The culture of feudal fragmentation in Rus'. Russian culture during the period of feudal fragmentation

Music occupied a special place in the life of Russian society in the first half of the 19th century. Musical education was a necessary component of education and enlightenment young man. The musical life of Russia was quite rich. In 1802 the Russian Philharmonic Society was founded. Sheet music becomes available to the general public.

Interest in chamber and public concerts has increased in society. The musical evenings held by A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, and in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya especially attracted the attention of many composers, writers, and artists. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to be organized in 1838, when the railway from St. Petersburg was built here, enjoyed great success among the public. Repeatedly performed in these concerts Austrian composer and conductor I. Strauss.
In the first decades of the 19th century. became widespread chamber vocal music. Listeners were especially fond of the romances of A.A. Alyabiev (“The Nightingale”), A.E. Varlamov (“Red Sundress”, “There is a snowstorm along the street...”, etc.), (romances, songs in folk style - “Bell”, “The blue-winged swallow flutters...” A.L. Gurilev).
The operatic repertoire of Russian theaters at the beginning of the century consisted mainly of works by French and Italian composers. Russian opera developed mainly in the epic genre. The best representative of this trend was A.N. Verstovsky, the author of the opera “Askold’s Grave” (1835), as well as several musical ballads and romances (“Black Shawl”, etc.). The operas and ballads of A.N. Verstovsky were influenced by romanticism. The opera "Askold's Grave" reflected the characteristic romantic art turning to historical subjects and epics, which recorded the people’s understanding of their past.
It was possible to approach the level of the great works of Western European composers - Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and others only on the basis of a deep mastery of folk-national melodicism with its simultaneous transformation in line with the main achievements of European musical culture. This work began in the 18th century. (E.Formin,
F. Dubyansky, M. Sokolovsky) and continued successfully in the first decades of the 19th century. A. Alyabyev, A. Gurilev, A. Varlamov, A. Verstovsky. However, the beginning of a new (classical) period in the development of Russian music is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka.
M.I. Glinka (1804-1857) belonged to a noble family from the Smolensk province. Glinka received his first musical impressions from his uncle's serf orchestra. Russians folk songs, heard in childhood, had a great influence on the nature of Glinka’s musical works. In the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including such romances as “Night Zephyr” (poems by A.S. Pushkin, 1834), “Doubt” (1838), “I remember wonderful moment..." (1840). An outstanding event in the musical life of Russia was the production in 1836 of the opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In the person of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, the composer showed greatness common people, his courage and resilience. Glinka's innovation was that the representative of the Russian people, the Russian peasant became central figure musical storytelling. Folk-heroic pathos was vividly embodied on the basis of virtuosic technique and a wide variety of vocal and instrumental parts. The opera “A Life for the Tsar” became the first classical Russian opera, which marked the beginning of the worldwide recognition of Russian music. High society greeted the opera rather dryly, but true connoisseurs of art enthusiastically greeted the performance. Fans of the opera were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, V.F. Odoevsky and others.
Following the first opera, Glinka wrote the second - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842) based on the fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin. Based on Pushkin's poems, Glinka wrote a number of wonderful romances, which are still widely known today. The romance “I Remember a Wonderful Moment” convinces how close Glinka’s musical style was to Pushkin’s lyrics. Glinka was the author of instrumental pieces, symphonic poem"Kamarinskaya".
It is difficult to overestimate Glinka's contribution to the development of Russian national music. Glinka is the founder of the genres of domestic professional music. He created the national Russian opera, the Russian romance. Glinka was the first Russian musical classicist. He was the founder of the national school of music.
Another remarkable composer was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) - a student of M.I. Glinka. His work is characterized by great dramatic tension (opera “Rusalka”, 1856). Dargomyzhsky took stories from everyday life and chose ordinary people as his heroes. The Russian intelligentsia welcomed Dargomyzhsky's opera
“Rusalka,” which depicted the bitter fate of a peasant girl deceived by the prince. This work was in tune with the public sentiments of the pre-reform era. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music. He brought new techniques and means to it musical expressiveness. It was in Dargomyzhsky’s opera “The Stone Guest” that an impressive melodic recitative appeared. The declamatory form of singing had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian opera.

Characteristics of Russian musical culture
19th century.
Russian music of the 19th century. - this is a bright and brilliant era
in the development of musical culture. She is connected with
the formation of a national composition and
performing school of global significance.
Joining the best musical achievements Western
Europe had a beneficial effect on general character her
development, and originality and originality are largely
determined the adherence to folk traditions.
In the 19th century new genres of vocal and
symphonic music. Great progress has been made
in opera art. The creativity of such wonderful Russians
composers such as M.I. Glinka, M.P. Mussorgsky,
A.P. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, P.I. Tchaikovsky,
entered the treasury of world musical culture.

Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka - founder of Russian musical classics

music for the tragedy “King Lear”, symphonic poems “Tamara” based on poems by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Rus” and “In the Czech Republic”, “Spanish Overture”, “Overture n

The only opera “Prince Igor”, on which Borodin worked for 18 years, became one of the most striking achievements of Russian operatic art. OS

Tchaikovsky managed to find his own unique and original style, which determined his special place in the history of world musical culture. V o

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Period feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted from the first half of the 12th century to the end of the 15th century. One of the chroniclers wrote in his chronicle under 1132: “And the whole Russian land was infuriated...”, when after the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav, son of Monomakh, all the principalities of Rus' came out of obedience to Kyiv and began to live independent life. From that time on, the once unified state began to be divided into independent princely possessions. In the middle of the 12th century there were 15 principalities in Rus', and in the 14th century there were approximately 250.

Within the period under review, there was a clear line - Tatar invasion 1237 - 1241, after which the natural course of the Russian historical process was disrupted. This article covers only the first phase of feudal fragmentation, which is often called collectively the “pre-Mongol period” in the history of Rus'.

Speaking about feudal fragmentation, it is necessary to keep in mind that the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus did not entail cultural fragmentation. General religious consciousness, traditions, and the unity of the church organization slowed down the process of isolation and created the preconditions for the possible future reunification of the Russian principalities.

There is a lot of ambiguity in the definition reasons, which gave rise to feudal fragmentation. Most scientists put first economic reasons: the dominance of a natural closed economy, meaning a lack of interest among producers in the development of commodity relations, the development of a feudal estate, which plays an organizing role in the development of agricultural production.

A number of authors connect this process with political, cultural and socio-psychological factors such as the lack of regulation of the order of princely succession (“ladder ascension”), feuds within the ruling dynasty, separatism and the ambitions of the local landed nobility.

Thus, in Kievan Rus at the beginning of the 12th century there were both unifying principles (external danger, culture, order of inheritance, etc.) and dividing principles (economic development of territories, political and socio-psychological factors).

L.N. came up with an original explanation of the fragmentation of the Kyiv state. Gumilev. According to his concept, it was the result of a decline in passional energy in the system of the ancient Russian ethnos.

Gradually, a new political map with many political centers was formed in Rus'. Local princes had all the rights of sovereign sovereigns. The small size of the principalities allowed them to personally delve into all matters of government, administer justice in their courtyard or tour their possessions.

Under the prince, as a rule, there was a boyar “duma”, consisting of well-born boyars and clergy. This advisory body had no legal status; its composition, convening, and issues for discussion depended entirely on the prince. The recommendations of the Duma were not binding, but most often the princes listened to them.

Needing obedient and reliable support in the fight against the arbitrariness of the boyars, the princes began to rely on people who in the 16th century began to be called the nobility or “children of the boyars.” These were warriors, servants, rank and file, tiuns, who performed economic, administrative and judicial functions in the principality and received princely “favor” for their service - princely lands for temporary use. Perhaps some of them, for special merits, received lands as hereditary, patrimonial possession, passing into the category of boyars.

Thus, service people became the rival of the boyars and the support of the princes in the 12th century.

Cities were an important element of medieval society. The medieval city was complex and diverse social organism, which cannot be characterized by any one feature. The city was a fortress, a refuge in times of danger for the surrounding smerds; it was, as it were, in the words of B.A. Rybakov, a collective castle of large land magnates of the districts, headed by the prince himself. It was the administrative center of the principality, the place of court and payment, and the place where various decrees were issued. It was the center of a variety of crafts: everything that was needed for the economy or war was produced here. It was also the main (and sometimes the only) place of trade in the area and the center of supplies and wealth.

In each principality, in accordance with the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces developed and the specifics of political and economic development were determined.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. in Rus' three main political center, each of which influenced the development of neighboring lands and principalities: for northeastern and western, and also to some extent for northwestern Rus' - Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; for southern and southwestern Rus' - the Galician-Volyn principality; for northwestern Rus' - Novgorod feudal republic .

Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation

Introduction

I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at this time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' period XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she rose spiritually. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' was spiritually rich; by this time it had already produced many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the 13th century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and icon painting were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, chronicles, sacred church books, icon painting, the structure of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of a people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, handicraft of the people and what is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.

Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. earned high praise from both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed out the routes to Russian cities and admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv the adornment of the East and the rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and niello on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one form of art or another, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece was ahead of it, and Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries were behind it. Samples of Russian products delighted the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kiev prince, who fled from the rebellious people, showed Russian things to the emperor.

The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade away, this is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Rus', these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, which are still relevant today with their teachings and morals, this is a religion that Most of the Russian people still adhere to this. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, surprise and live its own life even in our time.

I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, having created works of culture that are still relevant to this day hundreds of years ago. So, in this test I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.

General conditions for the development of culture

Already in the 11th century, one trend increasingly stood out in the life of the ancient Russian principalities: the intensification of princely feuds and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and jeopardized its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities were strengthened enough to not submit to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; they coped with this task better local princes, who received the support of patrimonial owners and townspeople. All this, along with the princes’ desire for independence, led to the isolation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and largest city Rus'.

Fragmentation caused by socio-political reasons was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe went through it.

