Write a story called a change in spiritual orientation. Changing spiritual guidelines

Theme: Artistic culture XVII century: change of spiritual guidelines. (MHC, 10th grade)

Target: Expanding students' knowledge about the art of the 17th-18th centuries, updating previously acquired knowledge.

During the classes

1.Organizing moment.

2. Studying a new topic.

Not only for changing the holy books,

But also for worldly truth...

It is fitting to lay down your soul. Archpriest Avvakum

"Rebellious Age"
The 17th century is the most controversial period in history. It was marked by numerous riots, palace coups, years of Troubles and change royal dynasty. Russia had to fight external enemies(Poland, Sweden), with a church schism in Rus' itself.
The 17th century is the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian culture. The struggle between the old and the new.

It is characterized by the beginning of awareness by the whole society and the individual of their important role in the destinies of the country. As in many other things, the events of the Time of Troubles, wars and advancement into the vast expanses of Siberia played a big role in this. These epoch-making events, extremely important for the destinies of the state and the people, drew huge masses of people into their whirlpool and showed their power, inspired in them new ideas about the “power of the earth”, the “zemstvo principle”.
IN art XVII V. various trends intertwined
“Ancient and new are mixed”: medieval artistic canon was still stable, but a new secular principle had already invaded the work of icon painters, writers, and architects. At this time, the rapprochement of Russian and European cultures began.
Numerous shocks in Russia early XVII century, its entry into the modern era also affected culture, the main feature of which was the departure from church canonicity. In all areas of culture there was a struggle between the old church and new secular forms, which gradually won, which led to a further strengthening of realistic trends in art. Novelty - secular perception of the world, European thinking and way of life.

His Holiness Patriarch Nikon (Nikita Minov)
Having lost his mother early and having suffered a lot of grief from evil stepmother, the clever boy learned to read and write, became familiar with the gifts of church grace, and became jealous of monastic service. At the age of twelve, he secretly went to the Trinity Macarius Monastery and spent eight years there as a novice, preparing to take monastic vows. During this time, the youth studied church services well, acquired extensive knowledge in the monastery library, gained spiritual experience, surprising the brethren with the strength of his character and the severity of his life.

Church split: When Nikon was elevated to the patriarchal throne, he did not try to protect Rus' from foreign influences that threatened the purity of the Orthodox faith. Nikon acted as an ardent enemy of his customs and caused church reform to eliminate the differences between Russian and Greek church rites. Many of the clergy, merchants, archers, and peasants did not accept the new reforms. The nobles supported Nikon.
- Vasily Surikov “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”

Culture of Russia in the 17th century

1. The rise of Russian science
Russian science in the 17th century. felt uplifted. All higher value acquired natural and precise disciplines. Relations with Western Europe, from where books on astronomy, medicine, and geography were brought.
2. Urban growth
In the 17th century The transition to a commodity economy, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the strengthening of central power and the expansion of the country's borders led to the growth of old cities and the emergence of new ones in the south and east, to the construction of guest courtyards and administrative buildings, stone residential houses of boyars and merchants. At the same time, the stone walls of Central Russian monasteries lost their old defensive devices and became more elegant
- “At the Myasnitsky Gate White City in the 17th century" A. Vasnetsov.

Panorama of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery according to the inventory of 1601.

3.Literacy training. Reading circle.
During the time of Ivan the Terrible, his father and son, literate people could be found mainly among people of the clergy or administrative class; in the 17th century There are already quite a few of them among the nobles and townspeople. Even among the peasants, serfs and slaves there were literate people - elders and kissers, clerks and scribes. But, of course, the bulk of the peasants are illiterate people.

In the first half of the century, many city governors, due to illiteracy, could not take a step without clerks and clerks, their subordinates in the governor’s hut - the center of county government. In the second half of the century, literate people sat in the voivodeships; These are primarily representatives of the Duma and Moscow officials. Among the district nobles there were still few literate people. There were many literate people in the suburbs. Crafts and trade, traveling on business required knowledge of writing and counting. Townspeople and peasants learned to read and write from “masters” of priests and clerks, sextons and clerks, and other literate people. They learned, first of all, the elementary alphabet from printed and handwritten alphabet books.

Over the second half of the century, the Printing House printed 300 thousand primers, 150 thousand educational Psalms and Books of Hours.
My reading circle has expanded significantly. From XVII century Many books, printed and especially handwritten, have survived. Among them are both church and secular: chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends, collections of liturgical, historical, literary, geographical, astronomical, medical and other content.

First textbooks
In 1634, V. Burtsev’s primer was published, and since then, throughout the century, it has been reprinted several times.
At the same time, the grammar of Meletius Smotrytsky, a Ukrainian scientist, was published. At the end of the century, an ABC book by Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery, was published, as well as a practical guide for counting - the multiplication table.

Smotritsky's textbook

4. Schools and academy

The expansion of the sphere of trade and craft activities, the growth of the power apparatus of emerging absolutism, the strengthening of Russia's foreign policy ties, and the needs of the country's defense required an increase in the number of educated people. In the second half of the 17th century. Several public schools were established.
In 1685 there was a “school for teaching children” in the city of Borovsk, near the shopping area. In Moscow, on Nikolskaya Street, a special building for a school was built. It was opened in 1665 at the Spassky Monastery.

