed., P., 1915; Mashkin N. A., History of Dr. Rome, 3rd ed., M., 1956, ch. 2; Sergeev V.S., History of Dr. Greece, 2nd ed., M., 1948, ch. 2; Diligensky G. G., Utchenko S. L., Sov. historiography of antiquity for 40 years, "VI", 1958, No. 1. S. L. Utchenko. Moscow, S.I. Kovalev. Leningrad.

Charity concert of the project “You are super!” in the Kremlin will be shown on NTV on the 10th at 20:10.

Antiquity (from Latin antiquitas - antiquity, antiquity) - the civilization and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, considered as the initial era, source, basis of European and modern world civilization and culture in a number of eras: antiquity - the Middle Ages - modern times. This point of view is connected with the fact that antiquity formed a state structure that became a model for modern world civilization - democracy, democracy - and in the process of its formation nurtured a culture that became one of the most significant and energetic forces of all subsequent world culture. Therefore, the heyday of classical (exemplary) Greek democracy is usually considered as the center of Greco-Roman antiquity (5-4 centuries BC), as the era of classical Greece, or classical antiquity. The time of the formation of democracy (7-6 centuries BC) is called the archaic (i.e. initial, or ancient) period, and an even earlier time of the beginning of the collapse of the clan community, prehistoric, i.e. from which written records have not reached evidence (11-8 centuries BC), is called the dark ages or (according to the time of creation of famous poems) the “Homeric” period. The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization (3-2 millennia BC) dates back to pre-antique times. The era of the decline of the Greek democratic states, but at the same time the spread of Greek civilization and culture as a result of the victories of Alexander the Great (see Alexander the Great's power) from the Mediterranean basin to India is called the era of Hellenism (338-30 BC). The final era of antiquity is designated as Hellenistic-Roman, since after the conquest of the last Hellenistic monarchy - Egypt (30 BC) by Rome - a higher Greek civilization and culture continued to coexist with Roman culture, exerting a strong influence on it, and many Greek cities - states within the Roman Empire retain internal autonomy, as in the Hellenistic era.

Greek democracy contained features that were also essential for the modern concept of democracy, but it also had some historically inevitable limitations. First of all, ancient classical democracy was considered as a form of government based on freedom. The guarantee of a citizen’s personal freedom was the right of private ownership of the means of production (and, above all, the most important of them - land) with the possibility of selling it or transferring it by inheritance, the right to freely dispose of produced goods (i.e., a free market), the right to directly influence the formation of domestic and foreign policy of the state and anti-monopoly laws that prevented the concentration of economic and political power in the hands of one individual, family, clan, estate, class. The disadvantage of classical ancient democracy was that freedom in each of the Greek states (and there were about 2 thousand of them) was enjoyed only by a full citizen of that particular state and only within the boundaries of his state. All other personally free residents of this state - immigrants and women - did not have civil rights and could not own private property (especially real estate). Not to mention the slaves, who did not even have personal freedom and were included in the category of people only by individual free-thinking Greeks and Romans (see Slavery, Slave Trade).

Despite these limitations, ancient democracy (and even aristocratic states) provided freedom of creative initiative to such a number of people, which was unthinkable in contemporary eastern despotisms (see Ancient East), where, as a rule, the only private owner was the despot, and all others - his subjects, tenants and slaves. It was civil rights that served as a good basis for the faith of the Greek of classical times in his own strength, in the ability to improve his life as a result of his own efforts, his own labor. All this resulted in unprecedented development in dynamics and unconditional originality in various areas of material and spiritual culture.

One of the visible results of this development was ancient sculpture. Borrowed by the Greeks from the ancient and refined, but impersonal and uniformed despotic civilization of Egypt, already in the archaic era it differs from the numb and sketchy Egyptian figures in its greater softness, liveliness and greater individualization of outlines. And with the beginning of the classical era, characterized by a massive increase in the self-awareness of free citizens of democratic cities, the sculpture acquired specifically antique original features. It ceases to serve as a symbol of the inviolability of the privileges of the clan nobility, frozen in a wooden pose, and begins to reflect the dynamics of the relations of full citizens of the polis.