Civil strife between the principalities created a rather large gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', and many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. They, in turn, dispersed greatly, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. Outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned out, robbed, many were taken prisoner, and Poland and Hungary also actively interfered in Russian affairs.

The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the destinies of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land: The Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. The most ancient inhabitants This wooded region was inhabited by Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. The economic growth of this Zalesskaya land had a beneficial effect on the growth that had intensified since the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on fertile black soil outcrops among forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade connected with the Volga route played a noticeable role in the life of the region. The oldest cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Murom, from the middle of the 12th century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

The beginning of the establishment of independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land occurred during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Carrying out an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, city and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time in 1147 in the chronicle. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne into his own hands. At the end of his life he managed to take control of Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), while his father was still alive, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and with his entourage went to Rostov. According to legend, something written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land with him. icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons in Russia (“Our Lady of Vladimir”). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense in strengthening and decorating his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the “younger squad” (service people), the urban population, especially new capital Vladimir, and partly in church circles. The prince's harsh and often autocratic actions caused discontent among the large landowner boyars. As a result of an agreement between the nobility and representatives of the prince’s inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, as a result of civil strife, his younger brother, Vsevolod Yuryevich, ended up on the throne, finally securing Vladimir-on-Klyazma status of the main princely capital. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yuryevich, and the Murom-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a power struggle broke out between his many sons, former expression the development of the process of feudal fragmentation within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.

Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land extended from the Carpathians to Polesie, covering the flows of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, and in the foothills of the Carpathians - salt mining and mining. Trade with other countries played an important role in the life of the region. great importance in which they had the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

The strong local boyars played an active role in the life of the principality, in constant struggle with which the princely authorities tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land were constantly influenced by the policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups turned for help or to find refuge. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the unrest that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most Volyn land as part of one principality. Waging a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subjugate other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volyn between themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before Batu’s invasion, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.

Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature This land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not provide much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was profit from the sale of trade products - beekeeping, hunting fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians have mastered South coast Gulf of Finland and held in their hands access to the Baltic Sea, with beginning of XIII V. The Novgorod border in the West ran along the line of Lakes Peipus and Pskov. The annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals was important for Novgorod. Novgorod maritime and forestry industries brought enormous wealth. Trade ties of Novgorod with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, strengthened from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Items imported into Rus' were cloth, weapons, metals, etc. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political isolation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes In Novgorod, only official functions remained. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of lands in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the properties determined for their service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the 12th century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Prince of Novgorod, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The highest governing body of Novgorod was the veche; real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three to four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of the power over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages out of their control.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, these movements, as a rule, did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which there was no peace in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. This was not the most peaceful time, even though it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities, art began to develop in each feudal state, which, in general, ultimately gave such a surge of culture in all regions of Rus'.

Literary monuments

Russian medieval culture

The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is a yearly, more or less detailed record historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries and occasionally ordinary affairs.

The chronicler's geographical horizons are very broad - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic remnants of the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live at the ends of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state.

The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the emergence of regional literary forces, each new princely center kept its own chronicles, paying main attention to local events, but never ceasing to be interested in all-Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities.

It is important to note that while Ancient Rus' became closer to Byzantium, it began big job on translation and rewriting of books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Church Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature.

The unity of the national and state languages ​​was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and Germanic countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such widespread literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant knowing Latin. For Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; This explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it even a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsians is considered only as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of different nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on others..., even if you are a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all filth - have mercy on everyone and deliver them from harm (Message of Theodosius of Pechersk to Prince Izyaslav, 11th century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of South Slavic countries that did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly enough, has not reached us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed towards the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything associated with it, literature was not spared, so many works that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the church is mentioned in passing, and the entire poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century Only one list of “The Lay...” has reached us, although it is known that it was read in different Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at the abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could have destroyed many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is also very valuable and interesting.

The largest works of Russian literature created during that period, but continuing their literary life many more centuries, are: “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Mikhail Zatochnik, “Kiev-Pechersk Patericon” and, of course, occupies a prominent place among them "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, and the desire to stop the ruinous wars of Russian princes among themselves.

The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol era is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (~1187), which stands in the first rank of masterpieces of world poetry. “The Word...” is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works of ancient Russian literature was created. “The Word...” is a centuries-old oak, a mighty and spreading oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil.

Since ancient times, Russian literature has been distinguished by high patriotism, interest in topics of social and state construction, and an ever-growing connection with folk art. She has placed man at the center of her quest; she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects national traits in him, and seeks ideals in him. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry or lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, and oratory. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature has predominantly civil forms. The author grieves and yearns not for his personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and primarily turns the fullness of his personal feelings to it. This is not a personal lyric, although the author’s personality is expressed in it by calls for the salvation of the homeland, to overcome troubles in the public life of the country, and a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes.

This typical feature found one of the most vivid expressions in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” “The Word...” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly interferes in the course of events he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of melancholy and grief, as if he wants to stop the alarming course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the homeland.