The first higher education institution was opened in 1687. It provided a program of education not only for the church, but also for general education. Here they learned the “seeds of wisdom” from the civil and ecclesiastical sciences - the entire school cycle from the lower to the higher classes, starting with grammar and ending with philosophy, ethics and theology.

Scientific knowledge
Russians were famous as masters of metal processing and foundry. Sources often mention “screw guns” - rifled guns, or guns with a mechanized wedge-shaped bolt. In 1615, a Russian master made the first cannon with a screw thread.
The books provided the beginnings of knowledge in geometry and geology, physics and chemistry, ballistics and other sciences. Herbalists describe the properties of various herbs and give recommendations for treating diseases with them. Knowledge of astronomy was necessary for economic activity, for daily calculation of time, and determination of the days of moving church holidays. In Russia, manuscripts of an astronomical nature were in circulation, primarily translations of foreign works.

Bells were cast well in Russia, and their “crimson ringing” was famous throughout the country. Russian craftsmen successfully and reliably mastered construction equipment, erecting wooden and stone buildings, secular and ecclesiastical.

5.Literature of the 17th century
The national spirit, often a critical, sensible, realistic approach to explaining reality, is breaking through more and more clearly into literature.
There is a breakdown of ancient Russian genres. Even church works (the lives of the saints) penetrate elements of vitality and biography. Not only monks, but also boyars, nobles, and townspeople take up the pen.
- The Walk of Daniel, 17th century.

In the literature of the 17th century. new features appear: a democratic writer and reader, attention to the personality of the heroes, their emotional experiences.

New genres are born - secular stories, drama, poetry with their everyday, satirical, and love motives. But all these features mean only the first steps of something new. Basically, literature continues old traditions; she is still largely anonymous.

Folklore
Folklore material fills numerous handwritten collections of historical, church and liturgical content, collections of songs and “hooks” (hook notes), proverbs and sayings, fairy tales and legends, conspiracies and wedding rituals. Fairy tales - magical, everyday, heroic - are widely circulated; epics about the heroes of the Kyiv era; historical songs about Princess Xenia and commander Skopin-Shuisky, about Ermak Timofeevich, the Seat of Azov and Stenka Razin. Songs about Razin are especially good - people's defender:

You rise, rise, red sun,

Warm us, poor people,

Good fellows, fugitive people:

We are not thieves, not robbers,

Stenka Razin we are workers.

Collections of proverbs and sayings from this time convince us that many of them have survived to this day:

- “They don’t feed the nightingale with fables,”

- “I picked up the tug, don’t say it’s not strong”

- . “The lasso is not a cockroach: even though it has no teeth, it eats your neck” (about Horde captivity),

- “Here’s to you, grandma, and St. George’s Day” (about the cancellation of St. George’s Day).
Lives of the Saints
As before, Russian people loved to read the lives of saints. Lives were distributed in thousands of lists. Lives were also compiled in the 17th century, new holy ascetics and their lives appeared with descriptions of the exploits and miracles associated with them. Live biographies of civilians, rather than church people, are also being created.
- Venerable Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk
- N. Roerich Saint Sergius

- “The Life of Avvakum”, “The Life of A. Nevsky”

A modern Old Believer icon depicts Archpriest Avvakum (Avvakum Petrovich Kondratiev), (1620(?)-1682), glorified as a hieromartyr and confessor.
One of the most prominent Russian writers, an opponent of the reforms of Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century, archpriest of the city of Yuryevets-Povolozhsky. 43 works are attributed to him, including “Life”, “Book of Conversations”, “Book of Interpretations”, “Book of Reproofs”, etc. He is considered the founder of the new Russian literature, free figurative words, confessional prose. Old Believers venerate Avvakum as a holy martyr; many of his icons were painted.
- icon. Irina Nikolskaya

Icon of Archpriest Avvakum

In literature great attention was devoted to man, his fate, the transmission of his complex inner world.
Literature, together with other phenomena of social and spiritual life, clearly reflects the growth national identity people, ideological contradictions, confrontation between different social forces. The events of the beginning of the century prompted princes and boyars, nobles and townspeople, monks and priests to take up the pen.
- Psalter, 17th century.

Historical literature
At this time, historical works became even more widespread - chronicles, stories, legends and other monuments of previous centuries. In the 17th century many new chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends were added to them.
In addition to the works that continue the chronicle tradition, in the 17th century. historical works of a new type appear, transitional from the chronicle genre to a kind of monographic or generalizing one.

The first type includes the work of Sylvester Medvedev “Contemplation short years 7190, 7191 and 7192, in them what is committed in citizenship.” This is one and detailed story about the end of the reign of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the Moscow uprising of 1682 and the beginning of the regency of Sofia Alekseevna. The presentation was completed in 1684.

Chronicle "New Chronicler"

A. Lyzlov “Scythian History”
- Innocent Gisel “Synopsis”.

It gives a brief and popular overview of Russian history from ancient times to the era when its author lived and wrote. It was later reprinted dozens of times, so popular did it become as a reading aid.

Historical stories and legends

Abraham Palitsyn in “The Legend” tells in detail about the “robbery” of the first years of the new century, the Bolotnikov uprising, the fight against impostors and interventionists. Other authors: clerk I. Timofeev in “Vremennik”, I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, a noble prince, many famous and anonymous compilers of stories and legends, words and visions - speak excitedly about the Troubles. In explaining its causes, along with divine providence, they point to the plans and actions of people and condemn them: some for violating justice (for example, the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry through the machinations of Godunov), others for “insane silence” in connection with this, others (“ slaves” of the master) - for disobedience and rebellion.