Greek architecture was also fused with dynamic social processes. Before the Hellenistic era, royal palaces were not built due to the lack of royal power. The main buildings of cities at first were the houses of deities, patrons of cities - temples. As prosperity grew and democracy developed, another important center of the polis - the agora, the square where people gathered to solve both political and economic problems (in particular, for the exchange of goods), began to be equipped with buildings intended for various public needs - various kinds of government institutions , meetings, etc. This is the building of the city council - bouleuterium, theater, gymnasium, palaestra, stadium. Greek architecture made a number of original developments, in particular both the shape of temples and their individual details. And despite the monumental nature of the Greek public architecture of classical times, the sense of proportion did not allow the creation of structures that served the purpose of suppressing and belittling the feelings of a free citizen of a free state, in contrast to the architecture of ancient Eastern despotism, Hellenistic and Roman times, where individualistic-monopolistic tendencies encouraged hypertrophied monumentality and the enormity of the structures. (Since Hellenistic times, palaces of kings and villas of royal nobles and wealthy people have appeared in Greek architecture.) Private buildings, along with the growth in the well-being of the general population of democratic cities, were also improved. Cities were supplied with water supply and sewerage. Newly built cities (for example, Piraeus) were created according to the Greek philosophy of architecture, the most prominent representative of which was Hippodamus of Miletus (Hippodamian layout). Ancient civilization arose as a civilization of city-states and remained such until its end, despite the loss of the cities' right to conduct an independent foreign policy, supported by their own independent armed forces. But in the process of the increasing attack of the imperial central government on the rights of municipal self-government (up to the draconian taxation by Justinian), the cities lost sources of not only development, but also regeneration and fell into decay.

Together with the ancient city, Greek and then Roman literature was formed, all those genres and literary examples that will largely determine the development of European and world literature. In the archaic era, a recording is made of preliterate epics created in the dark ages, in particular Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, which became subjects of compulsory school education not only in the gymnasiums of antiquity, but also in the humanistic (classical) gymnasium of modern times. A living epic is no longer being created, but only parodies of it, since its natural environment - the aristocratic community - is giving way to democracy. An emancipating person fulfills his need for expression and awareness of feelings and experiences in another type of literature - in lyrics. It was in the archaic era that a whole constellation of masters of various lyrical forms emerged - Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Archilochus and many others. In the classical era, drama became the leading genre, and theater became an obligatory attribute of the architecture of every city. The greatest playwrights of tragedy are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and comedies are Aristophanes. Isegory (equal freedom of speech for all citizens) and isonomia (political equality) cause the flourishing of the once aristocratic art of oratory, for the manifestation of which there were enough occasions at meetings of the national assembly, council, court, at public festivals and even in everyday life. Demosthenes and Isocrates were special masters of this art and at the same time political figures. And besides them, dozens of names can be named, since oratory never died in antiquity, although with the fall of Greek democracy and the Roman Republic, it rather turned into eloquence. The development of social consciousness gave rise to literature describing states in the process of development, i.e. historiography, the most prominent representatives of the initial stage of which were Hecataeus of Miletus, Herodotus and Thucydides. The relationship between the subject and the object, the individual and the surrounding world, i.e., the problems that appeared along with Greek freedom, with the help of various approaches, the Greek philosophy that was born with it tries to comprehend, unlike other spheres of Greek spiritual culture, which never received real development in Roman culture.

Greek science, which already had great achievements in classical times, is also developing in close connection with philosophy - mathematics, geometry, astronomy, medicine, the continuation of which is the modern corresponding scientific disciplines. Technology has also reached a high level. However, in antiquity it does not form a close connection with scientific developments, since slave labor, which became increasingly widespread in postclassical times, was cheaper than technology. Only military equipment had stable development. At the same time, over a thousand years from the classical era to the end of antiquity, engineers and technicians gave a relatively strong impetus to the development of productive forces, expanded the range of consumer goods, improved their quality, and increased their quantity. In addition to the military field, technical innovations were used in lifting mechanisms, shipbuilding, the mining industry (including quarries and metallurgical enterprises), and water management (pipelines, water wheels). Steam and air pressure were applied. Despite the braking power of slave labor, progressive designs of plows, mowers, reapers and water mills began to be used in antiquity.

By the 4th century. BC e. In general terms, an education system has developed in Greece - general education or encyclopedic education, enkyuklios paideia, which was fundamentally rejected neither by Rome, nor by the Christian Middle Ages, nor by the Christian-democratic modern era (humanistic or classical gymnasium, liberal arts education). The classical languages ​​- ancient Greek and Latin - in the form of the so-called international vocabulary have entered all European and many non-European languages ​​and, being the international language of science and culture, connect together, like living nerves and blood vessels, modern civilization with its life-giving sources - historical experience and achievements of the past.