“The Word...” is imbued with great human feeling - warm, gentle, strong feeling love for the homeland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks about the defeat of Igor’s troops:

“On the third day, by noon, Igor’s banners fell!

Here the brothers separated on the banks of the fast Kayala;

there was not enough bloody wine here;

here the brave Russians finished the feast:

got the matchmakers drunk,

and they themselves died for the Russian land.

The grass will fade with pity,

and the tree bowed to the ground with sadness.”

And in the way he conveys the words of Russian wives crying for the killed soldiers:

“The Russian wives burst into tears, saying:

"We already have our dear ones

not in my thoughts to think,

I don't even think about it,

I can’t see it with my eyes,

But you can’t hold gold and silver and worse in your hands!”

both in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor’s return:

“The sun is shining in the sky,”

and Igor is a prince in the Russian land.

Igor travels along Borichev

to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshchaya.

The villages are happy, the towns are cheerful.

Singing a song to the old princes,

then the young ones will sing:

"Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich,

Buoy to Vsevolod,

Vladimir Igorevich!

The poem was inspired by real events in the history of that time. “The Word...” was created after the events of Igor’s campaign and was written under fresh impressions of these events. This work is collected from hints, reminders, silent indications of what was still in the memory of each person. It served as a call for an end to the princely strife, for unification in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in bright and lively images and paintings. “The Word...” with brilliant power and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a consequence, the weakness of its defense from the intensified and frequent pressure of raids by nomadic peoples and eastern neighbors Rus'.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” not only tells about the events of Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign - it gives an assessment and represents a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either turning to the events of living modernity, or remembering the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the homeland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future.

“The Word...” remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that this happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade, but on the contrary is increasing. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country.

The literature of that time does not fade away despite the passing centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time; the teachings of the authors of those times are still vital today. In the example of chronicles, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond; moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without hiding from the reader the dark sides of that time. These were truly educated people who contributed a piece of themselves to the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A piece of Russian heritage, feelings, mood.

Folklore

The folklore of Ancient Rus' remains important and vital in our time. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be written down only in the 17th century, they appeared precisely during the period of pre-Mongol Rus'. All of them are filled with meaning, teaching and ridiculing the bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, and his spiritual strength.

From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga.

Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. The sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, and human weakness; they praised work, kindness, complicity, and again, unity. They taught people to be strong in spirit and body, to honor their elders, and to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs remains the same. Fairy tales that appeared during that period have also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. Pagan gods and godlings, persecuted Orthodox Church found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales we see foresters, goblins, watermen, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is the forest man in “The Frog Princess”, the merman (the sea king in folk tales and epics), and fetishism also finds its trend in them (the tablecloth is self-assembled, the boots are walkers, the magic ball).

In fairy tales, we can also observe the people’s idea of ​​the afterlife, the eternal world of their ancestors, and its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, the soul as a transition to another form of existence. They found a predominantly reflection of this belief in fairy tales, especially associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out the transition to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the pagans’ idea of ​​the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the line between the earthly and “ eternal peace", about ways to overcome it and helpers in the long term and the hard way to the “other world”. But let’s not forget that the fairy tales also raised the topic of honesty, courage, truth; they cursed evil, lies, laziness, and betrayal. The main villains were always punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in the good good feelings of that generation.

Architecture and painting

Russian medieval architecture makes a serious contribution to the history of world culture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, and wooden pagan temples, Russian architects with amazing speed mastered the new Byzantine technique of brick construction and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In a number of cases, architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv was reflected in the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for boyars. Previously, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the 12th - 13th centuries. represents a certain unity. It cannot be said that Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive connections with the East, West and Byzantium. Having learned at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, varying by region.

Appearance in the 12th century. tower-shaped, upward, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a common style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white stone architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings.

Researchers rightfully compare the white-stone churches of Vladimir with their lavish carved ornamentation in terms of their overall harmony and richness of plots with “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian.

A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in the proportionality of their parts. Recent discoveries in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles have made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture has retained its artistic influence for a long time.

The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have reached us in the form of frescoes, icons, and book miniatures. High level artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly explained by the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period.

Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature generates: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belong to only one category - church art. Secular art is known to us only partially.

Each church building was not only a beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex design. There were sacred images in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From church frescoes I looked at the ordinary people below at images of Christian saints in the robes of bishops, kings, warriors, and monks.

The class essence of the feudal church was revealed in its entirety in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to affirm the ideas of the feudal church. A Kievite or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ seemed to float in the sky, above the space of the dome filled with incense smoke. The stern “fathers of the church” appeared in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thereby united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and depressed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, he last impression there was a picture painted above the exit “ Last Judgment" He was returning from church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dared disobey church laws.

The development of class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies,” led to the spread of certain subjects in art, for example, “The Miracle of the Archangel Michael in Khony,” where Michael, “the commander of the heavenly forces,” punishes peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of “The Assurance of Thomas” is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends.

Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot in architecture and painting appeared with the arrival of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from it. All manifestations of art have their own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it changed a little, thanks to new trends in culture and religion in Rus', its own note of art, which originated and flourished in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all principalities. One can even say that the feudal split of the state had a positive impact on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in just one. This once again shows how powerful and united in spiritually the state of ancient Rus' remained.

Religion

It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time.

The people did not want to part with their long-term way of life, even after joining the Christian faith.

In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the residents of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then kicked out three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop with the help military force was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992 Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently the Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century.

The Eastern Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. Staunch adherents of paganism fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising led by pagan priests began in Suzdal. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised unrest in the Rostov land and Novgorod, but it was again extinguished.

Nevertheless, even if the princes could forcibly baptize, it was impossible to force anyone to believe. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir was dual faith, which dominated Rus' from the 10th to 11th centuries. Christianity slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview in which the dogmas and values ​​of the old and new religions coexisted peacefully. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which the entire folk culture was associated. Moreover, in the cities Christianity took hold only externally. This is true both for ordinary townspeople and for the princely-boyar environment. The church also had to come to terms with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the main thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to become closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the Church of St. Vasily stood on Volosovaya Street, and the saint in it is depicted on the icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable to people by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (as an example of pagan idols of gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of powers between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed for the desired saint was reminiscent of the ritual when a fire was lit in front of the desired idol. This also applies to burials, back in the 13th century. decorations and weapons were placed in princely burials at temples, as required by pagan rites.

But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot; it opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture.

The new religion has raised new level literature, architecture, thanks to it icon painting appeared. But, as in other branches of culture, we see that Rus' not only accepted a new faith, rising one step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins into the church, making it different from other religions.

Conclusions

Since the 10th century. Rus' reached great heights in culture. This was largely due to the advent of Christianity, as new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. Great hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, no, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion - a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that Byzantium had handed over to them, to their own liking, leaving behind the pagan culture that was not small at that time and adapting it to the newly arrived one. Later in the 18th-19th centuries. the culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influences, but now, which is very nice, people are starting to return to their roots.

Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived.

Now we cannot imagine life without the “Word...”, without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, to instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongol Rus'.

All this is present in our lives from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed at the icon in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblins, with the first acquaintance already at school with the “Word ...”, “Tale temporary years." And when you begin to think about how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become truly joyful for your people, for your past.

This shows in every way how erroneous the widespread opinion is that Rus', during the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete.

I believe that she truly made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular.

It was truly a culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that was taking place in it at that moment.

Bibliography

1.B.A. Rybakov “Culture of Ancient Rus'” Moscow 1956.

.D.S. Likhachev “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the culture of his time” Leningrad 1985.

.“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984

.B.A. Rybakov “Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles" Moscow 1963

In the XII - XIV centuries. The development of culture took place in the difficult conditions of the feudal fragmentation of Rus'. In the ancient Russian culture of this time, new successes were observed. The cultural features of this time include the emergence of local differences in the cultural life of individual lands. In the presence of common basis Already in the 12th century, dialects with local linguistic features appeared in isolated lands. Local features appear in chronicles, architecture and painting. At the same time, the all-Russian principles of culture are preserved. Important centers of ancient Russian culture in the south included the following cities: Kyiv, Chernigov, Galich, Kholm, etc.

Despite feudal fragmentation, the desire for unity was reflected in the literary works of the 12th century. In particular, the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” expressed deep concern about the fate of the Russian land, made an ardent appeal to the princes to stop discord, unite and organize resistance to the nomads.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, the nature of chronicle writing changed. New centers are emerging in Chernigov, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky, etc. Family and clan princely chronicles and biographies of princes are being written.

In Zvenigorod and Brest, birch bark letters were found, as well as in some cities bronze writing devices on wax tablets, which indicates the development of education. Educated people Those who knew foreign languages ​​worked in princely offices. They prepared texts of letters and conducted diplomatic correspondence. The texts of the letters of the Galician-Volyn princes written in Latin have been preserved, demanding the return of cloth from the ship that crashed to the merchants of the city of Vladimir.

The architecture of the region has achieved great development. The Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir (1160) has been preserved. It repeats the plan of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. In the cities of Galicia, the construction of churches made of white stone began, and various ornaments began to be widely practiced.

Icon painting developed in the Galicia-Volyn lands under the influence of the Kyiv school. The icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria has reached us from the 13th - 14th centuries. (Lutsk), icon of Yuri the dragon fighter on a black horse (XIV century).

Many valuable monuments of this time were lost. But what we know also speaks of an upsurge in the cultural life of the people.

Thus, Kievan Rus was a country of highly developed culture. Already in the 11th century it reached the level of European countries and had two centuries of its statehood. The period of feudal fragmentation in the development of culture was accompanied by the development of local styles in the visual and applied arts, architecture and chronicles. The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, although it slowed down the pace of cultural development, not only did not interrupt it, but partly even enriched it. At the junction of the interaction of Slavic and Turkic culture, new phenomena begin to emerge in language, life, customs, and art, which will manifest themselves especially clearly in the next era.