Participants in Ermak’s campaign compiled the “Cossack Writing”. They assign the initiative to the campaign to the Cossacks themselves, and not to the Stroganovs. Fyodor Poroshin, a runaway slave who became a clerk in the Don Army, created in the 40s. “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks.” From its pages emerges the epic of the heroic struggle of the Don people with the Turks during the capture and defense of Azov.

Everyday realistic story
This is a new literary genre of the 17th century. In everyday stories there is a departure from medieval ideas about the “predestined” from above. human destiny. In them, the hero’s life depends largely on his personal qualities, such as dexterity and efficiency. Thus, there is a turn towards covering people’s personal lives; moreover, interest in inner world person. At the same time, the narratives are no longer centered on historical literary characters, but fictional, hence the creation is purely literary images. Household story XVII century addresses the destinies of different people social environments, especially the merchants and nobility.

Most significant works are:

- "The Tale of Frol Skobeev"

- "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"

- "The Tale of Misfortune"

- "The Tale of Uliani Osoryina."
"The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"
This essay begins with a story about the siege of Smolensk by Russian troops in 1632. But unknown author writes not only a war story, but also a story about privacy merchant son Savva Grudtsyn. He sold his soul to the devil because of unhappy love. The married lady dried him with a love potion and then rejected him. So Savva is now walking around Rus' with the demon, showing miracles of courage in the fight against the Poles near Smolensk. However, the time has come to pay for the sins of his youth, and now Savva, a terminally ill, exhausted man, repents and begs the Mother of God for forgiveness.

“When the Divine Liturgy began, Sava was laid on a carpet outside the church. And when they sang "Cherubimskaya", a voice was heard, like thunder: - Savva! Get up, why are you delaying?! Go to church and you will be healthy. And sin no more! The king marveled at the mercy of God and the miracle that had happened... . Then Savva distributed all his property to the poor, as much as he had, and he himself went to the Chudov Monastery. There he became a monk and began to live in fasting and prayer, constantly praying to the Lord about his sin. He lived in the monastery for many years and went to the Lord in the holy monasteries.”

Satirical stories

Another new genre literature XVII V. became satirical stories. Most of them - “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “The Kalyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “The Tale of the Hawk Moth” - are aimed at the life and morals of clergy. The hypocrisy and money-grubbing of the clergy, the drunkenness and debauchery of the monks are caustically ridiculed. An unjust court with its corrupt judges and unprincipled decisions also becomes the object of satire.

Among the works of this genre the following stand out:

- “The Tale of Hawk Hawk Going to Paradise”

- "The Tale of Ersha Ershovich."

- "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court"
The hero committed three crimes: he tore off the tail of someone else's mare, killed the priest's son, killed the neighbor's father, however, this happened because pure chance. And the hero ended up in the court of the unrighteous Shemyaka, a famous bribe-taker.
The second part describes how a poor man shows the unrighteous judge Shemyaka a stone wrapped in a scarf, which the judge takes as a promise - a bag of money, for which he sentences the rich brother to give the horse to the poor man until it grows back new tail, punishes the butt to give up the butt until the poor man “gets the child,” and invites the son of the murdered old man to also throw himself from the bridge at the murderer. Plaintiffs prefer to pay off their money in order not to comply with the judge's decisions. Shemyaka, having learned that the poor man had shown him a stone, thanked God: “As if I had not judged by it, but he would have hit me.”
The authors of satirical stories came from the lower strata of the official and spiritual environment. Hence their vernacular, everyday scenes, critical look at the obvious contradictions of social life. These are “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man”, “Service to a Tavern”, “The Legend of None Sava and His Great Glory”. Bribery and greed, drunkenness and debauchery are scourged in these stories aptly and wittily, with living language, with proverbs and buffoonish jokes.
Bribery (obsolete) – bribery

The birth of poetry in the 17th century.

A sign of the novelty of the culture of the “rebellious age” is the birth of poetry. Literature has tried to speak in verse before, but it was a tale verse that had no rhyme. Temple chants were close to poetry. From the 16th century non-liturgical spiritual lyrics began to be called poetry. It contains the motives of a person’s repentance, a plea for the forgiveness of sinners. In the 17th century Secular messages, acrostics, and epistoliums are developing.

With name Belarusian educator Simeon (Samuel) of Polotsk, invited to Moscow in 1661 to teach the royal children, is associated with the emergence of syllabic versification. S. Polotsky was graciously received and treated kindly at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and became a court poet.

In 1678-1679 two collections of his poems appear: “Vertograd of many colors” and “Rhymelogion”. The so-called “Baroque style” was embodied in the work of S. Polotsky. Although his poems are ponderous, they are pompous and elegant, they sound panegyric tones that idealized autocratic rule. This poetic direction was continued at the end of the century by Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin.
Panegyric- a literary genre that is a speech written on the occasion of someone's death, then the speeches acquired an official character and began to serve as a pretext for praising the living.

S. Polotsky invested his intellect into poetic translation Psalms. He made the Bible verses easier to sing.
Polotsky managed to found the first printing house in Rus'. The “Rhyming Psalter” and “The Tale of Barlaam and Joseph”, a popular literary monument of the 17th century, were published here. It is fortunate that there are holy books to read, and useful ones to collect, for they are taught by God, and are taught to be comfortable in virtue. (From instructions to the reader “The Tale of Varlaam...”)