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..........

1 THE CONCEPT OF ANTIQUE. TIME FRAME OF THE ANTIQUE PERIOD…..

2 CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE FROM HOMER TO PLATO:

a) FORMATION OF RELIGIOUS-MYTHOLOGICAL CONSCIOUSNESS;….

b) DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT (SOCRATES, PLATO, ARISTOTLE)………………………………………………………………………………………...

c) ANCIENT THEATER: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT (ESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, EURIPIDES, ARISTOPHANES)………………………………………………………………………………...

d) ARCHITECTURE, BASIC ARCHITECTURAL STYLES…………………..

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………….

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………

INTRODUCTION

In the centuries-old history of the development of human society, a special role belongs to the ancient period, which is mainly due to its contribution to world culture. At the same time, the culture of antiquity (as well as the cultures of other eras) is often identified by a number of researchers with the concept of “civilization.” The identification of these concepts leads to ambiguity in understanding the very content of culture.

There are various definitions of civilization in the scientific literature. In socio-philosophical literature, civilization is the stage of human history following barbarism. At the same time, definitions such as “European civilization”, “American civilization”, “Russian civilization” and others are often found in the literature, which emphasize the uniqueness of regional cultures.

According to I.F. Kefeli, culture is a process of active human activity aimed at mastering, knowing and transforming the world, the totality of material and spiritual values ​​achieved in the process of mastering the world, reflecting the level of human achievements in mastering the world. Most modern experts believe that the cultural process includes ways and methods of creating tools, objects and things necessary for humans, and that mastering culture involves mastering the skills and knowledge necessary for work, communication and cognition.

Thus, by culture, modern science understands everything that is created by people, in contrast to what exists in nature besides man, in other words, all the creative activity of people in all its diversity, in all its versatility. By civilization we understand one of the periods in the history of culture. These periods are as follows:

wildness - “a period of predominantly appropriation of finished products of nature” (Engels);

barbarism is an era characterized by the invention of pottery, the general sophistication of tools, the beginnings of animal husbandry and agriculture (in common usage, “barbarism” has become a designation of rudeness, cruelty, cultural backwardness and reactionaryness);

civilization is an era that begins with the invention of alphabetic writing and is characterized by the complication of the manufacturing industry, a large increase in labor productivity, the continuous deepening of class contradictions and a state organization based on these contradictions.

The civilization of antiquity is one of the periods of cultural development that took place within the borders of Ancient Greece.

1 THE CONCEPT OF ANTIQUE.

TIME FRAME OF THE ANTIQUE PERIOD.

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to call it a special period in the development of ancient Greece, as well as those lands and peoples that were under its cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, but it largely coincides with the time of existence of the ancient state itself.

Ancient (or ancient) Greece was the cradle of European civilization and culture. It was here that those material, spiritual, aesthetic values ​​were laid down, which to one degree or another found their development among almost all European peoples.

The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural eras:

Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean (III - II millennium BC),

Homeric (XI - IX centuries BC),

Archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC),

Classical (V - IV centuries BC),

Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st centuries BC).

The culture of ancient Greece reached its greatest flourishing during the classical period.

1. CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE FROM HOMER TO PLATO

a) FORMATION OF RELIGIOUS-MYTHOLOGICAL CONSCIOUSNESS

The Greek religion took shape in the Aegean era and was undoubtedly influenced by the Cretan-Mycenaean cults with their female deities. Like all ancient peoples, the Greeks had local communal cults, patron gods of individual city-polises, and agricultural gods. But already in ancient times, there was a tendency for local gods to be absorbed by the great gods of Greece - the Olympians. This trend reached its final conclusion in the Macedonian era and was a reflection of the cultural, political and economic unification of the Greek city-states. But already in the Homeric era, the cultural community of the Greeks was clearly recognized by them, which was reflected in the veneration of the common Greek gods. Epic creativity and its creators, the Aeds, played a significant role in the design of the pan-Greek pantheon. In this sense, the old saying that “Homer created the gods of Greece” reflects some kind of historical reality.

The question of the origin of the great gods of the Olympian pantheon is extremely difficult. The images of these gods are very complex, and each of them has experienced a long evolution. The main gods of the Greek pantheon are: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Artemis, Apollo, Hermes, Dionysus, Asclepius, Pan, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, Hestia. A characteristic feature of the ancient Greek religion was anthropomorphism - the deification of man, the idea of ​​gods as strong, beautiful people who are immortal and have eternal youth. The gods, according to the Greeks, lived on Mount Olympus, located on the border of Thessaly and Macedonia.

