Russian culture of the 17th century enlightenment. Russian culture of the 17th century

Playing a conservative socio-political role at the time of baptism, Christianity soon had a positive impact on some aspects of ancient Russian life:

It facilitated the establishment of ties between Rus' and Byzantium, the Christian countries of Central and Western Europe.

“The adoption of Christianity immediately put Rus' on the same level as the advanced states of that time, facilitated diplomatic ties, since the people of the Middle Ages attached great importance to religion, and Christianity by that time had covered approximately three-quarters of Europe, Transcaucasia and a significant part of the Middle East” 13.

One of the political results of the baptism was that the son of Vladimir, by agreement with the Caesar of the Byzantine Empire, received the highest title in Europe of “Caesar,” i.e., Emperor. And Vladimir’s son, grandsons and granddaughters became related to the largest royal houses of the continent.

Christianity contributed to the growth of culture and the formation of the ancient Russian people.

However, there is no reason to consider the church as an accelerator of feudalization Ancient Rus', and Christianity - as a class ideology that sanctified feudal oppression. The church in Byzantium was by no means a mature feudal institution, since at the time of Vladimirov’s baptism feudal relations there were still in their infancy. In Rus', the church encountered a pre-class society to which it had to adapt.

Dual faith.

In Rus', Christianity did not appear in the original form in which it was in the first centuries of its existence; it has long ceased to be the religion of the disenfranchised and oppressed, who expected compensation only in the other world.

The strength of state Christianity was the combination of the principle of inviolability and limitlessness of power, taken from the Bible, with the principle of obedience and humility, taken from the Gospel teaching. All subsequent Christian literature followed this path; Christian clergy took an active part in the development of state legislation.

It would seem that from a general historical perspective, one should welcome the church, which strengthened the new feudal formation, creating the ideology of the new ruling class, promoting its unity and being an integral part of this class.

However, it is necessary to take into account that the Christian Church not only strengthened the feudal state, but also very skillfully, fully armed with various means of church literature, art, and theatrical worship, counteracted the class struggle, declaring any resistance to the authorities outside the law of God and man.

It was with such a dialectically contradictory essence that Christianity appeared in Rus' in the 10th century.

Rybakov notes: “Thousand-year-old paganism very slowly retreated under the persistent onslaught of the Orthodox clergy. The village essentially became Christian hardly earlier than the 13th century” 14.

Along with city and rural parish churches in Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries, many house churches were created. With a high degree of probability, we can say that prayers were performed not only in house churches, but also in special rooms called “cross rooms.” HER. Golubinsky saw the creation of house churches in Rus' as a custom borrowed from the Greeks. The famous historian of the Russian church was wrong here. For the establishment of house churches in Ancient Rus' there was its own native soil, for in ancient societies that professed a pagan religion, each individual family had “its own religious rituals, belonging to it alone, its own special hymns and prayers... Rituals, words, prayers, hymns , which formed an essential part of the home religion - all this was the ancestral heritage, the sacred property of the family, and this property could not be shared with anyone, it was strictly forbidden to reveal any of this to outsiders.

A similar picture emerges in the life of civil urban communities Kievan Rus. “As the historical experience of ancient peoples shows, civil communities, like families, had their own gods, and therefore each was an independent, and sometimes closed, religious association. This is precisely what explains the specific role that cathedral churches, erected in volost centers - the centers of various ancient Russian lands, or city-states, assumed" 15. They acquired enormous significance, being a stronghold of prosperity and peace, a symbol of the sovereignty of the volost communities. These were the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk, the Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov, the Cathedral of St. Mother of God in Smolensk, St. Virgin Mary in Vladimir on Klyazma, etc.

Each house had a special sacred place where icons were subsequently placed - the “red corner”, “red corner”. The icon case - the “goddess” - was decorated with ritual towels - “devotees”, and Orthodox icons stood side by side with devout icons, on which archaic pagan subjects were often embroidered: the goddesses Lada and Lelya and the stern Makosh. “On the icon cases, despite their belonging to a new cult that exterminated the pagan archaic and in particular the cult of the sun and the “white light,” we see the same system of amulets that is so clearly visible in the external and internal ornamentation of the house” 16.

The breath of paganism affected not only monasteries, but also large monasteries. Thus, according to the testimony of Metropolitan John II (1080-1089), in monasteries every now and then “they create feasts, call together husband and wife.” The Lord notices that the organizers of those feasts compete with each other to see who can “create a feast” better. Before us, undoubtedly, are pagan feasts of a prestigious nature.

Christian deities also underwent pagan rethinking in Ancient Rus', and the church calendar was closely linked to the course of pagan festivals.

With the adoption of Christianity, Perun was replaced by Jesus Christ, as evidenced by ancient authors: “By holy baptism Perun was rejected, and by Christ the Lord God was accepted.” As a result, Jesus Christ began to have some of the characteristics of Perun, and his worship was in many ways reminiscent of the worship of Perun with his abundant sacrifices designed to appease the deity so that it would grant prosperity to the believers.

If Christ replaced Perun, then the Mother of God replaced Rozhanits as the female fertility deity. The popularity of the cult of the Mother of God, observed in Russian Orthodoxy, is to a large extent explained by the transfer to her of the properties of the female deities of the pagan pantheon.

Pagan gods can also be discerned in the images of Russian saints. Behind St. George the Victorious (Egory the Brave) hides the sun god Khors, seated on a solar horse. Elijah the prophet took on some of the features of Perun the Thunderer. John the Baptist firmly united with Kupala pagan rituals. The patron of cattle, Vlasiy, became the successor of the god Volos (Veles), and Paraskeva-Pyatnitsa became the successor of the female goddess-spinner Mokosha. The prototype of Saints Kozma and Demyan was Svarog, the patron saint of blacksmiths engaged in “fiery work.” Kozma and Demyan resemble cultural heroes of antiquity. A legend recorded in Volyn says: “Kuzma and Demyan wandered around the world and came across people who did not plow the field, but dug it with hoes. Kuzma and Demyan began to think about how to make a farm here so that these people could easily get bread. So they came up with the first Ralo.”

the fetishized perception of icons replaced ancient Russian people with pagan idols.

The oral poetry of the Ukrainian people has preserved the memory of Kozma and Demyan as the first teachers among people. Sometimes two saints merged into one person with the name of Kuzmodemyan, thereby approaching their predecessor, Khors.

The combination of paganism and Christianity can also be traced in the funeral rites of Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. Pagan burning was replaced by burial in the ground. Archaeologists sometimes find crosses and icons on the bones. But at the same time, food was also placed in the grave.

Christian holidays have undergone quite a significant pagan treatment. Moreover, some pagan celebrations remained.

December 25 – Kolyada. Winter solstice. Next - Christmastide. Later the holiday is combined with Christmas. Pagan meaning: the wedding of Dazhdbog and Marena.

March 1 is Madder Day. Later replaced by the Day of St. Marianne the Righteous. Later this holiday was shifted to Easter and replaced by the Feast of the Annunciation. Its contents are the burning of Maslenitsa-Madder, golden eggs, birds released into the wild.

May 6 - Dazhdbog Day, meeting of Spring. The date could be moved to Sunday or Friday. This holiday later overlapped with St. George's Day. Dazhdbog begins spring, Perun ends summer.

May 22 – Yarilin Day, Semik. Replaced by the holiday of St. Nicholas of the Spring, spring, herbal, warm. Memories of the meeting of Yarila and Koshchei. Funeral of Yarila. The average sowing time for spring crops is from Yarila.

September 14 is Volkh Zmeevich Day. Replaced by the day of Simeon the Stylite. The beginning of the hunting season.

It must be said that many Christian holidays were held in a pagan manner. On the night of the “Holy Resurrection,” men and women, gathered together, play and dance shamelessly, create all sorts of filth and, “like horses, whine (squeal) and neigh,” like the “wicked Elins” celebrating the “Feast of Dionus.” The clergy called on their flock to greet the Resurrection of Christ with love, and “not with drunkenness, nor overeating, nor with demonic songs, nor with other carnal acts.” In Christian in name, but in essence pagan festivities, the indispensable rule of which was the ritual consumption of alcoholic beverages, many priests took an active part, drinking beyond measure, for example, “on the holy, most pure days of fasting, from the bright week of Vertigo to all saints,” which is evidenced by the definitions of the Vladimir Cathedral.

The influence of paganism can also be seen in church design. Modern research has shown that “the church decorative art of the Russian Middle Ages was permeated with ancient pagan elements. Pagan themes complemented, from the point of view of ancient Russian people, Christian symbolism. Such is the rich decorative decoration of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky. The entire base of the building from the very base is covered with stylized plants, as if growing out of the ground along with real greenery surrounding the white stone temple. This - lower tier visible world, the Earth giving birth to plants. Above are reliefs depicting people (holy warriors, holy princes, prophesying people), and the top of the cathedral is crowned with celestials and a golden dome - the sun. In Christian symbolism, Jesus Christ was identified with the sun. The dome in its appearance resembled the sun, and inside, in the dome, the painters painted the huge face of Christ, facing the pilgrims from above, as if from the sky itself...