Book printing

Over the second half of the century, the Printing House printed 300 thousand primers, 150 thousand educational Psalms and Books of Hours. It happened that thousands of copies of such manuals were sold out in a few days. However, many continued to learn from handwritten alphabets, copybooks and arithmetic. My reading circle has expanded significantly. Many books, printed and especially handwritten, have survived from the 17th century. Among them are both church and secular: chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends, collections of liturgical, historical, literary, geographical, astronomical, medical and other content.
- Karion Istomin. Primer. Moscow. 1694

Theater in the 17th century

The performances of buffoons - traveling artists, as before, were very popular among the people. The messengers' "games" continued in many ways pagan traditions, although they often contained social denunciation.
The authorities fought against them. In 1648, the royal charter prohibited these “disgraces” (spectacles), “hari” (masks) and “demonic audible vessels” were ordered to be broken and burned. Disobedience was punishable by beating with batogs. However, there were still people who “ordered bears and buffoons to play satanic games in the streets, marketplaces and crossroads, to roar with tambourines, beat their hands and dance.”
- The bear and the goat are having fun. Bear fun. Lubok painting.

A. Vasnetsov “Medvedchiki. Parsley Theater, 17th century”

Court theater in the 17th century
In the 17th century in Rus', a new, professional theater arose at court, and it had to resist buffoonery, folk theater Parsley. Instead of folk scenes, plays on biblical, historical and heroic themes were shown; instead of the people's language, sometimes harsh, rude and frivolous, there is a pompous, ponderous language.
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, on the initiative of boyar A.S. Matveev, entrusted in 1672 the organization of the theater to Johann Gottfried Gregory, a pastor of the Lutheran church from the German settlement in Moscow. He recruited a troupe of 60 foreigners, and soon they began playing plays in German and Russian. biblical themes..

Professional theater in the 17th century
Initially, the theater troupe was recruited from the residents of the German settlement; later Russian actors appeared - from the bourgeoisie and clerks. All roles were played by men. Mostly plays were performed based on legendary historical (“The Act of Artaxerxes”) and biblical (“Judith”) subjects. Secular “comedies” also appeared: “The Comedy about Tamerlane and Bayazet”, “The Comedy about Bacchus with Venus”. Ballet performances were also staged. The only spectators were the king, nobles and his entourage. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the theater ceased to exist. Alexey Mikhailovich became a very frequent, for that time, visitor to theatrical performances.
- I. Gregory

Baroque in architecture
Baroque - Italian. barocco - “strange”, “bizarre”

Temple of the Kazan Icon Mother of God, XVII century.

New Jerusalem Monastery, Moscow. region 17th century

Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, late 16th century.

Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary in Fili, Moscow 1690-1693
GR Nikitnikov Church of the Giver of the Trinity in Nikitniki, Moscow XVII century

Old and new, spiritual and secular are closely intertwined in artistic culture"Rebellious Age" In the seventeenth century. Russian culture has taken a big step forward. New trends clearly appeared in it. They created the preconditions for the turning point in Russian culture that took place at the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of Peter's transformative activities.
- A.M. Vasnetsov “The Rise of the Kremlin at the end of the 17th century”

A. Vasnetsov " Book stalls on Spassky Bridge in the 17th century."

3. Reflection

4. Summing up. 5.Homework

When I come, will I find faith on earth?
(Luke 18:8)

How often in our lives we have to make a choice: to tell our neighbor the truth or to lie, to help or pass by, to cross ourselves while walking near the temple of God, or to turn away, to do good or evil... Our whole life is a choice. What should we be guided by when performing certain actions? Of course, the Word of God.

If our choice is based on faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, then our deeds will be acceptable before Him. The choice depends on spiritual guidelines, primarily in the person himself. It's like a kind of compass pointing the right way. If the compass needle does not point where we want, then it is completely unknown where we will end up.

Over the past 100 years, spiritual guidelines in our country have changed several times. From the Orthodox monarchy to the murders of believers and the looting of churches, from atheism to freedom of conscience and religion. In just a century, you and I have learned to do without priests and churches. Just think, you and I have even become ashamed to mention the existence of God. They believed in the origin of man from the monkey and had already come to terms with the idea that with physical death a person simply disappears, as if he never existed. But what about the One who created everything that we see, including us? Who thought through our universe with all the laws and rules? Who then suffered on the Cross and saved us all? It was as if this never happened. It seems this is just a fairy tale that we, at best, heard from our grandmother.

However, the Apostle Paul tells us: “From childhood you have known the sacred scriptures, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus” (2 Tim. 3:15). Do we have this faith? Do we believe that everything was created by Him and for Him, and He is first of all, and everything stands by Him? (Col. 1:16-17) Or maybe we just don’t want to believe? After all, we have everything: a job that brings, albeit not as much as we would like, but still income, a house, a car, parents, loving wife(husband), children, friends, etc. But sometimes it seems to us that right now something is missing, something or Someone. And we, remembering how my grandmother prayed, quietly say: “Lord, help.” And the Lord does not leave. He is like a loving Father, ready to accept everyone and help.