The forms of cult among the Greeks were relatively simple. The most common part of the cult was sacrifice. Other elements of the cult included laying wreaths on altars, decorating statues of gods, washing them, solemn processions, singing sacred hymns and prayers, and sometimes religious dances. The exercise of public worship was considered a matter of national importance. In addition to the public cult, there was also a private, domestic cult, its rituals, more modest, were performed by the heads of families and clans. The priesthood in Greece did not constitute a special corporation or a closed class. The priests were simply considered servants of the temples; in some cases they practiced fortune telling, divination and healing. The position of priest was honorable, but did not give direct power, since civil officials often led the official cult. The Greek city-states in this respect were very different from the eastern despotic states with their dominance of the priesthood.

The next dominant feature of Greek culture is mythology. Greek mythology is not only and not so much the world of religious ideas, it is the world of the Greeks in general, it is a complex and vast whole, which, along with the myths themselves, also includes historical legends and traditions, fairy tales, literary short stories, free variations on mythological themes. But since these various elements are difficult to separate from each other, this broadly understood mythology must be considered as a whole.

Among the myths there is a deeply archaic layer of totemistic myths about Hyacinth, Narcissus, Daphne, Aedon, etc. Very characteristic are the agricultural myths about Demeter and Persephone, about Triptolemus and Yacchus, about Dionysus - they personified the sowing and germination of grain and the ritual practice of landowners. Mythological personifications of the elements of earthly nature were of great importance.

The Greeks populated all nature with divine creatures: dryads, nymphs, goat-footed satyrs lived in the groves; in the sea - naiads and sirens (birds with the heads of women). Myths reflecting the historical change of cults are alive and colorful: about the struggle between generations of gods, about the overthrow of his father Uranus by Kronos, about his eating his own children and, finally, about the victory of his son Zeus over him.

The anthropological motif is almost absent from Greek mythology. It does not give a clear answer to the question of the origin of people. According to one myth, the creator of man was the titan Prometheus. In any case, it is characteristic that in Greek mythology the gods do not act as the creators of the world and man.

But if the idea of ​​a creator god was alien to the mythology of the Greeks, then the images of cultural heroes occupied a prominent place in it. The cultural heroes are gods, titans and demigod-heroes, who, according to the Greeks, originated from the marriages of gods with people. Hercules, who performed 12 labors, was especially famous and revered. This is the image of a noble hero fighting evil and defeating it. The Titan Prometheus brought the Holy Fire to people, gave them intelligence and knowledge, thereby incurring the wrath of Zeus and undergoing a terrible thousand-year execution, from which Hercules freed him many years later. The goddess Athena was credited with introducing olive tree culture; Demetre - cereals; Dionysus - viticulture and winemaking; To Hermes - the invention of weights and measures, numbers and writing; Apollo - teaching people poetry and music and other arts.

Close to the images of cultural heroes and sometimes indistinguishable from them are the semi-legendary and semi-historical figures of legislators and city organizers, great singers, poets and artists. This is the image of Homer, the legendary author of the Illiad and Odyssey. There is a huge literature on the Homeric question, which can be divided into three main groups:

Theories of folk epic;

Synthetic theories (one person only collected and processed the folk epic).

So, Greek mythology, with all the complexity and diversity of the elements included in it, has one feature that still makes such a strong impression on the listener and reader - the high artistry and humanism of the images.

b) DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT (SOCRATES, PLATO, ARISTOTLE)

Speaking about ancient Greek culture, one cannot fail to mention philosophy, which occupied an important and honorable place in the system of ancient Greek culture. Ancient Greek philosophy is interesting not only because it formed its own approach to man and the world, thereby creating the ideological foundation of Western European thought until the twentieth century, but also because many branches of science and culture arose in its depths, including exact science, natural science , political thought, logic, rhetoric, and even music. Greek philosophy deals with many religious issues; it also influences art, creating various canons and sets of aesthetic rules. The philosophers of Ancient Greece were in some ways ahead of their time - many of their discoveries were confirmed many centuries and even millennia later.