The attitude of Russian “Christians” towards the Christian God is quite eloquent. These relationships were built on the pagan principle of exchange of services, which can be formulated in the words of an ancient saying: “I give to you so that you can give to me.” There is interesting information on this matter contained in the “Tale of Evil Spirits” - a church-educational monument of Ancient Rus'. “When some evil comes to us,” we read there, “then we blaspheme God.” And then the situations become somewhat more detailed: “If even one of our animals dies, then we will begin to reproach God, saying, Lord, even if you have repaid me with this evil for my good.” According to popular belief, it was enough to feed or clothe a beggar, give alms, or light a candle in a church (that is, do a charitable deed) in order to hope for a good reward from God. And if, instead of good, evil came upon people, then God was not praised, but was subjected to reproach. Church teachers urged, of course, in times of trouble and misfortune not to grumble at God, but to humbly go to church and offer prayers, repenting of one’s sins.

The deep-rooted habit of ancient Russian people to pronounce oaths caused great concern among church ministers. “Rota” (oath) is a part of pagan social life. It was condemned by “Christ lovers” as a grave sin. And the Russian princes constantly fell into this sin. Princely oaths are an ordinary phenomenon in the political life of Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. Their indispensable condition was kissing the cross.

Not to a lesser extent, but perhaps to a greater extent, noble women retained their pagan inclinations. From the point of view of zealous adherents of Christianity, it was women who first of all “created filthy behavior.” Arguing about sorcery as a demonic suggestion, the author of “The Tale of Bygone Years” declares with full confidence: “Demon sorcery occurs especially through women, for from time immemorial the demon has deceived a woman, who is also a man.” Women's ritual dances (rusalia) are a common phenomenon of ancient Russian reality, which caused irritation and anger among church teachers. In the teachings against paganism, a dancing woman is spoken of in very hostile terms: “The dancing goddess’s wife, the bride of Sotonin, is called the lover of the devil, the wife of the demon.” The wearing of ritual jewelry (bracelets with archaic symbols) by Russian princesses is a sure sign of their participation in pagan rusalia.

The cult of ancestors has not lost its significance. Baths were heated for the deceased, sheets and towels were hung in them, loaves, meat, milk, eggs, butter, honey, beer and “everything needed” were left, and ashes were sprinkled on the floor. At the same time, the organizers of the “movie” said, addressing the “navi” (dead people): “Wash up.” Whether they had been to the Navier bathhouse was determined by the traces left in the ashes. And these “Naviers” (demons, according to the name of church teachers) “like a smoke, they show their mark on the field [ash] and rub the covers [sheets] and ubruses [towels].” And when the “throwers who drowned the navya” returned and found traces in the ashes, they said: “The navya came to us to wash themselves.” And then, with a sense of fulfilled duty, they ate the leftover food, causing disgust among the zealots of Christianity, according to whom such food “is not worthy for a dog to eat.”

The belief in brownies did not disappear in Ancient Rus' either. In the language of church ideologists, a brownie is a “demonic hoarder.”

Slavic paganism went through its complex, centuries-old path, starting from primitive animism and ending complex system gods, with clearly defined functions and cult. Despite the thousand-year dominance of the state Orthodox Church, pagan views remain a folk faith and are still manifested to this day in rituals, round dance games, songs, fairy tales and folk art.

If you ask the question what in to a greater extent determined the worldview of ancient Russian society - paganism or Christianity, then we can, without fear of exaggeration, say: paganism.

A deep overview of pagan, that is, traditional folk and natural beliefs, represents more than a serious task for religious studies. The diversity of opinions, currents, and the rapidly changing situation in this area make such research very difficult. The matter is complicated by the fact that in our country (as in any other, for that matter) issues of people’s religion are directly related to the political, economic, and sometimes criminal interests of “serious” organizations. The word “serious” is put in quotation marks here because always, throughout the history of mankind, the spiritual life of people becomes a reason for the struggle for power and influence.

Today, the topic of ancestral faith is receiving more and more attention. Not only scientific works are devoted to this problem. More and more often you can hear about neo-paganism, which is a complex worldview, the basis of which is the path of personal self-improvement of a person. A pagan feels like a part of the world, which is God, a free creative person. Neo-pagans, for the most part, claim that they are not simply restoring paganism to the model of pre-Christian Rus', but are reviving the original Aryan Tradition, which is characteristic of the Slavs. Some argue that they are the bearers of the original Tradition, that there are still original pagans who consciously preserved the faith of their ancestors, who are the hidden teachers. As a rule, this position is held by members of communities that grew out of sports sections and military history clubs. On the other hand, another part of the neo-pagans, mainly from communities consisting of intellectuals, believes that a complete worldview has not been preserved, but quite a lot of “shards” remain - in folklore, crafts, folk traditions and in the Orthodox, especially Old Believer, tradition. According to this part of the neo-pagans, the task now is not to restore the old, but to carefully collect what has been preserved and highlight the “core” of the tradition, reviving it anew, fully consistent with the modern mentality. At the same time, they argue that the modern stage of paganism is qualitatively new stage in the development of Tradition, more meaningful, stemming, among other things, from the experience of Christian civilization.

CULTURAL SPACE OF EUROPE AND CULTURE OF Rus'

1. Match the concepts and definitions.

A. A person who is completely dependent on the master is a slave
B. A person who has entered into an agreement to perform certain work in favor of the master
B. A community worker who fell into debt bondage for a loan, which he worked off in the field from the person who lent him money
D. Villager performing duties in favor of the prince
D. The owner of the estate, belonging to the highest stratum of society in Rus'

Test control

The head of the Old Russian state was:
1. Grand Duke of Kyiv
2. Voivode
3. Boyar Duma
Estates in Rus':
1. princes, burghers, service people
2. townspeople, merchants, nobles
3. princes, warriors, serfs
4. clerks, boyar children, serfs
The first Russian Orthodox saints were:
1. Yaropolk and Oleg
2. Vladimir and Mstislav
3. Svyatoslav and Igor
4. Boris and Gleb
Head of the Russian Orthodox Church in the 11th-12th centuries. was:
1. Patriarch
2. Bishop
3. Metropolitan
4. Abbot
Ordinary free residents of Rus':
1. Smerda
2. Purchases
3. People
4. Serfs
Boyars in Rus' usually owned:
1. The estate
2. Principality
3. Monastery
4. Patrimony

Questions in the text of the paragraph

1. What were the main features of ancient Russian culture?

Old Russian culture was truly special. OS new culture Rus' was cultural heritage Eastern Slavs: myths, tales, craft traditions, the art of ancient blacksmiths, songs, fairy tales, epics. Thanks to the rich experience of relationships with neighboring peoples, ancient Russian culture absorbed and processed cultural achievements and the traditions of neighbors: Western and Southern Slavs, Balts, Finno-Ugrians, Khazars, Bulgars, Pechenegs, Polovtsians. Byzantium had a great influence on the culture of Ancient Rus'. Craftsmen were invited from Constantinople to build temples, create icons and paintings, books and works of art were brought. At first, Russian masters copied the products of Byzantine teachers, but over time they began to create their own works, embodying their thoughts, hopes, and moods in them. The main motive ancient Russian art there was patriotism, a call to unite forces against foreign enemies. Old Russian culture became a reflection national identity and determined the ideological and aesthetic ideals of the Russian people for several centuries.

2. What was studied in medieval universities?

Medieval education in Europe was based on the popular cultural trends of those times: Christian and ancient. Thus, in the first universities of Byzantium they taught not only Christian doctrine, but also the works of ancient authors: Homer, Plato, Aristotle, etc.

3. Which countries and peoples, in your opinion, most influenced the culture of Rus'IX-XII centuries?

In my opinion, Byzantium had the greatest influence on the culture of Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. However, due to its geographical location and rich experience in relations with neighboring tribes and states, Rus' has always been a multicultural state. Rus' adopted and reworked the culture and traditions of many peoples - the Balts, Finno-Ugric peoples, Khazars, Bulgars, Pechenegs, Polovtsians, southern and western Slavs. In addition, naturally, one of the most important factors influencing the development of Russian culture was the cultural heritage of the East Slavic tribes.

4. How do you understand the concept of “patriotism”? Give several examples from history of patriotic behavior of people

I understand patriotism as love for the Motherland, devotion to one’s Fatherland, one’s people. Patriotism is also the desire to make one’s country better. This is not that ostentatious patriotism when people talk about love for the Motherland, demand the same behavior from others, and punish dissidents. True patriotism, like true friendship, or real love verified in action. True patriotism is in the soul, not in words. In my opinion, Prince Svyatoslav demonstrated a striking example of patriotism in the period we studied, when he inspired Russian soldiers with his example and defeated the superior forces of the Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes. “Let us not disgrace the Russian land, but let us lie down with our bones; the dead have no shame,” this is what the legendary Svyatoslav said to his soldiers. It was important for him not to let his country down; for this he was ready to give his life, first of all his life. He proved not in words, but in deeds and by example your love for the Motherland.

There are many examples in history of the patriotic behavior of Russian people. And this is not only heroism and self-sacrifice on the battlefield. Let's take, for example, Prince Yaroslav or Prince Vladimir Monomakh. Despite all their shortcomings, they showed true patriotism and love for the Motherland with their rule, with their decisions, striving to improve the lives of the Russian people and protect them from external threats.