Knowing this, we must pray and remember to thank God for EVERYTHING. And we really rarely pray. We believe that we simply do not have enough time. Do we really not have even three seconds throughout the day to say the Jesus Prayer? For monks, this prayer is a spiritual weapon. If you don’t pray, how can you resist evil if you are disarmed? On Mount Athos, the monks even breathe in a special way: they inhale with the thought “ Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God", and exhale - " have mercy on me, a sinner».

What about our children? We ourselves so rarely devote time to communicating with God, and we also do not give our children the opportunity to be with Christ. The Lord has asked us for 2000 years: do not prevent children from coming to Me(Matt. 19:14). Our children are always busy free time: school, electives, various clubs and sports sections, and the child also wants to chat with friends on the Internet and do homework for tomorrow, and on the weekend it would be nice to go out of town. Dear parents, where is the place for God? Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk says that, of course, It is useful to teach sciences and arts, but it is necessary for parents to teach their children to live like Christians. Well, let’s say, the child went to school, they will teach him there, but he doesn’t really listen to us. So remember the words of John Chrysostom: “Even if our whole life is prosperous, we will be severely punished if we do not care about saving our children.”. And the school now doesn’t particularly strive to give moral principles, as long as they pass the Unified State Exam successfully.

Even the law, Article 63 of the Family Code of the Russian Federation, states that parents have the right and obligation to raise their children. note that It is not birth alone that makes a father, but good education; It is not carrying in the womb that makes a mother, but good upbringing - says John Chrysostom . But children should not heed every education, but only that which does not contradict the Word of God, for according to St. Tikhon of Zadonsk God's command must be respected more than that of one's parents. That’s why parents need to teach their children the Gospel, read them aloud, sort out difficult passages, and of course, the whole family try to come on Sundays and holidays to the temple, confessing and receiving the Body and Blood of Christ.

Do not be afraid or ashamed if you are asked for help in the temple. I was in a village in the south of Russia, where people considered it shameful, shameful not only to help in church, but even to simply come to church for services. You yourself and your children teach to love the church and, if possible, to work at the temple, for this is the house of God, where your prayers are heard and where, through the communion of the Holy Mysteries, it is possible to find salvation.

Work for the Lord, for everyone the worker is worthy of his reward! (Tim. 3:15)

17th century

"Worldization" of Russian culture

Architecture

Russian patterned (Moscow patterned) is an architectural style that was formed in the 17th century in Russia.

Girka

Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker in Bersenev

"Russian pattern"

Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi

Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki

"Naryshkin Baroque"

Contemporaries called it “the eighth wonder of the world.”

Rostov Kremlin

Painting

Simon Ushakov

Simon Ushakov. Trinity Old Testament

Parsun of Prince M. Skopin-Shuisky

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich

The cult of “positive knowledge”. A society experiencing the process of industrialization required people with not only practical skills, but also theoretical knowledge. It was impossible for those whose occupation was related to machine production to do without the ability to count, read and write. The production process has been constantly improved and updated. To use new mechanisms, and even more so to create them, special knowledge was required. Other, no less complex and varied knowledge was needed to organize production and trade. Without this knowledge obtained from books related to comprehension various sides life of the surrounding world, it was difficult to achieve success in new conditions. Knowledge began to be valued not just as something that adorns a person, it became a vital necessity. Therefore, a previously unknown respect for knowledge has developed in society. The desire for knowledge and learning brought material wealth and made it possible to achieve a higher position in society. At the same time, knowledge that had direct practical use in industry, agriculture, trade. This time is called "the era of positive values." Even philosophy, the most abstract of sciences, became positive (positive) philosophy in this era. And it is very important that the widest possible dissemination of knowledge and its popularization was considered desirable. It is no coincidence that at this time it was noted that the influence of Homer was supplanted by the influence of Hekeli, the most famous scientist and popularizer of scientific knowledge.

Scientific discoveries: quantitative and quality characteristics. Scientists have calculated that during the 19th century. more than 8500 were made major discoveries and inventions. Many Scientific research were aimed at establishing a pattern in certain phenomena. For example, astronomers made such a thorough description of the solar system that it suggested the presence of a planet, which was later discovered during targeted searches.

Of particular importance for the formation of a new outlook on the life of nature and society were two most important scientific discoveries, made public in the middle of the century: discoveries theory of evolution by Charles Darwin (1859) And periodic table chemical elements D. Mendeleev (1869) gave an explanation, and most importantly showed the orderliness of the existing diversity of natural forms. Society reacted more calmly to Mendeleev's discovery, because it did not affect the usual ideas about what seemed inviolable to humans - the role of man in nature. But Darwin’s theory seemed offensive to many, and even cast doubt on the usual religious ideas. One can list for a long time the discoveries made in various scientific fields during this period, one can recall the numerous theories developed to confirm or refute Darwin’s theory of evolution, but it is more important to note that the concepts of “evolution” and “progress” become key and fundamental, and science gains meaning never seen before.

Reverence for science scientific knowledge turns into a kind of cult. The impression was created that evolution, development, improvement constitute the main distinguishing feature of the entire existing world. Translated into the life of society, this was understood as follows: human society is gradually and steadily improving, moving along the path of progress that will make people’s lives easier, make it happier and fairer. Based on the fact that renewal is inherent in everything, progress determines all aspects of the existence of society, everything changes, and change is equivalent to improvement, perfection, it was necessary to recognize the effectiveness of progress in the sphere of culture and art. But in this area, the tradition of admiration for the authority of the “old masters” was preserved.