Cultural processes in the Lithuanian-Polish period of Ukrainian history (mid-XIV - mid-XVII centuries) Plan

2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.

3. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture

1. Historical conditions for the development and formation of Ukrainian culture. The struggle of Ukrainians against cultural assimilation

In difficult historical conditions, the development of Ukrainian culture took place in a period that chronologically coincides with the Renaissance in Western Europe.

Having become part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine fell into the sphere of stimulating influence of the West. At the same time, the struggle of Ukrainians to preserve cultural identity for many centuries has become main theme their history, their culture.

In Europe at that time, all ideological disputes and contradictions ultimately came down to religion. In Ukraine, this was a debate between defenders of Orthodoxy and adherents of Catholicism. The role of Orthodoxy in the public life of Ukrainians has grown many times over. In the absence of a state, the church acted as the only means of public self-expression and national unity. But the Ukrainian church experienced difficult times during this period.

The Grand Dukes of Lithuania and then the Polish kings enjoyed the right of patronage. Moreover, they appointed the Kyiv Metropolitan himself. The most terrible product of the patronage system was corruption. Given this state of affairs, the cultural influence of the church was very limited.

A major role in supporting Orthodoxy was played by the Brotherhoods - public organizations of merchants, artisans and other layers of Ukrainian society. They appeared back in the 15th century. But their role intensified especially in the second half of the 16th century due to the increased oppression of the Orthodox religion in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.

In the field of education, the traditions of Kievan Rus have been preserved. Schools existed in large churches and monasteries, as well as in the estates of large magnates. Gradually the number of schools increased. In the second half of the 16th century. they operated in Lvov, Rovno, Kremenchug, Zabludov, Vladimir-Volynsky and other places.

With the development of the reform movement in Ukraine, Protestant schools appeared. In Goshcha, Belz, Lvov, Berestechka there were schools of Lutheran and Calvinist schools - mostly primary, but in some places also secondary. After the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, Uniate schools appeared in a number of cities. The most numerous among the non-Orthodox schools were Catholic. Since the 70s of the 16th century, the Jesuits began active efforts to create schools in the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Thus, at the end of the 16th century. There were a large number of schools in Ukraine, which differed in the level of teaching and religious affiliation. They contributed to the development of education. At the same time, Uniate and Catholic schools defended the ideological and political goals of the ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Ukrainian public understood this. Ukrainian cultural figures took up the task of organizing domestic schools that would operate on a national basis and would meet the needs of the time in terms of content and level of education.

In 1576, a cultural and educational center arose in Ostrog in Volyn. Its founder was Prince Ostrozhsky, a representative of an ancient Ukrainian Orthodox family. A school founded no later than 1578 became an integral part of the cultural and educational center. It marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of school education in Ukraine. In terms of the content of education, the Ostroh school founded the “Slavic-Greek-Latin type” of schools in Ukraine. The first rector of the school was Gerasim Smotrytsky.

Fraternal schools opened a new page in the history of national education. In 1585, the first fraternal school in Ukraine appeared in Lvov. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. such schools also appear in Rohatyn, Gorodok, Przemysl, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, Nemirov, Kamenets-Podolsky, Kyiv and in other cities and villages (about 30 in total). Fraternal schools resisted Polonization, educating Ukrainian youth in the spirit of patriotism and respect for their people, national history, language, culture, and the faith of their fathers. A significant place was devoted to the study of the foundations of the Orthodox religion. The main attention was paid to the study of Slavic and Ukrainian languages. By tradition, they studied Greek and Latin. It was not easy for the Latin language to take root in Ukrainian educational institutions, since everything Catholic and Polish was associated with it. However, knowledge of Latin was the influence of the time: without it it was impossible to enter European culture and science. Latin language was then the language of scientists, philosophers, poets, the language of teaching at universities and international communication. And Ukrainian polemicists, who were trained in fraternal schools for qualified, informed ideological discussions, had to thoroughly master the enemy’s language.

This led to the emergence and development of Slavic-Greek-Latin schools in Ukraine, whose students studied languages ​​and mastered the “seven free sciences” program. Thus, the work begun in Ostrog was continued by fraternal schools.

In 1632, by merging the Kyiv fraternal school (1615) and the Lavra school (1631), the first higher institution in Ukraine was created, which was called a collegium (colleges in Poland were called educational institutions of the highest type). Calling the new school a collegium, Peter Mogila - its guardian and mentor - proceeded, first of all, from the level of education that it could provide. Thus, an important step was taken in the development of higher education in Ukraine

Mogila's educational activities were not limited to the founding of the Kyiv College. He headed the circle of Lavra scientists, for 20 years he led the book publishing business in Ukraine, founded schools and printing houses in various Ukrainian cities. Mogila mostly wrote his works in simple language, trying to convey their content to the broad masses. A new stage in the development of polemical literature is associated with his name.

The Kiev Collegium was a higher educational institution of the humanitarian type. However, despite all the efforts of Peter Mogila and his followers, it never received academy status from the Polish government. And it is not surprising, since it not only taught young people the higher sciences, but also trained ideologists of the people's liberation movement, and educated defenders of national culture and faith.