5. Who is the creator of our alphabet?

The creators of the alphabet (Glagolitic) are the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. According to scientists, the basis of the alphabet of Cyril and Methodius was the alphabet that existed among the Slavs even before their baptism. Some researchers believe that a later and more familiar alphabet was created by the student of Cyril and Methodius, Clement of Ohrid, in the first Bulgarian kingdom.

6. When was it created Slavic writing? What were the names of the Slavic alphabets?

The Slavic alphabet was created in the second half of the 9th century. Cyril and Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet, which was then converted into the Cyrillic alphabet. Subsequently, this easier and more convenient alphabet supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

7. What ideas were leading in ancient Russian literature? Why?

Academician D.S. Likhachev called one of the first literary works in Rus', “The Tale of Bygone Years,” a “monumental work,” striking in its strict thoughtfulness of the composition, the unity and grandeur of the idea, and the pervasive patriotism of the content. Another famous work, “The Sermon on Law and Grace,” by the first Metropolitan of Kyiv, is imbued with the idea of the greatness of Rus' and its special role in Christianity. Thus, we can say that the leading ideas in ancient Russian literature were patriotism, greatness and unity of Rus'.

8. What other epic heroes do you know?

During the period of formation of the Old Russian state and the ongoing struggle against nomads, many works of oral folk art appeared: tales, epics, fairy tales, songs. Epics - heroic songs, telling about the exploits of warrior-heroes. Russian epic characters and their prototypes: Volga - the son of Svyatoslav Oleg, Vladimir the Red Sun - Vladimir the Saint and his great-grandson Vladimir Monomakh, Volkh Vseslavich - Vseslav of Polotsk, Dobrynya Nikitich - uncle of Vladimir the Saint, Novgorod mayor Dobrynya, Apraksna-korolevishna - sister of Vladimir Monomakh Eupraxia, Churilo - Vsevolod Olgovich. We also know other heroes of epics: Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Svyatogor, Mikula Selyaninovich.

9. Using the Internet, make a selection of images of ancient Russian jewelry.

Questions to the text of the paragraph

1. How did the adoption of Christianity influence ancient Russian culture?

The adoption of Christianity enriched ancient Russian culture, opening up for it the art of the Christian world.

2. Why do you think there were many literate people among the townspeople of Ancient Rus'?

The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the widespread and rapid development writing and written culture. Orthodoxy, unlike Catholicism, allowed church services to be held in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in native language. The development of writing and the practice of forming schools at cathedrals and monasteries, where people were taught to read and write, in turn led to the spread of literacy among the urban population.

3. What genres existed in ancient Russian literature? Give examples.

4. What are the achievements of ancient Russian architecture and painting?

The Old Russian state was distinguished by a high level of cultural development for its time. At the same time, Rus' creatively reworked the cultural achievements of Byzantium and other neighbors, forming its own original cultural traditions. Since ancient times, wooden architecture has prevailed in Rus'. With the adoption of Christianity, stone buildings began to appear. The first known stone building is the Tithe Church in Kyiv. The first churches in Rus' were built in the Byzantine tradition. However, then cathedrals began to appear that combined Byzantine and Slavic traditions. A striking example- St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv and Novgorod. The so-called multi-domed pyramid, characteristic of Rus', has already begun to appear in them.

From Byzantine artists, Russian craftsmen learned to work with multi-colored opaque enamel - a glassy mass that was applied to metal. Then a more complex technique of cloisonne enamel was mastered. Old Russian enamels differed significantly in color from Greek ones. Russians preferred warm colors: brown, burgundy, red, green. The main works of ancient Russian painting are temple frescoes and icon painting. The frescoes depicted scenes from life, and the icons depicted images of saints according to strictly defined canons. The mosaic of St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery is very famous. On it, pebbles were pressed into the damp plaster at different angles. Under the rays of light, the image sparkled, shimmering in different colors.

Studying the document

1. Find out where the temple described by N.I. Kostomarov is located - in Kyiv or Novgorod.

Signs:

The author used the words “in its original form.” We already know that the Kiev temple in its original form has not been preserved, and the temple that exists now is very different from the first version. The Novgorod temple has been preserved in its original form.
"An oblong stone building." The Novgorod temple is closer to a square in shape.
“Illuminated by five domes.” We are talking specifically about the domes that served to illuminate the building, and not about the number of domes in general.
There were no mosaics in the Novgorod temple.

2. What were the features of ancient Russian temple architecture?

If the first Russian churches at the end of the 10th century were built in strict accordance with Byzantine rules, then the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions. The pyramidal composition of the temple, multi-domes, the presence of galleries, corner towers are features characteristic of Russian wooden architecture. In the 11th century - the century of the heyday of Kievan Rus' architecture - monumental multi-domed churches with thick, powerful walls, small windows, and magnificent interior decoration were built in many cities - evidence of the beauty, power and greatness of the state. Architectural style Researchers call Kievan Rus (late 10th – early 12th centuries) a style of “monumental historicism”, which most adequately expressed the “spirit of the era” - the idea of all-Russian power.

3. Using the Internet, create a dictionary of terms found in the document

Architecture is a type of art that has a direct impact on the spiritual development of society, the formation aesthetic views person.

Choirs- in architecture, an upper open gallery or balcony inside a church (usually at the second floor level).

Altar- the most sacred place in the temple, fenced off by the iconostasis from the main part of the temple. In the middle of the altar there is a throne, which is used for the preparation of holy gifts (communion). The throne contains the relics of saints, the Gospel and the Cross.

Mosaic- an image made up of colored pebbles or glass fastened together.

Porch- an uncovered area in front of the inner porch (entrance) of the temple, on which in the first centuries of Christianity stood mourners and penitents.

We think, compare, reflect

1. Describe the European cultural space in the 9th-11th centuries. What was the influence of the culture of European countries on the culture of Rus'?

In the IX-XII centuries. in Europe there were several cultural centers, the connection between which was rather weak. European culture as a single whole was just beginning to take shape. For a long time Byzantium remained the country with the most developed culture. Having inherited much from Antiquity, it managed to create its own unique culture. In 855, a school was opened in Constantinople in the Magnavra Palace, which many scientists consider the first European university. Here, major cultural figures taught in Greek and Latin. Education was based not only on Christian teaching, but also on the works of ancient authors - Homer, Plato, Aristotle, etc. In the 11th-12th centuries. Byzantine culture reached its highest peak in painting, architecture, sculpture, and literature. Byzantium had a huge influence on the development of the culture of many countries - Rus', Georgia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Italy, etc. Craftsmen were invited from Constantinople to Rus' to build temples, create icons and paintings, books and works of art were brought. At first, Russian masters copied the products of Byzantine teachers, but over time they began to create their own works, embodying their thoughts, hopes, and moods in them. The main motive of ancient Russian art was patriotism, a call to unite forces against foreign enemies. Old Russian culture became a reflection of national self-awareness and determined the ideological and aesthetic ideals of the Russian people for several centuries.

2. What, in your opinion, was the main theme of ancient Russian art?

In my opinion, the main themes of ancient Russian art were Christian values, patriotism and the unity of Rus'.

3. Using the Internet and additional literature, conduct research and find out why the Baptism of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the development of writing and literacy.

The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. If in the Catholic countries of Europe the language of worship, Christian literature and culture in general was Latin, and there, in order to become literate, it was necessary to study the Latin language, then in Rus' all these functions were performed by the Old Russian language. Translated language Orthodox literature was clear to everyone. Therefore, if in Western Europe Since literacy was the lot of only a small part of the population, its level in Rus' was extremely high for the Middle Ages. It is interesting to note that one of the daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna, who married the French king Henry I and became the queen of France, knew how to read and write (her signature was preserved), and her husband, the French king, put a cross instead of a signature.

Baptism and religious services in the Russian native language created favorable conditions for the development of writing and literacy. And the practice of establishing schools at cathedrals and monasteries, where people were taught reading and writing, in turn led to the spread of literacy among the urban population. Soon after the adoption of Christianity, the first schools arose, in which from the children of the “deliberate child”, i.e. vigilantes, trained future church hierarchs. School education received a certain development under Vladimir’s son Yaroslav the Wise. Schools began to appear at monasteries. It is noteworthy that in the Old Russian state education was not the lot of men only. Slavic women also knew how to read and write, and in 1068 a school for girls was opened at one of the Kyiv monasteries.

4. Start filling out the table “The most important monuments of Russian culture of the 10th - early 16th centuries” in your notebook.

Tithe Church in Kyiv - 10th century.
St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv - XI century.
Frescoes of Sophia of Kyiv - XI century.
St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod - XI century.
Ostromir Gospel – XI century.
The Word on Law and Grace (Hilarion) – XI century.
Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir - XII century.
The Word about Igor's Campaign - XII century.
Prayer of Daniel the Sharper - XIII century.
The Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor) - XII century.
Life of Boris and Gleb (Nestor) - XII century.
Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh – XII century.
St. George's Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery - XII century.

Possible questions during the lesson

1. Do you think they continued to influence pagan traditions on the development of Russian culture after the adoption of Christianity?

It is believed that during the period under review there were three stages in the development of Russian culture:

pre-Christian period;
adoption of Christianity, Byzantine cultural traditions (X-XI centuries);
increasing fragmentation of Rus' - the formation of local stylistic features in architecture, painting, and applied folk art.