Science and religion. The problem of a new relationship between science and religion arose. If during the previous centuries there was secularization social consciousness: worldly, secular thought won a place in the consciousness of society, the place and role of faith and religion in the life of the human individual and society changed in essence - then the changes that took place required internal comprehension. Problems of religious life of the 19th century. cannot be reduced only to the confrontation between “knowledge” and “misconception,” between progress and what slows it down. All this happened, but behind these external processes one cannot help but notice something else - the internal renewal of religion, the search for forms acceptable to the new society, carried out by various faiths. Perhaps this need of society was formulated most succinctly by English poet Tennyson: “Let thought and soul find one language.” To reconcile or oppose science and religion - this problem runs like a red thread through the entire history of spiritual life of the period under consideration.

The process of secularization of the consciousness of Western (in this case, this definition includes almost all countries of Europe and America) society, which began since the Renaissance, ends in the 19th century. Religion has lost its role as a regulator of all aspects of mental and emotional life. This does not mean that the majority of people have become non-believers - the place of religion in the life of society has changed. For each individual, religion has become more of a personal feeling. It has become important for society integral part state ideology.

Education. Society's need for educated people and mass aspiration to education forced almost all Western countries to create an education system. This was reflected in the increase in the number of schools. A characteristic feature of the second half of the 19th century V. was the emergence of specialized educational institutions. Their difference from old universities was that they trained professionals, specialists in a certain field of activity. In a number of countries, primary education has become compulsory. For example, in Great Britain it was introduced in 1870. They began to accept people into government service based on the results of special exams. The desire to acquire knowledge was manifested, in particular, in the widespread dissemination of various courses and studios. Giving public lectures on a variety of problems was widely practiced. The prestige of knowledge was so high that many learned to read and write on their own - after all, a literate person with a variety of knowledge had a chance to achieve success in any field of activity.

Museums. Museums sprang up all over the Western world. Acting as repositories for monuments of the past and works of art, they at the same time became unique educational institutions. A museum is a multifunctional institution of social memory, through which the social need for the selection, preservation and representation of cultural or natural objects, recognized by society as a value to be removed from the environment and preserved for transmission to descendants, is realized. Along with the traditionally existing private museum collections museums emerged as public institutions. It is noteworthy that if the first museums intended for the public, such as Peter’s Kunstkamera or British museum, were predominantly of a natural science nature, then in the 19th century. Many art galleries are being created. It now became prestigious for artists to have their work included in a public museum.

"Reading civilization". The role of books in the lives of people of this period is evidenced by the following figures: in 1848 there were about 400 libraries in Europe, and thirty years later their number increased 12 times. Books are becoming increasingly important in people's lives. of different nature, both educational, scientific and entertaining.

After improvement in the first quarter of the 19th century. book printing systems, the publication of books has increased rapidly. The publication of “continued” novels, which were published as the author completed the next part of his work, became fashionable. It was as “novels with a continuation” that all the works of Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, V. Hugo, A. Dumas, E. Sue, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, and later L. Boussenard, R.-L. Stevenson and many other authors. The level of talent could be different, but the path to the reader was the same: in small portions as the next piece of work was written.

The process of erosion of old social structures was perceived as tragic by most of its victims - children forced to leave their families in search of food and earnings, in search of a place in life - one of the most common themes in the literature of this time. To escape in order to succeed or perish, or to vegetate, remaining on the land of their ancestors - this question faced many heroes and heroines of the heyday of the classical realistic novel. The cramped comfort of home and the dangerous attraction big world-This motif is constantly present in literature.

The level of education of readers also varied, but the desire for reading was enormous and covered almost all levels of society. It is enough to note that among the most vivid memories of childhood, the first books read and the first visit to the theater are always mentioned. At the same time, most often we're talking about about adventure literature (about unknown lands and their inhabitants, about travelers discovering and exploring). It was at this time that new literary genres took shape: science fiction, which grew on the soil of utopian novels (the genealogy goes back to T. More’s “Utopia”), and detective fiction, the origins of which can be seen in the popularity of brochures about famous criminals, many of which were published in England on at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries.

The most famous author of the first movement was undoubtedly the Frenchman Jules Verne (1828-1905 ), and the second is American Edgar Poe (1809-1849 ) and Englishman Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930 ). The evolution that the emerging literary genres underwent is noteworthy: descriptions of ideally organized societies turned into stories about how brave travelers, with the help of ingenuity and knowledge, overcome difficulties and create. And the biographies of criminals are transformed into stories about how valiant and cunning detectives restore justice and order. The craving for reading was a manifestation of one of the facets of the desire that gripped society at that time to join knowledge (no matter what, best of all, it is easily accessible and interesting), to advance, to assert oneself. Of course, there is a huge distance between the passion for adventure literature and the desire to establish oneself in this world (many boys who were engrossed in Treasure Island sat quietly through the entire adult life in some office), but such reading contributed to the formation of a certain system of values, ideals and virtues. At the same time, the flourishing of book culture made it not just popular, but practically mandatory, the approach according to which any work of art, be it a novel, poem, painting, drawing or symphony, must have a plot, talk about something, and carry information that can be retold.