The question of the status of the individual, its ethical and social foundations becomes central in the philosophy of Socrates (470-399 BC), whose name is synonymous with philosophy and wisdom. A man who did not leave a single line behind himself and asserted “I only know that I know nothing” is today assessed as a key phenomenon not only within the framework of ancient culture, but also in the entire history of Western European worldview. The main merit of Socrates was that he proved the intrinsic value of the human personality and its self-sufficiency. For the polis thinking of Greece at that time, this meant an ideological revolution. Talking with people in markets and streets, Socrates taught them to think independently, to be skeptical of themselves and the established cliches of consciousness. "Know yourself!". This popular saying was transformed by the philosopher into an extensive system of beliefs. The idea that a person is a goal and at the same time a value in itself turned the Greeks’ ideas about a person, society, and state upside down.

Socrates' student Plato (427-347 BC) not only developed the teachings of his mentor, but also created a universal idealistic system for the first time in the history of philosophy. In order to know a thing, it is necessary to reveal its inner meaning, that is, the idea. The idea of ​​a thing is the totality of those parts of it that give it a new quality. The idea of ​​a thing is the integrity of its characteristics, which is the law of its origin and existence. The idea of ​​a thing is its ultimate generalization. Plato saw the fact that the idea, unlike its material counterpart, is perfect, absolute and constant. But from this completely correct statement, Plato draws an unexpected conclusion: the entire real world is just a copy, a “shadow” of the kingdom of ideal entities. As for his socio-ethical concept, Plato can rightfully be considered the first theorist of “scientific communism”.

The work of Aristotle (384-322 BC) coincided with a turning point in the social life of Greece. After the Battle of Chaeronea, when the Macedonian troops of Philip II defeated the combined forces of the Greek city-states, sovereign states ceased to exist. The level of scientific thought has reached a significant division of knowledge: special sciences are appearing. Cultural and philosophical thought raises new questions. Aristotle's encyclopedic mind tries in its own way to consider these phenomena in social and scientific life; he develops a large-scale doctrine of essence, matter and form, exploring the problems of the relationship between the individual and the general, the material and the spiritual, the rational and the sensual. It reveals the philosophical meaning of such concepts as infinity, space, time, movement, creating a comprehensive system of categories.

c) ANCIENT THEATER: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT (ESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, EURIPIDES, ARISTOPHANES)

Ancient Greek theater developed in the VI-V centuries. BC. The cult of the god Dionysus, which appeared in the 8th-6th centuries, played an important role in the development of the theater. BC. Dionysus was first considered the god of the creative forces of nature. Then he became the god of viticulture, winemaking, fun, and later the patron of theatrical art. During processions in honor of Dionysus - Dionysius, scenes from the life of the god were played out. They told how Dionysus brought the grapevine to Greece, about Dionysus’s struggle with enemies, about his death, resurrection and victory over the enemy. The arrival of Dionysus from across the sea on an ivy-covered ship was depicted. He was accompanied by a crowd of people dressed in goat skins and masks, depicting satyrs - the goat-footed companions of God. The priest and the choir of satyrs spoke in songs of praise (dithyrambs) about the wanderings and sufferings of God. From this serious side of the Dionysian rites Greek tragedy was born. The word "tragedy" means "song of the goats" (from "tragos" - the goat that was sacrificed to Dionysus, and "ode" - song). Comedy was born out of the fun, carnival side of these holidays. From the holidays in honor of Dionysus, satyr drama was born - a cheerful play with a happy ending, so named because the chorus in it consisted of satyrs. As the theater developed, tragedies began to tell not only about Dionysus, but also about other gods, and later about heroes - Hercules, Oedipus, Theseus. The choir began to portray not the companions of God, but ordinary people. Life motives penetrate more and more into tragedy, and become predominant in comedy. In the spring of 534 BC. In Athens, at the festival of the Great Dionysius, the first performance of the tragedy took place. The author was the first tragic poet, Thespis. Greek tragedy used mythological themes. But through the shell of myth, dramaturgy reflected important phenomena of that time. Comedy of the 5th century. BC. called ancient Attic comedy. It combined the cheerful freedom of folk ritual games with the formulation of important issues of state and public life. Education of youth, literary struggle, issues of war and peace, organization of government institutions - these problems were raised in comedies. Sharp caricature, attacks on real people, flights of fancy are the main features of comedy. Theatrical art flourished in the 5th century. BC. in the works of three great tragic poets: Aeschylus (525 - 456), Sophocles (c. 496 - 406), Euripides (c. 480 - 406) and the comic poet Aristophanes (c. 445 - c. 385). Their practice was theoretically summarized by Aristotle (384 - 322) in his treatise Poetics. The theater was a state institution, and the organization of performances was in charge of special officials - archons. They provided the playwright with a choir and appointed a choreg - a wealthy citizen who agreed to bear the costs associated with preparing the performance. Performances were held three times a year during holidays dedicated to the god Dionysus. The performances took the form of competitions. Three tragic and three comic poets were allowed to participate in dramatic competitions. Each tragic poet had to present a tetralogy - three tragedies and one satyr drama, and a comic poet - one comedy. The names of the winners - actors, playwrights and choreographers - were entered in special documents. Theaters were built open and reached enormous sizes: the theater of Dionysus in Athens accommodated 17 thousand people, and the theater in Megalopolis - 44 thousand. In the first tragedies, the parts of the choir alternated with the part of a single actor. As interest in man and his inner world grows, the need arises to show heroes with different characters who solve life’s problems in different ways. This led to the introduction of a second and then a third actor. The characters' dialogues increased, and the choir parts decreased. The number of actors did not exceed three. There were more characters, so each actor played several roles. Women's roles were played by men. The actors had to master the art of speech, sing, and dance. Tragic actors played in masks that covered their faces and entire heads. Their costumes consisted of a chiton (shirt to the toes with long sleeves) and a cloak - short (chlamys) or long (himatia). The feet were wearing shoes with high (up to 27 cm) soles - buskins. The tragic choir consisted of 12-15 people (the comic choir - 24) and performed under the leadership of a luminary. Most tragedies ended in the death of the main character. But the tragedy did not leave an impression of hopelessness. The suffering and courage of the heroes aroused the admiration of the audience, taught them to calmly face the blows of fate and die with dignity for the common good. Comedy characters were supposed to evoke laughter, so comic masks had flattened noses, protruding lips, and bulging eyes. If a poet portrayed his contemporary in comedy, part of the mask was his caricatured portrait. The costumes also had to make people laugh. About the tragedy of the IV - III centuries. BC. little is known. The comedy of this time is called New Attic. She depicted only family and everyday relationships; her ending was always happy. The comedy sought to develop human characters more deeply and called for being more attentive and kinder to people, regardless of their class status. The features of the new comedy were reflected in the work of Menander (c. 343 - c. 291 BC). Folk theater performances - mimes - were popular. A mime is a small scene of an everyday or parody-satirical nature, in which both market thieves and mythological heroes were depicted. Not only men, but also women performed in mimes. The actors played without masks. In the IV-I centuries. BC. Pantomime, a performance reminiscent of ballet, became widespread. Mime and pantomime are gradually pushing aside other theatrical genres.