However, I believe that ancient pagan traditions have passed through all times and have survived to the present day - fortune telling, belief in omens, spirits, Maslenitsa, colored eggs for Easter, etc.

2. What influenced the development of Russian culture?

The development of Russian culture was influenced by:

Cultural heritage of East Slavic tribes
Byzantine culture
Culture of neighboring countries and peoples

3. Why do you think weapons and jewelry were particularly developed in Rus'?

The development of weapons production is due to the fact that the inhabitants of Ancient Rus' had to fight a lot. Victorious wars are always associated with the seizure of booty, including precious metals that were used to make jewelry. Warriors gave them to their wives, daughters, mothers

4. Why is a monument to two Byzantines - Cyril and Methodius - erected in the center of Moscow?

5. Where and how were ancient books written?

Typically, ancient books were written and copied in monasteries and cathedrals. The first Russian books were handwritten. Each letter was carefully written out according to strict rules - the charter. The pages of the books were made from specially tanned calfskin. The books were decorated with small elegant pictures - miniatures. Such books were very expensive, so only rich people could be their customers.

6. What genres were ancient Russian literature represented by?

Chronicle – “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Novgorod Chronicles”,
Lives of Saints (description of the lives of people canonized as saints) - “The Life of Boris and Gleb”,
Sermon (solemn and instructive address) – “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by the first Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion,
Teaching – “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, in which Vladimir reflects on how to raise children, what moral models they should learn.

7. How, in your opinion, did the first epics appear?

The first epics appeared as heroic songs telling about the exploits of warriors. The epics have reached us in a highly revised form. Often the heroes of epics - collective images, speaking about the heroism, courage and unity of the Russian people in the face of the enemy.

8. How does chronicle writing differ from legends, epics, and modern historical research?

The chronicle is an example of written creativity. Chronicles were usually compiled by monks and were a chronicle of the events of the year. The most famous example of a chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” compiled by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. The epic, in turn, refers to a sample of oral folk art. And it is more of a fairy tale based on real events. Hence its name, implying that this is still “true” and not fiction. However, passed from mouth to mouth, the text changed its original appearance. Acquiring new details or losing some details. Modern historical research based on study historical documents(chronicles) and works of oral folk art (epics).

9. What genres of art were known in Rus'?

Literary genres (chronicle, word, life, teaching)
Oral folk art (songs, legends, epics, proverbs, fairy tales)
Architecture, artistic wood carving
Iconography, mosaics, frescoes, wall paintings
Artistic craft (gunsmithing, blacksmithing, jewelry making, wire lace weaving, copper painting, enamel)

10. What churches are called cross-domed?

Cross-domed is an architectural type of Christian church, formed in Byzantium and in the countries of the Christian East in the V-VIII centuries. It became dominant in the architecture of Byzantium from the 9th century and was adopted by Christian countries of the Orthodox confession as the main form of the temple. In the classic version, it is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided into nine cells by four pillars. The ceiling is cruciformly arranged cylindrical vaults, and above the central cell, on girth arches, a drum with a dome rises. The central dome is located above the intersection of the two main rooms of the temple - the naves. When viewed from above, these two naves form a cross.

11. What techniques did Russian jewelers use?

Casting (jewelry was created by casting a solid figure),
Grain (tiny balls of metal were soldered in the form of a pattern),
Filigree (the finest silver or gold wire, twisted into strands, soldered onto plates or twisted into openwork patterns),
Cloisonne enamel (the thinnest ribbons of the partition were soldered onto the surface of the decoration, forming the outline of the future design; these cells were filled with enamel powders different colors and heated to a high temperature, a bright and durable glassy mass was obtained),
Blackening (a complex alloy of tin, copper, silver, sulfur, etc.) was applied to a silver surface and created a background for a convex image.

Homework

1. Prepare a message on the topic “St. Sophia Cathedral - a symbol of Ancient Rus'.”

Hagia Sophia in Kyiv is a symbol of Ancient Rus' and a witness to history ancient Russian state. Having entered the cathedral for the first time, a person will begin to look around in different directions in surprise, because the wide and low building from the outside suddenly rises majestically, the area becomes larger, and Oranta, the Mother of God in a golden radiance, looks straight at the parishioner. Interior decoration St. Sophia Cathedral was distinguished by its sophistication and wealth. The walls were covered with frescoes. The central dome depicts Christ Pantocrator. They amaze with the golden radiance and brightness of the mosaic. The most famous mosaic of the cathedral is Our Lady of the Unbreakable Wall. The central dome of the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral was surrounded by four medium domes located just below, behind which stood eight small domes even lower.

St. Sophia Cathedral was erected and consecrated in the first half of the 11th century. But even today, historians put forward several dates for its creation. Thus, it is assumed that the landmark was erected during one of these years: 1011, 1017 or 1037. Two latest dates based on records of various chronicles - the Novgorod Chronicle and the Tale of Bygone Years, respectively. The first is confirmed by the results of a study of marks on the walls of the temple, as well as a revision of several facts from ancient written records. It is also undeniable that the history of the idea and construction of the church is inextricably related to Christianity in Rus'. It is generally accepted that St. Sophia Cathedral was built in 1037 by Yaroslav the Wise.

The architectural, political and spiritual prototype of the temple was the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. He was impressive with his appearance and, most likely, was an unforgettable memory for Princess Olga. And if we accept the fact of the baptism of a woman, then we should start from the fact that this happened precisely in Constantinople, in the Church of Hagia Sophia. And in the Korsun Church of St. Sophia, Prince Vladimir himself was crowned and baptized. That is why the construction of a temple in Rus' was not an accident. Under Yaroslav, the temple was to reach its greatest prosperity and emphasize the independence and strength of Ancient Rus'.

Memorizing new words

Graffiti - inscriptions or drawings scratched on the walls of buildings and vessels.

Life - a story about the life of a saint.

Thumbnail - piece of art, usually picturesque, small in size.

Mosaic is an image made up of colored pebbles or glass fastened together.

Patriotism is love for the homeland, devotion to one’s Fatherland, one’s people.

Original - original, following its own path, independent in its development.

Fresco is an image made with water paints on wet plaster.

Russian culture of the 17th century

In the 17th century, the history of medieval culture came to an end and elements of modern culture emerged, which was characterized by a process of comprehensive “worldliness.” In science, this manifested itself mainly in the growth of interest in generalizing practical experience; in literature - in the formation of a democratic secular trend; in architecture - in bringing together the appearance of religious and civil buildings based on the “wonderful pattern”; in painting - in the gradual destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies.

Literature and education. In the 17th century Secular literature became a noticeable phenomenon of Russian culture. There was further genre differentiation. The transformation of the hagiographic genre culminated in the emergence of the hagiography story (biographical story). The growth of literacy attracted provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople into the circle of readers. This led to the appearance of an everyday story, which, in an entertaining form, addressing everyday life, made an attempt to penetrate into the psychology of the heroes, to move away from the medieval template, which divided characters into ideal heroes and absolute villains. The main theme of such works is the clash between the younger and older generations, issues of morality, and a person with his personal experiences. “The Tale of Misfortune,” “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn,” and “The Tale of Frol Skobeev” were very popular.

Full of social conflicts of the 17th century. brought to life democratic satire. Satirical stories were created among the townspeople, clerks, and lower clergy. The development of the genre is closely related to folklore. In the 17th century Under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, Russian rhymed poetry arose, the founder of which was S. Polotsky, who published the “Primer”, “Rhymed Psalter”, two large handwritten collections “Rhymelogion” and “Vertograd multi-colored”. S. Polotsky’s work was continued by his students Karion Istomin and Sylvester Medvedev.

Among the new genres, drama occupies a special place. The first theatrical performances took place in 1672 in the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, where plays based on ancient and biblical subjects were staged. The founder of Russian drama was S. Polotsky: “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” and “The Tragedy of Nebuchadnezzar the King.” The author was concerned with serious moral, political and philosophical problems. In 1675, a ballet was staged for the first time on the stage of the Russian theater.

The increasing complexity of city life, the growth of the state apparatus, and the development of international relations placed new demands on education. Literacy rate in the 17th century. increased significantly and in different strata amounted to: among landowners - 65%; merchants - 96%; townspeople - about 40%; peasants – 15%; Streltsy, gunners, Cossacks - 1%.

Literacy was most often taught in the family. Corporal punishment was recognized as one of the main methods of pedagogy. A very indicative essay on pedagogy is “Citizenship of Children’s Customs” - a set of rules that determined all aspects of children’s lives: behavior at school, at the table and when meeting people; clothes and even facial expressions. The main teaching aids remained books of religious content, but several secular publications were also published. Thus, in 1633, Burtsev’s primer was published, in 1679 - Polotsk’s textbook, and in 1694 - Istomin’s, which were broader in content than their name and included articles on religious doctrine and pedagogy, dictionaries, etc. They were used in educational process and “Azbukovniki” - dictionaries of foreign words that introduced philosophical concepts, containing brief information on Russian history, about ancient philosophers and writers, and geographical materials. These were reference guides that provided familiarity with a fairly wide range of problems already in elementary school.