The first official document that the Kiev Academy received to confirm the status of a higher school was the royal charter in 1701.

Lvov University (1661) also played a certain role in the development of education in Ukraine, although this educational institution was founded with the aim of Polonizing the Ukrainian population.

2. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture.

At the end of the XIV - in the first half of the XVI century. The development of Ukrainian folk art took place on the basis of ancient Russian folklore traditions, in the context of the struggle of the peasantry and urban population against feudal oppression and foreign invaders. At the same time, new historical and social conditions gave rise to new forms of folklore. For example, ritual poetry was largely freed from cult elements. Fairy tales, proverbs, and sayings were created in the folk language.

Despite persecution from the church persisted folk rituals: caroling, generosity, Kupala holiday. The clergy condemned these rituals, but at the same time tried to adapt them to their needs. Stoneflies, mermaid rituals and songs continued to be preserved. Social (primarily anti-feudal) motives and sentiments arise in ritual poetry.

In the 15th century, the epic poetry of the Ukrainian people appeared - historical songs and thoughts. They were performed by folk singers - kobzars. The emergence of dumas is associated with the origins of the Cossacks and goes back to the heroic epic of Kievan Rus. One of the most famous and oldest is “Duma about the Cossack Golota.” Dumas and historical ballad songs instilled in the masses a feeling of love for their homeland, aroused protest against its enemies and master's oppression, and glorified national heroes. Oral folk art played a big role in the formation and development of the literature of the Ukrainian people.

In the chronicle XIV - the first half XVI centuries The traditions of Kievan Rus continued. Important chronicle works of this period were the “Brief Kiev Chronicle of the XIV - XV centuries.” and the so-called “Lithuanian” or “Western Russian chronicles”. The brief Kiev Chronicle, which used ancient Russian chronicles, also provides valuable information on the history of Ukraine in the 14th - 16th centuries, in particular about the fight against the Crimean Tatars, the Lithuanian-Russian war, describes the actions of Prince K. Ostrozhsky on the battlefields (in particular near Orsha in 1515). The story ends with praise for Ostrozhsky. Some “Lithuanian” chronicles contain facts about the “departures” of Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords to Russian state. The idea of ​​Russian chronicle writing about the unity of the historical process of all East Slavic lands found a response in the Ukrainian lands enslaved by Lithuania and Poland.

During this period, new ecclesiastical literary works also appeared: epistles, “words,” lives of saints, etc. A remarkable literary monument of that era was the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. Along with the lives of the monks and stories about various miracles in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra it contained many facts from public life, as well as regarding the life of monks. The collections of the lives of the saints of the Chetya-Minea (XV century) were also of great importance.

Simultaneously with the ideas of humanism, the movement of the Reformation came to Ukraine from the West. Under his influence, there was a convergence of the literary and popular languages, and attempts were made to make the Bible accessible to wide sections of society. For this purpose, the books of the Holy Scriptures were translated into the popular language. For example, the Peresopnytsia Gospel. A number of copies of this Gospel, decorated with headpieces, initials, miniatures, and Renaissance-style ornaments, have reached us.

Along with religious literature, secular literature begins to develop. A clear indication of this is the collection “Izmaragd,” which contained about a hundred works written in the “word” genre on moral and everyday topics: about book wisdom, respect for teachers, about integrity and sins, as well as about the rich and the poor. In the 15th century Translated stories about Alexander the Great (Alexandria), about the Trojan War and others also appear. These works reveal the exploits, courage and bravery of the heroes, and at the same time fully depict the reality of that time, the views of different strata of society on modern or political phenomena and events.

In the second half of the 16th century, phenomena characteristic of Renaissance literature appeared in Ukrainian literature: - the formation and development of new genres: polemical journalism, versification, memoir-historical prose, school drama.

In 1574, in Lviv, Ivan Fedorov published “The Apostle” - the first book of Ukrainian printing. The works of representatives of polemical literature G. Smotrytsky, S. Zizaniya, H. Filaret, M. Smotrytsky, Z. Kopystensky left a deep mark on Ukrainian literature.

The pinnacle of polemical literature was the work of I. Vishensky, who branded the treason of renegade bishops, criticized the entire political and state system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and defended the rights and human dignity of the common people.

Religious polemics with Catholicism, Uniatism, Protestantism are reflected in the literature of the second half XVII V. (L. Baranovich, I. Galyatovsky, F. Safonovich, V. Yasinsky and others). Oratorical and preaching prose found its further development in the works of K. Stavrovetsky, the author of “The Teaching Gospel” (1619), Daniil Korsunsky at the end of the 16th century. described his journey to the “holy places” (“Book of Conversation on the Path of Jerusalem”).

From the second half of the 16th century. new forms of historical prose gained popularity (testament of V. Zagorovsky, 1577; recollection of the Moscow events of 1612 by B. Balyki; Ostrozhskaya 1500 - 1636; Lviv (1498 - 1649); Khmelnitskaya (1636 - 1650) ; Gustynskaya (20s of the 17th century) chronicle, etc.).