7 tragedies came down from Aeschylus, of which “Prometheus Bound” (part of the lost trilogy) and the “Oresteia” trilogy (“Agamemnon”, “Choephori”, “Eumenides”) stand out. Aeschylus is the creator of the tragedy-oratorio, where the song of the choir, the songs of the actor, the so-called monody, the joint songs of the choir and actors, the so-called commos, occupied the most important place.

Sophocles and Euripides. In the tragedies of these playwrights (trilogies were no longer written), the world order is disrupted. After all the suffering and torment of the heroes, the chorus can only state the presence of higher powers, incomprehensible and beyond the control of man, creating their own justice. One can hear pessimism and belief in the inevitability of blind fate. The tragedies of Sophocles: “Antigone”, “Oedipus the King”, “Oedipus in the Column”, etc. Sophocles is a master of twists and turns, i.e. sharp transitions from one situation to another, from happiness to unhappiness, from ignorance to knowledge. In the tragedies of Euripides (“Medea”, “Hippolytus”, “Heraclides”, “Phoenicians”, “Iphigenia in Aulis”) there is a pathos of self-sacrifice, human passions are limitless. Euripides is outraged by the lack of rights of women. For him, a good person is often a simple person, an honest, free farmer (“Electra”), a faithful slave-educator, teacher or slave-nurse. In his attempt to create not tragic types, but psychologically in-depth characters, the approach of Hellenistic literature is felt.