Secondary schools, including private ones, appeared in Moscow, where foreign languages and some other subjects were studied. In 1621, an all-class Lutheran school was opened in the German settlement, in which Russian boys also studied. Since the 1640s The private school of boyar F. Rtishchev began to operate for young nobles, where they were taught Greek and Latin, rhetoric and philosophy. In 1664, a public school was opened to train clerks of the Order of Secret Affairs. In 1687, the first higher education institution in Russia was opened in Moscow. educational institution– Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy – for training higher clergy and civil service officials. The first teachers there were the Likhud brothers, Greeks who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. The composition of the students was heterogeneous. Representatives of different classes studied here. The Academy played a major role in the development of education at the end of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries.

Formation of knowledge and rationalistic worldview. In the 17th century were able to solve many practical problems in mathematics, which were put forward by the practice of describing lands, trading activities, and also military affairs. According to the instructions in the “Book of Letters,” they measured areas, extracted square and cube roots, and solved equations with several unknowns.

A major monument of scientific knowledge of the 17th century. is the “Charter of military, cannon and other matters related to military science”, compiled by Onisim Mikhailov (Radyshevsky) in 1621. The text contains information about the organization of the army, the use of artillery and its structure, and methods of conducting combat operations. It contains a lot of practical information from various fields of knowledge - geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry. The “Charter” is imbued with the idea of the old concrete, experimental, rationalistic approach to the study of various phenomena. The “Charter” contains a number of information from mathematics, a table of measures is given, attention is paid to issues of dynamics, a goniometer device is described, and some observations are contained on the difference in the specific gravity of metals - iron and lead (although the concept itself has not yet been formulated).

Medical knowledge was also predominantly of a narrowly practical nature and was to a large extent based on centuries-old folk experience in treating diseases. Translations of foreign medical books and “herbalists” became widespread. During the translations, Russian terminology was developed. The pharmaceutical order in Moscow concentrated skilled craftsmen who knew how to make medicines and had a wide knowledge of chemistry, botany and pharmacopoeia for that time. These were Tikhon Ananyin, Ivan Venediktov, Vasily Shilov and others. In the same order, new masters in the production of medicines, as well as doctors, were trained.

Throughout the 17th century. Interest in general issues of biology developed. The first works on agricultural technology also entered Russia. The attention of the Russian people began to turn to rich concrete materials and works in the field of zoology and anatomy. In the middle of the 17th century. Works introducing the heliocentric system of Copernicus began to penetrate into Russia. The very appearance in Russia of works expounding this system is very significant for the 17th century. It testifies to the interest that arose in the problems of rational explanation of the world order in the 17th century. The progressive development of astronomical knowledge is also evidenced by the fact that in the 17th century. Various astronomical instruments began to be increasingly acquired and used in Russia.

Geographical knowledge has received great development. The advance of Russian explorers to Siberia and their exploration of rivers and sea coasts enriched geography with discoveries of exceptional significance. Several maps were drawn; also in early XVII V. an unpreserved map of the entire Russian state was made. Important geographical material was obtained during the exploration of Siberia by the expeditions of Stadukhin, Rebrov, Poyarkov, Dezhnev, Khabarov, Atlasov and others. Summary geographical descriptions arose, such as, for example, “Painting Siberian cities and stockades”, “Painting of the sea route along the Sea of Okhotsk”, etc. In 1667 in Tobolsk, the Jura steward and governor P. P. Godunov drew up a drawing of the Siberian lands with a corresponding description. Five years later, a new drawing of Siberia was drawn up. Information about the geography of foreign countries has expanded significantly. This information was collected by Russian embassies abroad and summarized in “item lists.” At that time, the countries of the Far East – Mongolia and China – attracted much attention.

Art culture. As before, wooden architecture remained the most widespread in Rus'. A remarkable secular building was the unpreserved palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye, which represented a picturesque composition of large and small log cabins connected by passages, with high roofs, keel-shaped “barrels” of roofs and tents. The fabulous splendor of the palace was enhanced by gilded carvings and bright colors. Religious wooden buildings, with a small number of main types, are unusually diverse in their composition.

Kletsky churches were widespread, which were a rectangular frame (klet), covered with a gable roof, topped with a dome with a cross; tented, the basis of the structure was an octagon on a cross-shaped base or on a quadrangle, covered with a tent; tiered - a special type of high-rise composition, representing an increase in decreasing quadrangles and octagons; multi-domed - one of the most famous monuments of this group is the Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi.

Stone construction, interrupted by the “turmoil” of the early 17th century, resumed only in the 20s. At this time, the restoration of the Moscow Kremlin was carried out. Architects B. Ogurtsov and H. Galovey erected a tent over the Spasskaya Tower. Civil architecture had a noticeable influence on religious buildings. In churches of the 20s and 30s. some new features appeared: fragmentation of elements, as in the Church of the Intercession in Rubtsov; unusually rich decor, as in the Church of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The departure from tradition is even more noticeable in three-tent churches, for example, in the Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich, popularly nicknamed “Wonderful”. New features led to the formation in the second quarter of the 17th century. pictorial style with asymmetrical grouping of masses. Usually this is a five-domed pillarless temple, the main cube of which is surrounded by chapels, porches, stairs and porches, with the obligatory finishing details: barrel-shaped columns, arches with a hanging weight, inlaid brick window frames, etc. It was in the township churches that the secular principle that contemporaries expressed most clearly called "pattern". These are the Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putniki, the Trinity in Nikitniki, the Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom in Korovniki.

In the 90s XVII century A new style, conventionally called “Naryshkinsky” or “Moscow baroque”, took hold in Russian architecture. Its main compositional principles are tiering, centricity, symmetry and balance of masses: the lower tier is square or rectangular, on it is an octagon, above is a second, larger volume and, finally, a final drum with a head. The tiered composition achieved the effect of vertical movement inherent in the pillar-shaped and tent-shaped buildings of previous times. The decorative decoration made of carved white stone looked unusually expressive against the red background of the brick walls. The windows, often oval or octagonal, were framed by small columns with elaborate pediments; Above the cornices were placed the so-called “cockscombs” - strips of carved decorative elements. Examples of this style: the Church of the Intercession in Fili, the Church of the Savior in the village of Ubory, near Moscow. Decorative forms of the “Moscow Baroque” were also used in five-domed churches: the Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan, the Moscow Church of the Resurrection in Kadashi. In the architecture of the 17th century. in the struggle between old traditions and new trends, new artistic views were developed, genetically related to folk art. At the same time, the stylistics of Western European architecture were creatively mastered.

In painting, the process of secularization was especially active. The first half of the century was marked by a struggle between two artistic trends inherited from the previous era. One - the “Godunov school” - gravitated towards the monumental traditions of the past and was an attempt to revive the fading spirit of great art through orthodox adherence to the ancient canon (the icons “It Is Worthy” and “Simeon the Stylite”; the iconostasis of the Kremlin Church of the Deposition of the Robe). Another direction - the “Stroganov school” - was a more vibrant current in the painting of the first half XVII V. For the first time in Russian art, Stroganov’s icons, as if on equal terms with their religious and symbolic function, carried an enhanced aesthetic principle: masterly drawing, fine detailing, rich ornamentation, polychrome coloring. An outstanding master of the “Stroganov school” was P. Chirin, whose icons are characterized by a special softness of color, plasticity of elongated figures and graceful poses.

Traditional icon painting techniques of innovative artists were gradually replaced by more realistic ones. This process was clearly reflected in the work of S. Ushakov. If his early works were done in the ancient Russian icon-painting manner (two icons of the Vladimir Mother of God), then in the late 50s. icons appeared, painted taking into account knowledge of the anatomical structure of the face and using chiaroscuro (“The Great Bishop”, “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, etc.) In the 60s - 70s. the artist created a number of works in a mixed style - the faces are made in a new chiaroscuro style, and everything else is in the old style, close to Stroganov’s writing. These are the icons “Tree of the Moscow State”, “Trinity”, etc. Realistic tendencies in Ushakov’s later works noticeably intensified.

The features of the art of the future were most clearly manifested in Parsun. This first purely secular genre originated at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries, and was further developed in the second half of the century in the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, the young Tsarevich Peter. The best parsuns, such as the portraits of the steward V.F. Lyutkin, the uncle and mother of Peter I - L.K. and N.K. Naryshkins, were written at the end of the century. They have already outlined the features of the Russian portrait of the coming century - attention to the inner world of the person being portrayed, poeticization of the image, subtle coloring. In just a few decades, the new genre has come a long way - from semi-iconic parsuns to completely realistic images. Fresco, in the 17th century. experiencing its last takeoff, can only conditionally be classified as monumental painting. There is almost no correlation between pictorial surfaces and architectural ones, the images are crushed, permeated with intricate ornaments, hagiographic compositions have acquired the character of genre paintings, replete with folklore elements.

Russian culture in the 18th century

Culturology - Lectures on cultural studies

Russian culture in the 18th century

Reforms of Peter I and their general cultural significance. The turn of the 17th – 18th centuries. is the beginning of a new stage in the history of Russia. Its content was the decomposition of the feudal mode of production and the maturation of the capitalist structure in the depths of the feudal economy, as well as the formation of the Russian nation on the basis of the Great Russian people. Changes in the socio-economic sphere formed the basis for changes in its features. The main content of the cultural process was the formation and development of Russian national culture.

Beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were prepared by gradually accumulated socio-economic changes. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society: the church, the economy, the administrative apparatus, the army, the navy, and culture. The content of the reforms in the most general sense were two most important points: a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to the New Age and the Europeanization of all areas of life. As a result of the transformations, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed, since the centralization of government, bureaucratization, a regular army, and the inclusion of the church in state structures are integral signs of absolutism.

Peter's reforms were of a dual nature: on the one hand, they contributed to the economic and political rise of the state, the development of external economic and cultural ties between Russia and Western countries (especially with Poland, Germany, Italy, Holland); on the other hand, the deviation towards the social ideals of the West occurred without the necessary understanding of the cultural characteristics of Western and Eastern development models. Culture became Western in its external expression, in its representation and in its claims, but remained ineradicably Eastern in essence.

The plan to “Westernize” Russian culture, to instill in it the values of the Western world, was based on violence. The assimilation of European civilization occurred hastily and passively. The people did not accept the new European innovations at all and remained alien to them. The “tops” accepted them superficially and even dogmatically, without rethinking them. The reforms of Peter I split society and led to the formation of two different structures - “soil” and “civilization” - in the terminology of V. Klyuchevsky. “Soil” is a way of life, the main features of which developed under the conditions of the Moscow kingdom. The bulk of the population was associated with him. Collectivism, the amazing principle of social justice, and anti-proprietary sentiments dominated here. “Soil” developed the richest traditions folk culture, cultivated its own systems of rituals that ensured the continuity and vitality of traditions. “Civilization” is a Western-type way of life. It was expressed by professional intelligentsia and entrepreneurs associated with industrial production. There was a big gap between “soil” and “civilization.” “Soil” spoke Russian, “civilization” spoke French. Almost within the same country, two societies coexisted, possessing different values, ideals that gravitated towards different paths of development.

One of Peter's first acts, which constituted an essential side of all his reforms, was the creation of an empire that was fundamentally different government structure, in which service to state interests becomes the most important and sacred, obligatory for all subjects and for the autocrat.

The very first were army reforms. They touched upon the method of recruiting the rank and file: accepting willing, “volunteers” and recruiting peasants into the army. While training, soldiers not only acquired the necessary military skills, they were instilled with a sense of responsibility, loyalty to duty, initiative, and observance of conscious, rather than forceful, discipline. Peter developed and introduced statutes and the oath. As E. Anisimov rightly notes, such an oath was subsequently taken by Suvorov, Kutuzov, Lermontov, and Leo Tolstoy. In addition to the reorganization of the army, Russia owes the creation of the fleet to Peter.

Other reforms affected industry, and Peter achieved almost complete centralization of the economy. The state monopolized in the field of industry the new branch of iron ore mining and the development of metallurgical production. New industrial territories appeared, spreading to the Urals and beyond, their management was entirely in the hands of the state. Light industry also developed - the production of canvas, ropes, and then cloth and other previously imported goods, and manufactories were created. Trade also gradually became a sphere of state activity, rather than a subject of private enterprise. Like many other things, these actions caused consequences not only of a positive nature. The state monopoly on trade in many goods reduced the private initiative of merchants, and completely ruined others, slowing down the development of the merchant class in Russia for many years. However, this helped replenish the state treasury, which, in turn, made it possible to develop science, education, build cities and maintain an exemplary army.

Peter undertook the territorial division of Russia into provinces, which made it possible to “concentrate administrative, judicial, and most importantly, financial power in the hands of the tsar’s representative - a high-ranking official, such as the governor” (Anisimov Evg. The Time of Peter’s Reforms. - Leningrad, 1989. With 147). Over time, a Senate was created to govern the provinces and for the most complete and efficient implementation of autocracy, which existed until 1917. The development of the bureaucratic system, which sought to accurately determine the place of everyone in the state machine and his responsibilities, culminated in the Table of Ranks. Peter likened the state to an army, introducing a hierarchical system of relations and even taking an oath. New form administrative division Russia contributed to efficiency in solving many problems on the territory of a huge state.

In 1721, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Government Synod. In 1722, to supervise the activities of the Synod, Peter I appointed a chief prosecutor (I.V. Boldin) from among the officers close to him. Thus, Peter I completely subordinated the Church to his power.

Academician A. Panchenko, in a series of his studies, including in the book “Russian Culture on the Eve of Peter’s Reforms,” showed that the main content of Peter’s modernization was the secularization of culture (i.e., “secularization”), which destroyed the specific semantic integrity of ancient Russian culture. Old Russian culture was religiously integral and semantically unified, since the synthetic religious worldview connected all layers and components of culture into an indivisible “all-unity.” Russian religious schism of the 17th century. divided the national religious consciousness in two and polarized Russian culture along religious lines (“Old Believers” and “Nikonians”). Peter's transformations made the sociocultural split of Rus' even more severe, irreconcilable and irreversible, and most importantly, multidimensional, developing simultaneously in several directions.

Being a logical continuation of the dramatic processes of the Russian religious schism of the 17th century, the period of Peter’s reforms, imbued with the pathos of secularization, divided the hitherto unified Russian culture into “culture” itself and “faith” itself, i.e., in fact, into two different fundamental cultures: secular (secular ) and religious (spiritual). “Like any community structure, ancient Russian civilization could not withstand the slightest violation of age-old traditions that appealed to the social harmony of society in the distant past: any, even private, modernization led to the collapse of the “unanimity” of society on a number of fundamental issues, to an increase in disagreements and conflicts, to extreme polarization public opinion and the inevitable split” (Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999. P. 159).

Essentially, the recognition of religiosity itself as an optional, optional component of culture, the unambiguous separation of secular power from the church and the subordination of the church to the state were explosive factors in the dynamics of Russian culture. At the same time, the religious part of Russian culture actually went to the periphery of national-historical development and lost a number of previously irreplaceable semantic and regulatory functions (although for the majority of the population of Russia it remained the basis of life, was the only and familiar), and the newly formed secular, secular culture, on the contrary, it acquired more and more new and diverse functions and took root in the center of official, state cultural and social life (although it was the culture of an educated minority, the noble elite).

The church reform carried out by Peter I, displacing the traditionally understood holiness and sacred values of the Orthodox civilization of Holy Rus' from state use, but objectively not having the opportunity (as well as the desire) to remove religiosity as such from life and Russian culture, thereby contributed to the sacralization of the most important secular institutions and cultural phenomena that replaced the religious cult. This led, on the one hand, to the alienation of secular power from religion, on the other hand, to the generation and spread of mass consciousness a new and specific phenomenon for Russian culture - “Secular Holiness” (Academician A. Panchenko), which consisted in extrapolation of the attributes of cult holiness to non-religious objects and phenomena.

It was at this time that the peculiarity of the “religious energy of the Russian soul”, so characteristic of Russian culture in the future, began to be switched and directed towards goals that “are no longer religious” (N. Berdyaev), i.e. towards social, scientific, artistic goals , political, etc., which clearly declared itself already in the passion of Russian socio-political and cultural figures of the 18th century. Freemasonry and non-confessional mysticism (A. Sumarokov, M. Shcherbatov, I. Elagin, I. Lopukhin, I. Turgenev, V. Maikov, N. Novikov, etc.).

Subsequently, the “religious energy” of Russian culture manifested itself especially sharply in the atheistic and materialistic fanaticism of the common intelligentsia of the second half of the 19th century, in its passion for natural science, politics, technology - often fetishized and considered in isolation from the whole of culture as a kind of “non-religious religion”, or religion developing in isolation from its own substrate. The political extremism of Russian radicals, which began in the 18th century, should be viewed in the same quasi-religious light. from theoretical assumptions (A. Radishchev), and by the 70s. XIX century turned into a terrorist movement.

With the change in the place of religion in the picture of the world, the relationship between other parts and components of culture, its forms and categories, also changed. Thus, in the concept of the world, approved by Peter I, “benefit” is put in place of “beauty”; the traditional priority for Ancient Rus' of the word, verbal etiquette fades into the background before the authority of things, material production, natural and technical sciences; the civil script introduced by Peter, opposed to Church Slavonic, finally separated secular bookishness from the religious and secular, non-religious culture as a whole - from the spiritual; the manuscript was superseded by the newspaper.

The inevitable “decline of literature” under Peter was compensated by the information content of verbal works; new genres and styles in art were born (for example, the genre of travel, “stories”, cants, etc.); the apotheosis of things liberated the plot of literary and artistic works. The reality of the world began to be described and interpreted without reference to the age-old ideals of religion and traditional ethics and aesthetics; life and everyday experience became a constant subject of reflection in literature and art.

Fundamentally new phenomena, unthinkable within the framework of traditional Russian culture, were - as a result of Peter's reforms - libraries and a public theater, the Kunstkamera (the first museum, a collection of public rarities) and the Academy of Sciences, parks and park sculpture, palace and park architecture.