From the middle of the 16th century. Ukrainian book versification originates.

At the end of the 16th century. - early 17th century dramaturgy arose in the form of recitations and dialogues intended for performance in fraternal schools: “At Christmas...” by P. Berynda (Lvov, 1616), etc.

The liberation war of the Ukrainian people in the mid-17th century ideologically and aesthetically reoriented Ukrainian literature and brought it closer to Russian literature. Literature began to free itself from religious ideology. Actual problems of social and political life began to be posed and solved in works of art.

At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 16th centuries. in the works of artists there was a closer connection with the life and interests of the masses. In the art of this time, interest in man, his spiritual world, as well as in nature, increased. Ukrainian artists creatively developed the art traditions of past centuries, enriched their skills by assimilating the achievements of artists from other countries, in particular, the influence of the Western European Renaissance can be traced. Icon painting, preserved mainly in Western Ukrainian lands (Przemysl, Lvov, etc.), reached its peak. Icons arranged in a certain order formed a separate composition - an iconostasis. Over time, the structure of the iconostasis became more complex, and it became an integral part of the interior of the temple.

In Ukrainian icon painting of the 15th – 16th centuries. the influence of the Moscow school is manifested (“Archangel Gabriel” from the village of Dalyava, Lviv region of the 15th century). Sometimes the Gothic influences of Western Europe are noticeable (Peter and Vasily from the village of Lesyatichi, Lviv region of the 15th century).

Miniatures of handwritten works: “The Life of Boris and Gleb” and “The Radzivilov Chronicle” have high artistic value.

The beginning of printing contributed to the further development of the art of book design. In the artistic culture of the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. Significant changes in content and form occurred, and new genres of art (including secular) developed. A pictorial and sculptural portrait appeared (“Portrait of K. Kornyakt”, early 17th century), the tombstone of K. Ostrozhsky in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, 1579. Outstanding artists of this time were F. Senkovich, N. Petkhnovich, S. Korunka.

Thanks to book printing, engraving became one of the leading types of graphics. Books published in Ukrainian printing houses were illustrated with engravings (mostly on wood).

In the architecture of the period under review in Ukraine, the traditions of ancient Russian architecture continued to develop and improve. The architecture of this period acquires a fortification character; it is characterized by severity and grandeur, and limited decorative decorations. Fortress walls, moats and ramparts were erected around cities. The street layout was radial (Lutsk, Medzhibozh) and radial-circular (Vladimir-Volynsky, Putivl), some cities had an irregular layout (Kyiv, Nizhyn).

The compositional center of the city was formed: - the main market square with the town hall, which had a high tower and a cathedral. Both wooden and stone architecture developed. In the first half of the 16th century. A new form of castles appears in architecture - palace castles, in which living quarters were located along the inner perimeter of the palace. They built open two-story arcades - galleries with large windows; and the outer walls of the castles were defensive in nature and had loopholes (castle in Berezhany, Ternopil region, mid-16th century).

Monasteries and fortresses were built.

In connection with the development of crafts and trade, old and new cities grew, and in them public buildings - town halls, houses of craft workshops, new types of two-three-story residential buildings: shops and various workshops were located on the ground floor, and living quarters on the upper floors.

In the western lands of Ukraine, which were in closer relations with Western Europe, the architecture of residential buildings increasingly showed forms of the Italian Renaissance in a unique local interpretation (for example, the house of Kornyakt, architect P. Barbon, 1572 - 1582, Lviv). Temples, the walls of which, built of white stone or brick, had no decorations (Pokrovskaya Church in Lutsk); centric, so-called churches - rotundas (the village of Gotryani near Uzhgorod); three-nave churches with 1, 3, 5 domes (Epiphany Church in Ostrog).

New trends are emerging in iconic architecture. The main customers for construction were the gentry, urban and rural societies, whose tastes and aesthetic ideals influenced church architecture. The relationship with the advanced humanistic culture of Western Europe also had an effect. All these trends were reflected in the construction of domeless churches. The completed type of church-fortress is the Church of the Intercession in Sutkivtsi (XV century).

After the liberation war of the Ukrainian people, a new stage in the development of architecture began. The influx of population to the Dnieper region and Slobozhanshchina caused fast development old cities (Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslav) and the emergence of new ones (Kharkov, Sumy, Akhtyrka, Lebedin, Poltava).

In the XV–XVI centuries. a new species has appeared heroic epic- thoughts, kobzar art and instrumental music playing among bandura players developed.

At the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium (since 1701 - an academy), musical notation was studied, choral singing and playing musical instruments were common, there was a choir and a symphony orchestra. There were also choirs in the Chernigov, Kharkov and Pereyaslav collegiums.

During this period, Jesuit school theaters appeared in Ukraine (Lvov, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, etc.). They staged dramas written in Latin and later in Polish.

Thus, despite difficult political conditions, severe social oppression and religious oppression, the culture of the Ukrainian people continued to develop. She, relying on ancient Russian traditions, achieved success in many areas.