Aristophanes is the creator of a politically ideological comedy that responds to the topic of the day. His heroes are artisans and farmers, small people, not at all heroic, but dexterous, cunning, distrustful of corrupt demagogues (“Horsemen”) - leaders of political groups, the name of which has received a negative meaning since the time of Aristophanes. These are peasants thirsting for peace (“Peace”, “Acharnians”), city dwellers - dreamers, seekers of truth, who have established a bird state between heaven and earth, from where frivolous poets, corrupt scientists and priests (“Birds”) are expelled. The world of Aristophanes' comedies is a cheerful buffoonery, often rude and evil, since in comedy everything is permitted and accessible. Here everyone gets it - the hapless politician, the mediocre poet and the new philosophical and educational theories (“Clouds”). Aristophanes acts either as a literary critic, exposing the merits of Aeschylus and the shortcomings of Euripides, whom he disliked (“Frogs”), or as a utopian, eager to remake the world and who saw that wealth and poverty, exchanging places, did not bring happiness to people (“Wealth”). At the center of comedies is agon, i.e. rivalry, competition.

d) ARCHITECTURE, BASIC ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. stone statues appear. Sports competitions were holidays. Statues were erected in honor of the winners. This is how the most common type of statue arose - a standing young athlete (kouros). The first statues of the late 7th - early 6th centuries. BC, they were distinguished by their immobility, they seemed frozen in tense poses. Already in these early sculptures, the Greeks sought to convey the beauty of a naked body, strong, proportionally built. The image of a beautiful and valiant person lies at the heart of art. Statues of girls - kor - in elegant clothes were common. The cores' faces are enlivened by a slight smile. Humanity is also characteristic of architecture. The Greeks did not try to build grandiose temples that would overwhelm people. They sought to ensure that the buildings were proportionate to the people, so that the person next to them felt significant and strong. The Greeks developed a special system - an order - an established, mathematically precise ratio of the load-bearing and supported parts of the building. There are three orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The first temples were built in the Doric order. These temples were built in the form of a peripterus - a building surrounded by a colonnade. The friezes of the temples were decorated with reliefs; reliefs or statues were also placed on the pediments - flat triangles formed by the gable roof on the end sides of the temple. On the friezes of temples of the 6th century. BC. the exploits of Hercules and Theseus and mythical monsters were depicted. The figures are flat, disproportionate, movements are angular, unnatural. By the end of the 6th century. BC. success has been achieved in this regard. Fighting warriors on the pediment of the Temple of Athena Aphaia on the island of Aegina (c. 500 BC) are shown in motion. True, stiffness and rigidity have not yet been completely overcome. Painting reached a high level of development. But frescoes and paintings painted on wooden boards have not reached us. An idea of ​​the picturesque paintings is given by images on clay vases. In the VI century. BC. vases were painted with silhouette images applied with black varnish on an orange surface. Such vases were called black-figure vases. Many vases bear the signatures of the masters. A major master of the second half of the 6th century. BC. was Exekius. A drinking cup painted by him, a kylix, is known, on which the god of wine Dionysus is depicted sailing on the sea in a boat. The amphora - a wine vase - by Andokidas depicts Hercules abducting the three-headed dog Cerberus, the guardian of the underworld. At the end of the 6th century. BC. a new technique spread: the figures were left the color of clay, and the background was covered with black varnish. Such vases were called red-figure vases. Scenes from everyday life began to be depicted. Thus, Euphronius represented athletes preparing for competitions on a large vase - a crater (c. 500 BC).

CONCLUSION

Consequently, culture or civilization in the broad ethnographic sense is composed as a whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morality, laws, customs and some other abilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Being the second independent stage in the history of world culture, ancient culture was built on faith in the power of the liberated human spirit, in knowledge and the truth of life. Developing under the influence of early civilization, the culture of antiquity made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. The monuments of architecture and sculpture that have reached us, masterpieces of painting and poetry, are evidence of a high level of cultural development. They have significance not only as works of art, but also social and moral significance. And now the thoughts about good, evil, honor and dishonor formulated in them are modern.

On the basis of ancient culture, categories of scientific thinking first appeared and began to develop; the contribution of antiquity to the development of astronomy and theoretical mathematics was great. That is why ancient philosophy and science played such an important role in the emergence of modern science and the development of technology. In general, the culture of antiquity was the basis for the further development of world culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. History of world culture. Chernokozov A.I.

2. Children's Encyclopedia.

3. State of the art, Russian language M. M. G. P. P. M. M., M., 1994.

4. V.I. Dobrynina. Culture and civilization // Socio-political journal. - 1994. - N 2.

5. K. Kumanetsky. History of culture of ancient Greece and Rome. - M: Higher School, 1990.

Very often in everyday life you can hear such a word to designate the time period of Ancient Greece and Rome as “antiquity”. What is this period? You will find the answer to this question in this article.

Geography

What is antiquity? This is an era in history that significantly influenced the further development of many states. Those countries considered to be examples of this period were located in the territories of Southern and Central Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. The most prominent are such states as Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In these countries, the spiritual sphere of society has reached its highest point of development. They belong to the Central part.