Russian culture of the 18th century. began to be imbued with the principle of historicism: history now appears as memory, as an artificial “resurrection” of the past (for the purposes of education, edification, for the sake of comprehension, analysis of the learned experience or repulsion from the past), as a “lesson” to the present; at the same time, an orientation of Russian culture towards the future is born, its appeal to the ideas and guidelines of development. Hence the development in the 18th century. professional scientific interest in the study of national history - the formation of national history as a science (V. Tatishchev, M. Lomonosov, G. Miller, M. Shcherbatov, I. Boltin, etc.) and the experience of artistic comprehension in poetry, prose and drama (A. Sumarokov, M. Kheraskov, Y. Knyazhnin, N. Karamzin, etc.).

Definition 1

The 17th century for Russia marks the end of the Middle Ages. The leading countries of the West have already begun to actively strengthen themselves, choosing the bourgeois path of development, when Russia still remained a feudal state.

Note 1

This is confirmed by the fact that serfdom was finally formalized in 1649, which led to a sharp escalation of the interclass war and unrest among the peasants.

At the beginning of the century, Russia experienced troubled times, campaigns against Moscow by the False Dmitriev, people's militias against foreign invaders under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, and the rise to the throne of the Romanov dynasty. All this qualitatively changed the type of social relations in the state and established an estate-representative monarchy.

The renewal of Russian culture also begins with a new period in Russian history.

By the 17th century, Russian culture continued to contain the fundamental elements feudal culture. But at the same time, new features are emerging. Clear trends towards change appeared only towards the end of the century.

Innovations in culture began to appear, take shape and become established from the reign of Peter $1$, in connection with his radical modernist policy. This is the moment of formation of the Russian nation against the backdrop of Western states. The connection and unity of lands, regions, cultural and economic centers is being strengthened, and a single Russian language is being established.

The beginning of the Russian Enlightenment

By the end of the 17th century, the period of Enlightenment of culture and country began thanks to the reform activities of Peter $1$. The cultural and historical process of this time is marked by the collapse of the religious worldview and the rise secular culture. Culture begins to become secular, moving away from church traditions, acquiring civic features.

Education, book printing and all areas of culture and art begin to actively develop. An increase in literacy was noted during the period when the first textbooks were published; the first one was published in 1634. Primer by Vasily Burtsev. In $1648$ the first grammar of M. Smotritsky was published, in $1687$ the multiplication table was published.

Schools began to be built at monasteries and churches. In 1680, a school with $2 classes was opened in Moscow.

Literature

Literature also went through a stage of secularization and developed new styles and genres, such as realistic, everyday and historical stories. The main characters of these works are ordinary people in real events.

Stories about troubled times were circulated: “The Legend of Abraham Palitsin”, “A New Story about the Glorious Russian State”.

In the second half of the 17th century, a new attitude towards the individual was formed, interest in the inner world of man was growing, with further recognition of the value of man.

New genres appear in literature - satire, poetry.

Architecture

Note 2

The transitional nature of the era was reflected in architecture, especially in the 2nd half of the 17th century. Worldliness also affected the architecture of Russia. This is due to the rejection of the canons of the church, the transition to strict and simple forms and decorations. New searches for marvelous patterns and decorative decorations appeared, with the borrowing of Western and Eastern traditions.

Temples began to be marked with more expressive and colorful decoration. Secular motives are increasing, civil engineering is growing. Outstanding architectural monuments of this period include Church of the Nativity in Putinki.

Painting

Painting is developing unusually quickly. Like other forms of art, it was affected by the processes of secularization of culture. Secular, realistic directions are drawn up that reflect interest in a person’s personality. Portrait and household genres are developing.

S.F. Ushakov- Russian painter, engraver, is the founder of a new direction in painting of the 17th century. His work includes elements of miniatures, parsuns with traditional painting techniques and innovation. This is a transition from a religious representation of the world to a secular one. Realistic landscapes and other images begin to appear on icons.

Ushakov’s most famous creation is "Savior Not Made by Hands", where the artist was able to depict not an abstract saint, but real person.

History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. Moryakov Vladimir Ivanovich

1. Russian culture in the 17th century

XVII century became a turning point in the development of Russian culture. Turbulent events associated with deep social conflicts, changes in socio-economic life, the expansion of ties with Western European countries and the penetration of elements of scientific knowledge and culture of these countries into Russia determined the development of Russian culture and the changes that took place in it.

In the second third of the 17th century. The development of a new culture begins in Russia. It was characterized by a secular character, openness, that is, a readiness and desire for active communication with other cultures, attention to the human personality and an acceleration of the pace of development. In it one can detect the beginning of changes in attitude towards life in general and towards the surrounding nature, the state, society, and the place of man in it in particular.

The increasing complexity of people's lives and activities, especially in cities, where the development of crafts and trade was based on individual experience, energy, and knowledge of people who remained at the empirical level, required the development of education and the transformation of accumulated knowledge into science. This was inevitably associated with the weakening of religious ideas. The new culture freed man from the shackles of church authoritarianism, traditions, and illusions of the correctness of only religious solutions to the problems that life posed that fettered his desire for progressive changes in material and spiritual life. The new culture, as opposed to the traditional medieval one, raised a person to true spiritual freedom, since turning to God was nothing more than an illusion of spiritual freedom, a renunciation of one’s own personality, one’s own worldview and thinking. All medieval institutions, including the church, directed their efforts towards preserving the traditional structure of life, social relations and way of life. “It was laid down before us,” wrote Archpriest Avvakum, “it should lie like this forever and ever.” Habakkuk called not to be arrogant, but to be afraid, and likened man to dirt, since he is not Christ.

Therefore, an important moment in the formation of a new culture was the process of secularization (“secular” - secular), a departure from religious canons and dogmas. Of considerable importance in this was the penetration of scientific knowledge and elements of secularism into Russia. European culture. The Church actively opposed this, mercilessly fought against “Latinism,” but was powerless to stop the progressive progressive development of the country and culture, which needed strengthening economic and cultural ties with European countries.

The formation of a new culture was also helped by the fact that it turned out to be necessary for absolutism for its fight against the church hierarchy, for the ideological justification and implementation of urgent socio-economic, political and cultural transformations in the country. The support of the new culture by absolutism, its intervention in the process of cultural development helped the formation and approval of the new culture, its transformation into a system. On the other hand, the intervention of absolutism in the development of culture led to the fact that it developed one-sidedly, only as a “noble culture”, largely alien to the peasantry and townspeople. This slowed down what had begun in the 17th century. development of urban settlement culture in particular and folk culture in general.

Thus, the formation and development of a new culture was prepared by the entire course of the historical and cultural development of the country. It was an objective process. As noted by the famous specialist in the history of Russian culture B.I. Krasnobaev, it was precisely the main features of the new culture - its secular character and “openness” as a system, which were absent in traditional culture based on religiosity and tendencies to withdraw into oneself - that led traditional culture to the crisis in modern times.

Development in the 17th century city life, crafts, trade, manufactures, government apparatus and connections with foreign countries required knowledgeable and educated people, which stimulated the development of literacy and education. In 1672, the first bookstore opened in Moscow. ABC by V. Burtsev with a circulation of 2400 copies. and the price is 1 kopeck. (a very high price for the 17th century) sold out in one day. In the 40s, boyar F. M. Rtishchev established a school for young nobles, and several more private schools arose.

Compared to the 16th century. the number of literate people increased significantly, but in general there were not enough of them, and even the state apparatus felt the need for educated people. By the end of the 17th century. In Moscow, 24% of the total adult male population was literate. Women in the wealthy strata of society remained practically illiterate. In the middle of the 17th century. the German diplomatic mission carried out a peculiar sociological research residents of Moscow belonging to different classes to determine the level of literacy. 1000 people from each class were interviewed, and it turned out that the most literate were merchants (96%), 65% of the literate were among the nobles, 40% among the townspeople, 15% among the peasants, 1% among the archers.

In the 17th century 483 titles of books were published: 85% were liturgical, 15% were textbooks. In 1683, a multiplication table appeared for the first time in Russia - “Convenient calculation.” Only in Moscow in the 17th century. there were about 30 secondary schools. The most famous were the schools at the Moscow Miracle Monastery, at the Mint, at the Moscow Printing House, and in 1665 a school was opened at the Zaikonospassky Monastery (this was the first public school where officials were trained for government institutions).

In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in Moscow, headed by the Greek brothers Likhud. This was the first higher educational institution for people of “every rank, dignity and age,” where the clergy and officials were trained. The structure of the academy consisted of three classes. In the lower one, “Slavic book writing” and “Greek book writing” were studied. In the middle class they taught grammar and Latin, and in the higher class they taught rhetoric, dialectics, logic, and physics.

In the field of science, there was a process of generalizing previously accumulated knowledge. Written manuals and textbooks appear, summarizing both scientific and accumulated industrial experience. In the 1650s, the first textbook on geometry was published - “The Book of Sosh Writing”. In 1621, the archer Anisim Mikhailov compiled the “Charter of military, cannon and other affairs related to military science,” where he collected all the knowledge on military affairs, including guidelines for the manufacture of explosives. In the 70s, master Simeon from Totma compiled a “Guide on how to start making new pipes in a new place” (on installing brine-lift pipes in salt mines). In 1696, Bishop Afanasy of Kholmogory compiled a “Treatment Book”, where he indicated all the diseases known to him and methods of treating them. At the end of the 17th century. The clerk of the Pharmacy Department, Ivan Venediktov, compiled a “Pharmacopeia”, where he described all the medicines known to him.