It is necessary to note the general creative pathos and optimism characteristic of mass literature this time. The book had to end “well” or “almost well,” so that the reader would feel that justice had been done. If it was impossible to save someone, then it was necessary to at least somehow reward him posthumously: to restore good name, continue the work he started, etc. Accordingly, heroes (and to some extent heroines) had to have the qualities necessary to solve problems of overcoming and creation. They must be courageous, honest, unselfish, enterprising and enterprising, devoted to what they considered their duty and to those to whom they considered themselves responsible. Creative pathos and the spirit to overcome, characteristic of literature, was a reflection of the general spiritual atmosphere of the time, a general optimistic belief in the necessity and possibility of overcoming external difficulties.

Numerous technical improvements in printing have made the book, magazine, newspaper accessible a huge number of people. A notable feature of this time was the spread of various periodicals- newspapers and magazines. They contained a variety of information and published works of art. The press not only informed readers, but shaped their views on what was happening, instilled in them a certain attitude towards all phenomena of life, and to a large extent formed a system for assessing these phenomena. Moreover, works of other arts began to be viewed and evaluated through the prism of literature and storytelling.

Photo. The flourishing of sciences led to a change in society's attitude towards other spheres of spiritual life, including art. Now science seemed to be the force that could provide answers to the main questions of people’s lives, while art at the same time lost a number of functions. The simplest example: previously only the artist’s eye and hand had the ability to convey visible information about a particular object, person, or phenomenon. It is no coincidence that they tried to take an artist on any long-distance expedition - only his imagination could create a visible image of something that no one had seen. That is why the importance was so great religious art. Art explained the world. Now what could be recreated based on scientific experiments and accurate knowledge was much more valued. And it has become more reliable to convey visible information using photography.

In the first decades of the 19th century. a series of experiments ended with the discovery made Louis Jacques Daguerre (1787-1851 ), who, using silver plates treated with iodine vapor, was able to make the first images. A few decades later, photography entered into widespread use in European society, and since the 50s.

has already become a special business. Photography studios opened in every city; there were several dozen of them in capital cities. This was done by unsuccessful artists, amateur experimenters, and enterprising small businessmen.

Photography was cheaper than any commissioned painting portrait, and therefore was accessible to most of the urban and rural population. Everyone was in a hurry to capture their appearance using photographic plates. In the photographs you can see images of celebrities and unknown people, street scenes, group photographs of families, members of cabinets, student sports teams, and art groups.

It is worth comparing two views on this phenomenon. One opinion was expressed by the poet Charles Baudelaire in the article “Modern Public and Photography,” which appeared in 1859: “A technical trick capable of accurately reproducing nature will become the highest art. Some vengeful god fulfilled the wishes of the crowd. The inventor Daguerre became her messiah. And then the whole crowd of vile ordinary people rushed, like Narcissus, to look at their ordinary faces imprinted on metal.”

Another opinion was expressed in one of the English magazines of the 70s: “Whoever has seen small photographs of those whom life has already scattered, collected under one frame hanging over the worker’s hearth... perhaps you will agree... that, counteracting social trends and industrial, which... undermine the strongest family attachments, the sixpenny photograph has done more for the poor than all the philanthropists in the world."

It is interesting to note that the English journalist E. Eastlake, in an article in 1857 regarding photography, expressed the opinion that it was unlikely to become art, but its appearance would free fine art from applied tasks.

Here is an episode typical of a society living according to the laws of a “legal worldview.” As a result of a lawsuit in 1862 between two photographers, one of whom copied the other's photographs of political celebrities (Palmerston and Cavour), photography was recognized as an art. As for people of art, their opinions were divided: some, like Charles Baudelaire, saw in photography the intervention of technical progress in an alien sphere; others, for example, E. Zola, believed that photography opened up new opportunities for the development of art. Some artists began to use photographs when working on paintings.

Artistic life under the dictatorship of “average taste.”

The position of the artist in an industrializing society was as follows: he, of course, belonged to private entrepreneurs (mostly small), but at the same time he was perceived by others as an extraordinary, extraordinary being, involved in the secrets and wonders of the beautiful and eternal. In the words of one historian, “in bourgeois society, the artist became a “genius,” which was tantamount to a moneyless type of entrepreneur.” An artist could calmly go about his business, acting as he considered correct, if he was financially secure. Otherwise, he had to submit to the demands dictated by society. It has always been this way. After all, an artist creates (works) among people and for people. But by the middle of the 19th century. A situation arose in which the internal needs of the art sphere and the demands placed on art by society did not coincide.

The theory of progress established in science as applied to the sphere of beauty required constant updating, suggesting that art, like the sciences, should constantly change, especially since technical improvements (photography) deprived the fine arts of a monopoly in solving traditional problems: clearly show images of objects that cannot be seen “live”. And many artists were ready to look for something new. But the question arose about the attitude of consumers, viewers, customers, and buyers to this. And here a conflict arose.

It's worth remembering that greatest influence in an industrializing society acquires middle class, especially that part of it that makes up the bourgeoisie. This category of the population is not just growing in numbers, but determines public tastes, shapes morals and lifestyle. Modest bourgeois of average income, average abilities and average education, well-versed in business, but poorly oriented in everything that is beautiful and useless from a business point of view, determined the cultural appearance of the era. The French poet P. Verlaine gave an expressive verbal portrait the owner of a new life: “He loves order and pompous style, / A businessman and a family man, he is very sober in mind” Trevelyan D.M. Decree. op. P. 568.