On the periphery of the ancient world, for example, in the Mediterranean, in the river basin called the Danube, as well as in North Africa, there were states that became part of the ancient world a little later.

Stages of Antiquity

What is antiquity? This is a long period of universal history, which is conventionally divided into several stages. The first of them began in Ancient Greece even before our era, namely at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The period of Italian antiquity began.

Before the culture and art of Ancient Greece became exemplary, there was an active development of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization, which arose at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. It influenced the historical path of ancient states. The ancient world ended its existence in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. Historians believe that the final date of ancient history is 476 AD. In general, the length of antiquity is 1.5 thousand years.

Society and economy

What is antiquity? This is not only the culture and art of Ancient Greece and Rome. This is also the socio-political structure of these states, their economy. What characterized these areas of life? Society was represented by a complex structure, which, of course, gave rise to deep internal contradictions. This was also one of the reasons why ancient states were rocked by numerous social conflicts, unrest, uprisings and even civil wars. The state was represented by a polis.

The economic development of the Ancient Greeks and Romans was quite successful for that time. Private property was of great importance. Even poor people owned at least a small plot of land, a boat or a workshop. More successful citizens, whose financial situation was good, simply put, the nobility, could afford larger plots of land and more developed workshops.

Story

This science developed in Ancient Greece. It was founded by the scientist Herodotus, thanks to whom information about the Greco-Persian Wars was preserved. Subsequently, many philosophers and scientists made their contribution to such a science as the history of Antiquity. In the works of that time one can see attempts to substantiate the reasons for this or that event, the role of a specific historical figure, and so on. Especially famous to this day are the works of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who, by the way, was depicted on many statues.

Architecture

The Age of Antiquity is closely connected with the development of architecture. Firstly, urban planning has reached a high level. Thus, all cities were carefully planned and thoroughly built. They contained theaters, gymnasiums (sports complexes), markets, stadiums, and temples. The roads on the streets were paved with pottery shards, cobblestones or stone slabs. The water supply and sewerage system was also well developed.

Both the Greeks and Romans were able to build complex structures, while adding interesting architectural designs to the buildings. Thus, an order system appeared in Ancient Greece. Temples were built on a rectangular foundation; Believers gathered on the steps leading inside. There was a statue of some god in the temple. Therefore, many buildings were called something like this: “Temple of Nika Apteros.”

The Romans adopted many elements of Greek architecture, such as columns. However, they also brought something new to the art of antiquity. For example, arched structures and domed vaults. A new durable building material was also invented by them. That's what it's called: Roman concrete.

Theater and public speaking

The culture of Antiquity is inextricably linked with such concepts as “theater” and “oratory”. Indeed, theater was one of the main types of mass entertainment. Civil consciousness was formed through plays. Playwrights such as Aeschylus and Sophocles, Aristophanes and Menander are known throughout the world. Ancient Roman theatrical art was originally a direct imitation of the Greek. However, the population of this state preferred comedies. Thanks to the addition of musical numbers, dances and even special effects, the performances became much more spectacular.

Oratory was a practical need of ancient society. It was during this period that the theory of eloquence was created, which was widely used in political struggles and legal disputes. The most famous speakers were Demosthenes and Cicero, who lived in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, respectively.

Literature

What is antiquity? This is a period that left a profound light on the development of European states. One of the greatest cultural achievements of this time is fiction. In the main centers of art, namely Greece and Rome, many literary genres developed.

These include: poetry (lyrical and epic), tragedy, comedy, novel. Such works as “The Iliad”, “Odyssey”, “The Golden Ass” are the best of their kind and belong to ancient Greek culture. Ancient Roman literature is known from the poem "Aeneid".

Influence on other states

Ancient antiquity had a great influence on other states. Thus, architectural elements were borrowed from here and used in many styles and directions. Statues of gods and historical figures became examples of grace and beauty, the standard by which new works of art were subsequently created. They returned to antiquity as a model during the Renaissance and Classicism, considering the works of this period to be the ideal of proportionality.

During the period of Antiquity, the foundations of theatrical and oratory art, as well as literature, were laid. Moreover, the social structure of ancient states was partially adopted by more modern countries. And finally, the language and writing of the ancient period formed the basis of many modern languages, such as English, German, Spanish, Italian, French and even Russian. Many sciences were laid down at this time and became the foundation for their further study. The Latin language was used in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and now it is scientific.