In 1614, a telescope imported from Holland appeared in Russia. At the end of the century, the works of Copernicus and other astronomers penetrated into Russia. In the field of geography, a huge number of maps are being compiled both for individual parts of the country and for the entire country as a whole. In 1626, the “Big Drawing” was compiled, i.e. a consolidated map of the Russian state (it has not survived to this day). In 1627, an appendix to this map was compiled - “The Book of the Large Drawing”, which provided information about Russian cities indicating the distance between them. In 1640, “Painting of Siberian cities and stockades” was compiled, in 1672 – “Drawing of the Siberian Land” and in 1701 – “Drawing Book of Siberia” (Atlas) by Remezov.

Russian explorers made a great contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. Semyon Dezhnev and his expedition reached the strait between Asia and North America back in 1648. The following year, 1649, Erofey Khabarov studied the lands along the Amur and drew up a map. At the end of the 17th century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

The development of Russia increased interest in history and put on the agenda the issue of creating a work on the history of the Russian state. It was necessary to systematically collect historical materials, which was what the Record Order did from 1657 to 1659. Trying to gather a wide circle historical sources was undertaken by clerk F. Griboyedov, typographical “reference agent” (editor) Polikarpov and author of “Scythian History” Andrei Lyzlov. In 1674, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel created a “Synopsis” (description), which outlined the history of Rus' from ancient times, with an emphasis on the pattern of reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

In the 17th century knew how to extract cubic and square roots, solve equations, and measure areas. The need for the manufacture of medicines and the development of artillery led to the fact that the properties of many substances became known. The work of Andrei Vesalius on the structure was translated into Russian human body.

In the 17th century the personal principle increased in spiritual life. Attention to the human personality is increasing, which is most reflected in socio-political thought and literature. In socio-political works, an attempt was made to comprehend the events of the beginning of the century and to find out the causes of the upheavals. This was done in the form historical works about the Troubles. These include the “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev, the “Legend” by cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Abraham Palitsyn, “Another Legend” by Prince Katyrev-Rostovsky and the “New Chronicler”, which reflected the official ideology of autocracy. The authors of these works had a sharply negative attitude towards popular uprisings and saw the cause of the Troubles in the suppression of the Rurik dynasty and the weakening of power. They mainly gave the role of the determining force in events and the destinies of people to “providence,” but they were already making, albeit timid, attempts to explain this or that phenomenon through the actions of the reigning personality, her character, and psychology.

In the second half of the 17th century. the justification for the principles of absolutism was clearly manifested in the works of Yuri Krizhanich “Dumas are Political” and Simeon Polotsky “Rhythmologion”.

Plot historical story journalistic nature actively supplanted the traditional chronicle. Chronicle as a type of historical work in the 17th century. completely a thing of the past.

The genre identity of literature is changing. Some traditional genres of Russian medieval literature disappeared: teaching, prayer, some genres were transformed into new ones. Lives began to look like autobiographical stories (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum,” written by himself; “The Tale of Ulyana Osoryana,” a Murom noblewoman who participated in the militia of Minin and Pozharsky). The genre of travel has completely moved into the genre of travelers' notes. Here we should highlight two works by Nikolai Spafariy dedicated to the description of China - “Description of the first part of the Universe, called Asia and in which the Chinese state stands”, “The Legend of great river Amur". Vanyukov’s essay “Description of a new land, that is, the Siberian state” was the most detailed description of Siberia in Europe.

In the 17th century Syllabic versification appears in Russia. Its founder, Simeon of Polotsk, wrote “Rhythmologion” and a collection of love lyrics “Multicolored Vertograd”.

The strengthening of cultural ties with Europe is evidenced by a large number of translated foreign literature: the French chivalric novel “The Tale of Beauvais the Prince”; French courtly novel “The Story of the Brave Knight Peter and the Beautiful Princess Magilena”; Czech story about Vasily Zlatovlas; a collection of anecdotes and sayings of ancient philosophers “Apothegmata”; the story “About Eruslan Lazarevich”, which goes back to Ferdowsi’s poem “Shakhname”.

Changes in social life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in the development of literature, characterized by a number of new features. These include, first of all, the emergence of satirical stories: “About Shemyakina’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “Service for the Tavern”, “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, etc. These works were created among the townspeople, they contained a protest against the prevailing order, and were ridiculed by both secular gentlemen and the clergy. For literature XVII Century, especially democratic, was characterized by close attention to the human personality. This was associated with the emergence of a new hero - a fictional character. If earlier in literature there were heroes historical figures, who belonged to the top of society, now depicted princes, merchants, and ordinary townspeople.

The tastes of the townspeople were clearly manifested in architecture and painting. Worldliness in architecture was expressed primarily in a departure from medieval severity and simplicity, in a desire for external picturesqueness, elegance, and decoration. Merchants and townspeople increasingly became the customers for the construction of churches, which played a large role in the secularization of church architecture. It was in the “posad” churches that the secular principle, tastes and sentiments of the democratic strata of the population manifested themselves. Such churches include the Moscow Trinity Church in Nikitniki (1628–1636), the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki (1649–1652), and the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet (1647–1650). These buildings were decorated with numerous decorative details; their upper parts were decorated with particular pomp. Tiles were used to decorate churches.

The Church stubbornly resisted the secularization of religious architecture and the penetration of secularism into it. Patriarch Nikon in the 50s banned the construction of tented churches, putting forward in its place the traditional five-domed church - a style of strict monumentalism. The most striking examples of this style are the ensembles of the New Jerusalem monastery near Moscow and the Iversky monastery in Valdai.

Architectural style of the 17th century. It is distinguished by a huge amount of decorative decoration - “marvelous patterns”. The Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye was built in this style, and it was built without a single nail; it had 200 rooms and 3000 windows and small windows. From the tented churches of the first half of the 17th century. we can highlight the Church of the Intercession in Medvedkovo (built at the personal expense of Prince Pozharsky to commemorate the liberation of Moscow from the invaders); The Assumption Church of the Alekseevsky Monastery in Uglich, which is popularly called the Marvelous Church (1628), and the Church of Zosima and Savvaty in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

IN last decade XVII century largely under the influence of strengthening cultural ties with Ukraine and Belarus, the Moscow (or “Naryshkin”) baroque style spread in Russian architecture. Characteristics This style was characterized by clarity, symmetry of the composition, upward direction, multi-tiered structure, and decorative treatment of buildings. A remarkable monument of this style is the Moscow Church of the Intercession in Fili (1690–1693), built by Peter I’s uncle L.K. Naryshkin.

The idea of an “order” composition of a building, organized spaces and volumes, along with lush decorative finishing. Appeared in the 17th century. large secular buildings, made in the form of a single “block”, not divided into equal volumes. In Moscow, civil buildings have been preserved: the chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment and the chambers of the Duma clerk Ivan Volkov in Bolshoi Kharitonyevsky Lane. The large refectories of the Simonov, Trinity-Sergius, and Novodevichy monasteries were built in the same style.

The process of secularization also affected painting. The main thing here was the formation and development of realistic tendencies, the desire to convey the beauty of earthly existence. Within church painting The everyday genre, parsuna and portrait, developed. Parsuna's writing technique was close to that of an icon. As in icon painting, tempera paint and boards were used. But at the same time, the parsuna was a transition from a cult image to a portrait. The parsuns depicted specific people, not saints; most often they were noble people: boyars, governors, royal associates. This genre already had its own laws: a certain perspective of the character, the presence of regalia. The parsuns of V.K. Naryshkin, steward Godunov, and Skopin-Shuisky are known.

At the head of the new direction was Simon Ushakov. Ushakov Semyon (Pimen) Fedorovich came from the townspeople. He created icons, parsuns, miniatures, frescoes, maps, plans, supervised icon painters who painted the Kremlin cathedrals and the Palace of Facets in Moscow, and had his own workshop. Simon Ushakov believed that painting, like a mirror, should reflect reality, and therefore the work does not need to be explained to the viewer in words. He tried to create a theoretical guide for artists on how to paint the human body (“A Word to those who are interested in icon painting”, “Alphabet of Art”). One of his most outstanding works was “The Savior Not Made by Hands.” His “Savior” depicts the living, spiritual face of a real person. One of the first attempts to theoretically substantiate the principles of this direction was also the treatise of Joseph Vladimirov.

The new direction also affected the painting of churches. Examples of this are the murals of the Trinity in Nikitniki and Yaroslavl churches, the Church of Elijah the Prophet and St. Nicholas the Wet in Yaroslavl, which were painted by Guriy Nikitin and Sila Savin, who led the artel of Kostroma artists. The paintings of Nikitin and Savin contained a lot of everyday scenes, they were different bright colors and rich ornamentation.

At the end of the 17th century. painters switched from parsuna to painting portraits with paints on canvas (portraits of Prince B. I. Repnin, steward G. P. Godunov, L. K. Naryshkin). The portraits were still far from perfect, since their authors, not knowing anatomy, did not always respect the proportions of the human body. The portrait genre in painting reaches its peak in the second half of the 18th century.

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Dual faith.

The beginning of the Russian Enlightenment

Literature

Architecture

Painting