XVII century Europe, having survived the Reformation, is moving to a new worldview, and Russia is essentially still Ancient Rus'. The main values ​​are “ancient piety”, foundations, traditions. But interest in the sciences and in other countries is growing. Interaction with others is growing. Slavic peoples(Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles) influenced by Western European culture. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

The 17th century is a transitional period in Russian history from the Middle Ages to the New Age, when, in the words of a contemporary, “oldness and newness were mixed.” Characteristic features of culture: secularization of culture, i.e. strengthening of its secular character, strengthening of the influence of European culture. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

“Worldization” of Russian culture In science - a growing interest in the study and generalization of experience with the aim of applying it in life In literature - the emergence of secular genres In architecture - the convergence of the appearance of religious and secular buildings In painting - the gradual destruction of iconographic canons and the formation of realistic trends. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

EDUCATION The primary education system expanded: schools (colleges) were opened at monasteries and private educational institutions. Several public schools have been established. Home education became widespread among the nobility. Special schools trained employees for central institutions (Printing House, Pharmacy Prikaz, etc.). In 1687, the first higher school was founded in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna

EDUCATION Education continued to be religious in nature. It was mandatory to memorize church books (book of hours and psalms). Among the educational courses, theological disciplines predominated. Since the second half of the century, education gradually approached practical needs, and secular disciplines became more widespread. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

ENLIGHTENMENT In 1620 the first handwritten newspaper "Chimes" was published. The name appeared under Alexei Mikhailovich. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Simeo n Polotsky (1629 -1680) (in the world - Samuil Gavrilovich Petrovsky. Sitnyanovich) - monk, writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator. He was a mentor to the children of the Russian Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage: Sophia and Fedor. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

LITERATURE journalism Simeon of Polotsk poems Virsha by Simeon of Polotsk “educational verses” by Karion Istomin (1680s, 1690s). drama Simeon of Polotsk “About King Nebuchadnezzar” “Parable of the Prodigal Son”. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

LITERATURE historical “Legend” of the cellarer of the Trinity story of the Sergius Monastery Abraham Palitsyn. Dedicated to the Troubles “The Tale of the Azov Seat of the Cossacks”. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

LITERATURE Satirical “The Tale of the Hen and the Fox” story “The Tale of the Priest Savva and his great glory” “The Tale of the Shemyakin Court” “The Kalyazin Petition” “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich” “Service to the Tavern”. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

LITERATURE Household story The topic of the relationship between the old and young generations has become relevant: “The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, “The Tale of Savva Grudnitsyn”. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna

ARCHITECTURE rejection of ascetic rigor and simplicity, striving for external elegance, picturesqueness, and decorativeness. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Architecture “Naryshkinskoe” “Russian patterned” (Moscow) baroque Tiered Rich decor Centricity Colorful “Eights” on a “quadrangle” Variety and intricacy of forms Columns Platbands Figured pediments White stone details on a red background. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Russian uzorochye (Moscow uzorochye) is an architectural style that was formed in the 17th century in Russia. Characteristic features: Rich decor Colorfulness Variety and intricacy of forms Decor: Carved window frames (including in the form of kokoshniks), multi-tiered kokoshniks on the vaults, cornices in the form of “cockscombs”, twisted columns, half-columns, weights, tiles. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna

ARCHITECTURE Ban on erecting tented churches In 1652, Patriarch Nikon, trying to revive the strict canonical traditions of ancient architecture, prohibited the erection of tented churches. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem was proclaimed an example of religious construction. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

“Naryshkinskoe” (Moscow) baroque Tiered “Octagon” on “quadrangle” Columns Platbands Figured pediments White stone details on a red background. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye (1667 -1668). Architects Semyon Petrov, Ivan Mikhailov. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Architects Bazhen Ogurtsov and Antip Konstantinov. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

The Amusing Palace is the only surviving architectural monument of boyar housing in the Kremlin. The building was built in 1652 for boyar Miloslavsky, father-in-law of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Architect, unknown. Boyar Miloslavsky lived here for 16 years, and after his death the chambers went to the treasury, and from 1679 they were converted into a theater. Various kinds of “fun” were held here - entertainment for the royal family. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Civil engineering stone buildings, in which passion is also noticeable decorative design facades of the Chamber of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov 1656-1657. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Painting Iconographic canons are being violated European influence Simon Ushakov and Joseph Vladimirov introduce an innovation: “lifelikeness” with the help of chiaroscuro. The image of real persons is no longer an icon, but not yet a portrait. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Simon Ushakov “Planting the Tree of the Russian State” “group portrait” of those who contributed to the unification of Russian lands around Moscow Symbolic tree - Assumption Cathedral It is watered by Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter the Center - Our Lady of Vladimir. Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Parsu na Parsu na (distorted Latin persona - person, person) - originally synonymous with the modern concept of portrait, regardless of the style, image technique, place and time of writing. A work of the transition period from icon painting to secular portraiture. Parsuna is a portrait of a real person (tsar, boyar, metropolitan, sometimes even a merchant), made using icon painting techniques. Parsuna were not depicted as ordinary people, but only some very famous persons, or persons famous in their district. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna

Simon Ushakov is considered the most famous author of parsuns. In terms of style, techniques and materials of painting, parsunas are initially no different from icons; they are made on icon boards. In the second half of the 17th century, parsunas are often painted on canvas using the oil painting technique, although the manner of execution continues to contain icon painting traditions. The time of the final transformation of parsun painting into Western European portraiture is considered to be the 1760s. . Korina Ilona Viktorovna